Technical Note No 35

Assessing the appearance of glass

This Technical Note is one of three on assessing appearance. The series comprises:

TN 34 Assessing the appearance of new curtain walling

TN 35 Assessing the appearance of glass
TN 36 Assessing the appearance of metals and finishes

Introduction features of the glass however they cannot

be entirely eliminated and are permitted
The quality of glass is often assessed by within defined limits. Standards divide faults
visual inspection and disputes sometimes into three categories:
arise over the associated procedures and • Optical faults, which result in distortion
acceptance criteria. This is particularly the of images viewed through the glass and
case where a specification is not sufficiently relate to flatness of the glass. Optical
detailed. faults are a permanent feature of the
glass and should be assessed at the
This Technical Note gives advice on factors time of manufacture.
which affect the appearance of glass and • Spot faults include bubbles and
how they can be specified and assessed. deposits. Many of these faults are
This Note should be read in conjunction permanent features of the glass but
with TN34 ‘Assessing the appearance of some may be introduced by damage
curtain walling’. during processing and erection.
• Linear/extended faults include scratches
Factors affecting glass colour and scuffs on the surface of the glass.
These faults may occur at any time in
Glass may be thought of as colourless but the life of the glass and inspection may
most glass has a green tinge due to the be carried out at various stages
presence of iron. Other colours may also be including at the point of initial
apparent due to different impurities in the manufacture, after processing and after
raw materials. Some glass is deliberately installation.
coloured by the addition of materials to the
molten glass or application of coatings to Viewing criteria for glass types
the glass surface. Alternatively, coatings
applied for solar control may be described Table 3 lists the Standards for different
as clear but may have a slight effect on glass products, summarises their
colour. Appearance depends on the colour requirements for assessment of appearance
of the glass and uniformity of colour. and gives guidance on specification.
Factors affecting colour are described in
Table 1. The visual inspection criteria given in the
Standards listed in Table 3 are generally
Tolerances in glass products applicable to inspection at the point of
manufacture. The inspection techniques
Tolerances may be given for the size of the may not be possible under site conditions
glass panes, flatness of glass and faults as and different assessment criteria may be
summarised in Table 2. 'Faults' is a term appropriate after processing and installation
used in Standards to describe undesirable to allow for minor damage during these

© CWCT 2003 December 2003

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Assessing the appearance of glass TN No: 35

activities. The requirements for inspection of blobs, fine scratches not more than
coated glass given in BS 1096 are the 25mm long, minute embedded
exception as they may be used both at the particles.
point of manufacture and on site.
Hadamar 10/96
The following documents are applicable to Guideline to Assess the Visible
the inspection of glass on site after Quality of Insulating Glass Units
installation. This document was prepared by the
Institute of the Glazing Trade for
GGF guidelines Glazing Technology and Window
i. GGF Standard for the quality of Manufacture in Germany. The four-
thermally toughened glass for page document is sometimes cited
building by European glass suppliers. It sets
Refers to BS952 for optical quality out criteria for assessing defects. A
and body faults, eg. seeds, bubbles viewing distance is cited of one
which are permanent features of the metre for viewing the acceptability of
glass. BS 952 does not give defects it describes. (Note: the
requirements for such faults and viewing distance and the associated
reference should be made to BS EN defects to be viewed are inextricably
12150. linked; a specifier or an observer
Gives an inspection procedure for should not arbitrarily use the viewing
surface faults, eg scratches which distance from one Standard and the
may increase with time. For viewing criteria from another).
assessment of surface faults the
pane is to be observed from 3m Most of the procedures for visual inspection
under normal daylight conditions. include subjective assessment criteria. The
Angle of observation is to be 90° to term 'visually disturbing' is commonly used
the surface. The pane is to be in Standards and the GGF documents use
vertical and can be glazed. The the terms 'readily visible' and 'obtrusive'.
pane is deemed to be acceptable if Where assessment is based on subjective
surface faults are not readily visible assessments agreement between the
when viewed in transmission. relevant parties should be obtained at an
early stage.
ii. Visual quality standard for installed
insulating glass units constructed Samples may be used to overcome some of
from flat transparent glass the problems relating to visual inspection
Both panes of the sealed unit shall however small samples viewed in office
be viewed at right angles to the conditions can look very different to large
glass from the room side standing at panels viewed under site conditions.
a distance of not less than two
metres but for toughened, laminated Inspecting double glazed units on site can
or coated glass not less than three be problematic if viewing criteria and
metres in natural daylight and not in viewing distances have not been agreed by
direct sunlight. The area to be all parties in advance. In the event of the
viewed is the normal vision area with above documents being unsuitable,
the exception of a 50 mm band consideration should be given to agreeing
round the perimeter of the unit. criteria on the lines suggested below:
Glass is acceptable if defects are not • The total number of faults permitted
obtrusive when looking through shall be the sum total of those
rather than at the glass. Defects permitted by the relevant BS EN
include totally enclosed seeds, Standard for each pane of glass
bubbles or blisters, hairlines or incorporated into the unit concerned.

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Assessing the appearance of glass TN No: 35

• The viewing distance used shall be glass-Dimensions and edge finishing, British
the furthest stated in any of the BS Standards Institution, London.
EN Standards for the glass types
incorporated in the glazed unit. In BS EN ISO 12543-6:1998, Glass in building.
the event of doubt the viewing Laminated glass and laminated safety
distance shall be three metres. glass-Appearance, British Standards
• The viewing shall commence at the Institution, London.
viewing distance and shall not be
preceded by viewing at a closer BS EN 1096-1:1999, Glass in building -
distance. Coated glass - Definitions and classification
• The viewing shall be undertaken in British Standards Institution, London.
normal daylight conditions without
use of magnification. BS EN 1863-1:2000 - Glass in buildings -
Heat strengthened soda lime silicate glass -
The specifier should not specify viewing Definition and description
criteria or distances more stringent than
those given in the BS EN Standards for the BS EN 12150-1:2000 - Glass in building -
glass in question as the glass supplier will Thermally toughened soda lime silicate
be unable to impose tighter standards safety glass - Definition and description,
except possibly with regard to overall bow, British Standards Institution, London.
local bow and roller wave in heat
strengthened or toughened glass. BS 5713:1979, Specification for hermetically
sealed flat double-glazing units, British
Summary Standards Institution, London.

This Technical Note gives advice on GGF, 1988, Standard for the quality of
assessing the appearance of glass and thermally toughened glass for building
provides guidance on sources of information Glass and glazing federation, London.
for such inspections. This Note should be
read in conjunction with TN34 ‘Assessing GGF, 1988, Visual quality standard for
the appearance of curtain walling’. installed insulating glass units constructed
from flat transparent glass, Glass and
In this Note, guidance is provided in tabular glazing federation, London.
format on the following:
Hadamar 10/96 ‘Guideline to Assess the
• Factors affecting glass colour Visible Quality of Insulating Glass Units’,
• Tolerances in glass products prepared by the Institute of the Glazing
Trade for Glazing Technology and Window
• Standards for different glass types
Manufacture, Germany
References and bibliography

BS 952-1:1995, Glass for glazing Part 1

Classification, British Standards Institution,
London.
© CWCT 2003
BS EN 572-2:1995,Glass in building. Basic
soda lime silicate glass products-Float University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath,
glass, British Standards Institution, London. BA2 7AY
Tel: 01225 386541; Fax: 01225 386556
BS EN ISO 12543-5:1998, Glass in building. Email: cwct@bath.ac.uk;
Laminated glass and laminated safety Website: www.cwct.co.uk

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Assessing the appearance of glass TN No: 35

Table 1 – Factors affecting glass colour

Factor Technical guidance Specification Site inspection

Constituent Glass has a green tinge due to the The Architect should specify if low Not applicable.
materials iron content. The colour may vary to iron glass is required. If not
some extent from plant to plant and specified, ordinary glass will be
between batches from the same used.
plant.

If required the Architect can specify

“low iron” glass that has a lower iron
content and is therefore less green.
There is normally a significant cost
implication.

Glass thickness The thicker the glass, the more The Architect should specify Not applicable.
noticeable the tint. If very different whether the same glass thickness
glass thicknesses are used on should be used in all locations. This
different parts of the facade, some may increase the cost and may have
difference in colour may be other implications that will require
apparent. resolution at an early stage.

Body tinted In body-tinted glass, the constituent The Architect should specify Not applicable.
glass materials forming the glass include a whether the same glass thickness
colouring. Thus the thicker the should be used in all locations. This
glass, the stronger the colour. may increase the cost and may have
There is a tolerance on the colour. other implications that will require
resolution at an early stage.

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Assessing the appearance of glass TN No: 35

Low E and other Very thin coatings may be applied The specification should detail: Most coatings result
thin coatings on by specialist applicators to improve (a) The required limits on in unavoidable
glass the thermal performance of the photometric properties, visible variations in
glass. Such coatings can affect: (b) The product details of the appearance.
(a) The apparent colour of the preferred glass type, indicating In the event of
glass, whether equivalent alternatives queries regarding
(b) The colour of objects viewed are acceptable, consistency, check
through the glass, (c) Samples required, against reference
(c) The colour of reflections. (d) Viewing criteria for acceptance. buildings. If this
does not satisfy the
Different coatings applied to achieve Restricting the glass to the same query, request the
the same effect, for example hard source will reduce variations in coating applicator to
and soft low E coatings, may give appearance. measure on site
different colours. scientifically the
Samples will not show the full coating’s colour
Whilst coatings are applied in tightly variations in colour that may occur. related parameters
controlled conditions, variations in Thus the Architect should also view and to confirm that
colour do occur. Whilst coating buildings incorporating the glass they are within the
applicators keep coating colours types concerned to check the full applicator’s normal
within certain in-house parameters, variations in colour etc that may production
these do not normally form part of occur. tolerances.
the contract. It is therefore
advisable for Architects to view the Some coatings tend to be more
proposed coating(s) on existing consistent than others. Select with
buildings to assess the colour care.
variation likely to occur. On any
such building, the complete glass Viewing criteria should be confirmed
configuration should be similar to with the proposed applicator prior to
that proposed and not merely the finalisation. Viewing criteria include
coating if assessing the nominal both the method of inspection and
colour and not merely the the acceptance criteria. BS EN
consistency. 1096-1 for coated glass sets out a
method of inspection but is less
precise on the acceptance criteria
which require that the colour
variations are 'not visually
disturbing'.

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Assessing the appearance of glass TN No: 35

Colour streaking Coatings on glass affect the See above. See above.
transmission and reflection of
radiation. If the application of the
coating is not properly controlled,
unintended visual effects can occur.
For example low E coatings are
designed to reflect infrared radiation
but allow transmission of visible
light. Variation in coating thickness
can cause the coating to give
increased reflection of visible light at
the red end of the spectrum which
may be visible as pink streaking
under certain lighting conditions.

Soft coatings Soft coatings incorporated in double The visual effects can be limited by Inspection on site
near the glazed units are “edge stripped” tight control of tolerances on edge should be confined
exposed around the glass perimeter. Due to stripping and double glazing unit to establishing
perimeter of legitimate tolerances in production, assembly. However, the visual whether the edge
double glazed the exact position of the edge of the effects will still remain unless the stripping complies
units. (Note: soft coating will vary from the perimeter of the double glazing unit with tolerances
This does not nominal position. is hidden by pressure plates or the agreed at tender
occur if the units edge of the glass is silk-screened. stage.
are retained by Where the soft coating intrudes
pressure plates). between the black primary seal of The Architect should specify:
the double glazed unit and the (a) The tenderers should advise the
glass, a metallic interference nominal position of the edge
reflection of a colour depending on stripping and the associated
the coating will be apparent in bright tolerances.
sunlight. The most common colours (b) The tenderers should advise the
are blue or reddish-pink. colour of reflections at the
critical locations.
Conversely, where the soft coating’s (c) The Architect should specify if
edge stops short of the black silk screening is required.
perimeter seal, a narrow band of
bright light may be apparent at night
when the building’s lights are on.

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Assessing the appearance of glass TN No: 35

Silk screen Silk screening is a process used to The Architect should specify: Check consistency
printing apply a thin enamel coating to the (a) Colour reference prior to delivery to
glass to form a pattern or a (b) Degree of opacity site where
complete film. The coating is then (c) Pattern required practicable.
fired in at temperature. (d) Position(s) of pattern(s) Any checking
required should be against
Silk screening may be used for (e) Viewing criteria for acceptance samples and
general patterns, modesty printing, Samples should be requested at the reference buildings.
manifestation, and concealing any appropriate stage. The coating A high degree of
visible edges of double glazed units. sample should be applied to a consistency should
Silk screening adds to the cost and sample of the proposed glass be expected but
time of glass supply. Thus it will not configuration, including any soft some variations in
normally be priced unless specified. coatings. colour and opacity
will occur.
Soft coatings on the glass can affect If possible, buildings with the
the apparent colour of the silkscreen proposed silkscreen print colour
printing. should be viewed prior to final
selection.
Where the enamel is viewed through
the glass the apparent colour will be Viewing criteria should be confirmed
affected by the glass. with the proposed applicator prior to
finalisation.

Spandrel panels Opacified glass for spandrel panels Check consistency

may be formed by spray application prior to delivery to
of enamel or paint. The coating is site where
translucent (but less so than screen practicable.
printing) and should be used in non Any checking
vision areas as variations in coating should be against
thickness, pinholes etc are very samples and
obvious if the glass can be viewed reference buildings.
back lit. A high degree of
consistency should
The coating is normally applied to be expected but
the back face of the glass and the some variations in
apparent colour will be affected by colour will occur.
the glass.

Anisotropy Heat strengthening or toughening The specification should recognise Anisotropy is a

glass produces areas of different that: feature permitted in
stress in the cross section of the (a) anisotropy can occur in heat BS EN 1863 for
glass. These areas of stress strengthened or toughened heat strengthened
produce a bi-refringent effect in the glass; glass and in BS EN
glass, which is visible in polarized (b) there is no known means of 12150 for
light. mitigating the effect in such toughened glass. It
glass types; is not a defect.
When such glass is viewed in (c) anisotropy is an unavoidable Thus no inspection
polarized light, the areas of stress feature in heat strengthened criteria apply.
show up as coloured zones. This is and toughened glasses.
referred to as “anisotropy” and is
also known as ‘leopard spots’.
Polarized light occurs sometimes in
normal daylight conditions, often for
a few hours at a time. The amount
of polarized light depends on the
weather and the angle of the sun.
When this occurs, the stress marks
in such glass become very visible.

There is no known means of

mitigating this effect in heat
strengthened or toughened glass.

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Assessing the appearance of glass TN No: 35

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Assessing the appearance of glass TN No: 35

Table 2 – Tolerances in glass

Factor Technical guidance Specification Site inspection

Glass sizes Accuracy in glass cutting will depend The specification of finished glass
on the methods used. Modern sizes should have due regard to
computer controlled equipment tends practical tolerances and to the effects
to cut to tighter tolerances than on tolerances of any required edge
manual methods. If using annealed grinding or polishing.
laminated glass, steps at the edges Standards for toughened, heat
can be avoided by laminating prior to strengthened and laminated glass give
cutting although this limits the extent of tolerances on cut sizes of glass. A part
edge working that can then be of EN 572 giving tolerances on cut
undertaken. sizes of annealed glass is in
preparation.

Annealed Glass is not perfectly flat and flatness Standards for annealed glass do not
glass flatness will depend on the method of give explicit requirements for flatness.
production. Most annealed glass is Standards require assessment for
produced by the float process and is optical faults which are defined as
remarkably flat although subtle faults resulting in distortion of objects
variations may be observed when viewed through the glass. Lack of
viewing from oblique angles. flatness may cause distortion. The
inspection procedure given in the
Standards should be carried out on
samples of the glass production and is
not suitable as a site test.

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Assessing the appearance of glass TN No: 35

Flatness of The process of heat-treating such The specification should set out the Roller wave
heat glass results in ‘roller wave distortion’. maximum permissible roller wave distortion can be
strengthened The distortion occurs in a fairly regular distortion in the main part of the pane measured using a
or toughened wave pattern at approximately 300mm and at the edges where slightly greater British Standard
glass centres. The degree of distortion will local bow tends to occur. calibrated straight
depend on the process control. edge and feeler
Standards give limits on roller wave for gauges or a
both heat strengthened and toughened purpose made
glass. The limits vary according to the measuring device.
type of annealed glass used as the Measurements
source material and the orientation of should take
the glass during heat treatment. For account of any
float glass processed in a horizontal overall bow in the
oven the limit is 0.5mm over a length glass. This is
of 300mm. particularly
important when
The limits given in the Standards may taking
give unacceptable appearance and the measurements on
specifier may require tighter insulating glazing
tolerances. Many processors are able units. The
to produce glass with roller wave of correction to the
less than 0.15mm and the best measured roller
producers can achieve better than wave is given by
2
0.1mm for glass thicknesses of 8mm (300/L) d, where d
and above. is the overall bow
measured over
The supplier should confirm his ability length L. The
to comply prior to an order being correction should
placed. be added to the
measured roller
If it is also specified that all roller wave when the
waves should be horizontal when the bow is toward the
glass is on the building, then greater accessible face
regularity of reflections and of outward and subtracted
views through the glass will tend to be from the measured
achieved. However, with limitations on roller wave when
the width of most ovens, this tends to the bow is away
limit the maximum width of heat from the
treated glass to approx. 2100mm; accessible face.
there are however a few ovens across
Europe that accept a width of up to
2800mm.

Glass bow on Processed glass tends to incorporate The specification should specify the
single glass a certain degree of bow. Some of this maximum glass bow permitted for
panes of heat bow may be taken out when glass is individual glass panes prior to
strengthened incorporated in to double-glazed units. incorporation in any double glazed
and toughened units. Standards give limits, which vary
glass according to the type of annealed
glass used as the source material and
the orientation of the glass during heat
treatment. For float glass processed in
a horizontal oven the limit is
0.003mm/mm. The supplier should
then confirm ability to comply prior to
an order being placed.

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Bow in double Some bow of double glazed units is Standards do not give bow criteria for
glazed units inevitable due to differences between panes once they have been
the atmospheric pressure and the incorporated in double glazed units.
pressure of the air or gas in the cavity
of the unit. The pressure of the gas in Specifiers may set limits but as bow
the cavity will vary with temperature will vary with temperature of the unit
and will depend on the atmospheric and atmospheric pressure the
pressure and temperature prevailing in measurement conditions should also
the factory at the time the units were be specified.
manufactured. Control of the
conditions during manufacture, If required, the bow due to pressure
particularly the temperature of the variations can be predicted by
glass, will reduce bow. The choice of calculations using methods given in
desiccant will also have an effect as prEN13474
some desiccants will absorb gas from
the cavity.

Some bow may also arise if the unit

was assembled in a factory at a
markedly different altitude from the
site.

The visual effect of bow is most

noticeable on the outer pane of a
glazing unit. Increasing the thickness
of the outer pane will reduce the bow
incurred in that pane to some extent
however this will have cost
implications. It may also adversely
affect acoustic performance if the
thickness of the outer pane becomes
close to that of the inner pane.

These mechanisms are described in

greater detail in Technical Note 31

Visual faults Visual faults are defined in Standards The specification should stipulate that Site inspection is
as faults which alter the visual quality the glass is produced and processed required to check
of the glass. Visual faults are divided to the relevant Standards (see Table for damage
into spot faults (small bubbles, stones, 3). caused during
pinholes etc), and ‘linear/extended erection and
faults’ (scuff marks, scratches, lines, If the specification endeavours to cleaning down.
deposits, impressions, etc). impose tighter tolerances or Procedures and
requirements than the Standards acceptance criteria
All commercially produced glass stipulate, then those aspects should should be
includes a certain degree of such be duly identified at an early stage and specified.
faults with the practical limits on an explicit commitment to comply
minimization varying with the obtained from the glass supplier.
manufacturing processes involved.
Thus different acceptance criteria can
apply to glass products manufactured
using different processes governed by
different Standards.

Glass should be inspected during

manufacture to ensure that the size
and frequency of faults is within the
range permitted by the Standards.

Scratches and surface damage may

occur during processing, installation or
cleaning down and thus may not be
detected until a site inspection is
undertaken.
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Assessing the appearance of glass TN No: 35

Table 3 – Standards for glass

Factor Technical guidance Specification Site inspection

Monolithic
glass panes:

Annealed glass BS EN 572-2: 1994 Section 5 sets out Specify the relevant standards.
permissible optical and visual faults. Require the glass supplier to:
The method of viewing is structured to • provide samples;
facilitate production line inspection, not • confirm viewing criteria;
on-site inspection. • confirm any relevant tolerances;
• confirm any visual features that
may be apparent on the completed
glass installation;
• advise of buildings where the
same glass type can be viewed.

Heat BS EN 1863-1: 2000. Section 6 sets As above for annealed glass.

strengthened out tolerances for dimensions and
glass bow. Section 7 sets out classifications
for edge working for choices to be
made from and provides guidance on
machined holes and cut-outs. Section
10 includes information on optical
distortion and anisotropy.

Thermally BS EN 12150-1:2000. Section 6 sets As above for annealed glass plus

toughened glass out tolerances for dimensions and specify the relevant Standard for heat
bow. Section 7 sets out classifications soaking if precautions required to limit
for edge working for choices to be the risk of nickel sulphide inclusions.
made from and provides guidance on
machined holes and cut-outs. Section
9 includes information on optical
distortion and anisotropy.

EN 14179 will cover heat soaked

thermally toughened glass but is
currently only available as a draft

Coated glass BS EN 1096-1: 1999. Section 3.4 As above for annealed glass
defines appearance defects. Section
7 describes Appearance and
discusses defects that may occur and
conditions of examination. A minimum
viewing distance of 3m is cited and
viewing angles are stipulated. A time
limit of 20 seconds is imposed on
inspections of glass. Table 1 provides
acceptance criteria for coated glass
defects.

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Assessing the appearance of glass TN No: 35

Laminated BS EN ISO 12543-6: 1998. Section 4 Laminated glass may be made from
glass: sets out permissible defects in the annealed, heat strengthened or
vision area and Section 5 in the edge toughened glass. Thus all relevant
area. Section 9 sets out that the standards need to be specified and the
laminated glass should be viewed in a tolerances for each pane are
vertical position, in front of and parallel cumulative.
to a matt grey screen, lit by diffuse
light or equivalent. The observer
should be 2m from the glass observing
it perpendicularly. Defects that are
disturbing should be marked. No time
limit is set.

Double glazed BS5713: 1979. Section 6 sets out Specify BS 5713: 1979, or the
units: dimensional tolerances. No other European equivalent, plus the relevant
tolerances cited. There is an standards for the individual
inspection procedure to check for dirt components used in the glazed
or contamination on the internal faces assembly.
of the unit. BS 5713 is being replaced
by BS EN 1279 which will be in 6
parts. Part 1 will cover dimensional
tolerances.

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