SME1207 THERMAL ENGINEERING

UNIT 1
GAS POWER CYCLES

Air Standard Cycles - Otto, Diesel, Dual, Brayton cycle with intercooling, reheating and regeneration- Calculation of
airstandard efficiency and mean effective pressure.

DEFINITION OF A CYCLE
A cycle is defined as a repeated series of operations occurring in a certain order. It may be repeated by repeating the
processes in the same order. The cycle may be of imaginary perfect engine or actual engine. The former is called
ideal cycle and the latter actual cycle. In ideal cycle all accidental heat losses are prevented and the working
substance is assumed to behave like a perfect working substance.
AIR STANDARD EFFICIENCY
To compare the effects of different cycles, it is of paramount importance that the effect of the calorific value of the
fuel is altogether eliminated and this can be achieved by considering air (which is assumed to behave as a perfect
gas) as the working substance in the engine cylinder. The efficiency of engine using air as the working medium is
known as an ―Air standard efficiency‖. This efficiency is often called ideal efficiency. The actual efficiency of a
cycle is always less than the air-standard efficiency of that cycle under ideal conditions. This is taken into account
by introducing a new term ―Relative efficiency‖ which is defined as the ratio of Actual thermal efficiency to Air
standard efficiency. The analysis of all air standard cycles is based upon the following assumptions:
1. The gas in the engine cylinder is a perfect gas i.e., it obeys the gas laws and has constant specific heats.
2. The physical constants of the gas in the cylinder are the same as those of air at moderate temperatures i.e., the
molecular weight of cylinder gas is 29.Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg-K, Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg-K.
3. The compression and expansion processes are adiabatic and they take place without internal friction, i.e., these
processes are isentropic.
4. No chemical reaction takes place in the cylinder. Heat is supplied or rejected by bringing a hot body or a cold
body in contact with cylinder at appropriate points during the process.
5. The cycle is considered closed with the same ‗air‘ always remaining in the cylinder to repeat the cycle.

CONSTANT VOLUME OR OTTO CYCLE

This cycle is so named as it was conceived by ‗Otto‘. On this cycle, petrol, gas and many types of oil engines work.
It is the standard of comparison for internal combustion engines. Figs. 1 (a) and (b) shows the theoretical p-V
diagram and T-s diagrams of this cycle respectively.
The point 1 represents that cylinder is full of air with volume V1, pressure P1 and absolute temperature T1.
Line 1-2 represents the adiabatic compression of air due to which P 1, V1 and T1 change to P2, V2 and T2
respectively.
Line 2-3 shows the supply of heat to the air at constant volume so that P2 and T2 change to P3 and T3 (V3 being the
same as V2).
Line 3-4 represents the adiabatic expansion of the air. During expansion P 3, V3 and T 3 change to a final value of
P4, V 4 or V1 and T4, respectively.
Line 4-1 shows the rejection of heat by air at constant volume till original state (point 1) reaches.
Consider 1 kg of air (working substance):
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This expression is known as the air standard efficiency of the Otto cycle. It is clear from the above expression that
efficiency increases with the increase in the value of r, which means we can have maximum efficiency by increasing
r to a considerable extent, but due to practical difficulties its value is limited to about 8. The net work done per kg in
the Otto cycle can also be expressed in terms of p, v. If p is expressed in bar i.e., 10 5 N/m2, then work done
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MEP may be thought of as the average pressure acting on a piston during different portions of its cycle.It is the ratio
of the work done to stoke volume of the cycle

CONSTANT PRESSURE OR DIESEL CYCLE

This cycle was introduced by Dr. R. Diesel in 1897. It differs from Otto cycle in that heat is supplied at constant
pressure instead of at constant volume. Fig.(a and b) shows the p-v and T-s diagrams of this cycle respectively.
This cycle comprises of the following operations:
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(i) 1-2......Adiabatic compression.

(ii) 2-3......Addition of heat at constant pressure.
(iii) 3-4......Adiabatic expansion.
(iv) 4-1......Rejection of heat at constant volume.
Point 1 represents that the cylinder is full of air. Let P1, V1 and T1 be the corresponding pressure, volume and
absolute temperature. The piston then compresses the air adiabatically (i.e., pV r = constant) till the values become
P2, V2 and T2 respectively (at the end of the stroke) at point 2. Heat is then added from a hot body at a constant
pressure. During this addition of heat let volume increases from V 2 to V3 and temperature T2 to T3, corresponding to
point 3. This point (3) is called the point of cut-off. The air then expands adiabatically to the conditions P4, V4 and T4
respectively corresponding to point 4. Finally, the air rejects the heat to the cold body at constant volume till the
point 1 where it returns to its original state.
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DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE

This cycle (also called the limited pressure cycle or mixed cycle) is a combination of Otto and Diesel cycles, in a
way, that heat is added partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure ; the advantage of which is that
more time is available to fuel (which is injected into the engine cylinder before the end of compression stroke) for
combustion. Because of lagging characteristics of fuel this cycle is invariably used for diesel and hot spot ignition
engines.
The dual combustion cycle (Fig 3) consists of the following operations :
(i) 1-2—Adiabatic compression
(ii) 2-3—Addition of heat at constant volume
(iii) 3-4—Addition of heat at constant pressure
(iv) 4-5—Adiabatic expansion
(v) 5-1—Rejection of heat at constant volume
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GAS TURBINE CYCLE—BRAYTON CYCLE

Ideal Brayton Cycle
Brayton cycle is a constant pressure cycle for a perfect gas. It is also called Joule cycle. The heat transfers are
achieved in reversible constant pressure heat exchangers. An ideal gas turbine plant would perform the processes
that make up a Brayton cycle. The cycle is shown in the Fig.(a) and it is represented on p-v and
T-s diagrams as shown in Figs (b) and (c).
The various operations are as follows :
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Operation 1-2. The air is compressed isentropically from the lower pressure p1 to the upper pressure p2, the
temperature rising from T1 to T2. No heat flow occurs.
Operation 2-3. Heat flows into the system increasing the volume from V2 to V3 and temperature from T2 to T3
whilst the pressure remains constant at p2. Heat received = mcp (T3 – T2).
Operation 3-4. The air is expanded isentropically from p2 to p1, the temperature falling from T3 to T4. No heat flow
occurs.
Operation 4-1. Heat is rejected from the system as the volume decreases from V4 to V1 and the temperature from T4
T1 whilst the pressure remains constant at p1. Heat rejected = mcp (T4 – T1)
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.
Pressure Ratio for Maximum Work
Now we shall prove that the pressure ratio for maximum work is a function of the limiting temperature ratio.

In case of a given turbine the minimum temperature T1 and the maximum temperature T3 are prescribed, T1 being
the temperature of the atmosphere and T3 the maximum temperature which the metals of turbine would withstand.

Methods for Improvement of Thermal Efficiency of Open Cycle Gas Turbine Plant
The following methods are employed to increase the specific output and thermal efficiency of the plant :
1. Intercooling 2. Reheating 3. Regeneration.
1. Intercooling. A compressor in a gas turbine cycle utilises the major percentage of power developed by the gas
turbine. The work required by the compressor can be reduced by compressing the air in two stages and incorporating
an intercooler between the two as shown in Fig. The corresponding T-s diagram for the unit is shown in Fig. 13.38.
The actual processes take place as follows :
1-2‘ ... L.P. (Low pressure) compression
2‘-3 ... Intercooling
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3-4‘ ... H.P. (High pressure) compression

4‘-5 ... C.C. (Combustion chamber)-heating
5-6‘... T (Turbine)-expansion

The ideal cycle for this arrangement is 1-2-3-4-5-6 ; the compression process without intercooling is shown as 1-L′
in the actual case, and 1-L in the ideal isentropic case. Now,

By comparing equations above, it can be observed that the work input with intercooling is less than the work input
with no intercooling, when cp (T4 ‘– T3) is less than cp(TL ‘– T2‘). This is so if it is assumed that isentropic
efficiencies of the two compressors, operating separately, are each equal to the isentropic efficiency of the single
compressor which would be required if no intercooling were used. Then (T4‘ – T3) < (TL‘– T2‘) since the pressure
lines diverge on the T-s diagram from left to the right.

From this we may conclude that when the compressor work input is reduced then the work ratio is increased.
However the heat supplied in the combustion chamber when intercooling is used in the cycle, is given by,
Heat supplied with intercooling = Cp(T5 – T4‘)
Also the heat supplied when intercooling is not used, with the same maximum cycle temperature T5, is given by
Heat supplied without intercooling = Cp (T5 – TL‘)
Thus, the heat supplied when intercooling is used is greater than with no intercooling. Although the net work output
is increased by intercooling it is found in general that the increase in heat to be supplied causes the thermal
efficiency to decrease. When intercooling is used a supply of cooling water must be readily available The additional
bulk of the unit may offset the advantage to be gained by increasing the work ratio.

2. Reheating: The output of a gas turbine can be amply improved by expanding the gases in two stages with a
reheater between the two as shown in Fig. The H.P. turbine drives the compressor and the L.P. turbine provides the
useful power output. The corresponding T-s diagramis shown in Fig. The line 4‘-L‘ represents the expansion in the
L.P. turbine if reheating is not employed
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3. Regeneration: The exhaust gases from a gas turbine carry a large quantity of heat with them since their
temperature is far above the ambient temperature. They can be used to heat the air coming from the compressor
thereby reducing the mass of fuel supplied in the combustion chamber. Fig. shows a gas turbine plant with a
regenerator. The corresponding T-s diagram is shown in Fig.. 2‘-3 represents the heat flow into the compressed air
during its passage through the heat exchanger and 3-4 represents the heat taken in from the combustion of fuel. Point
6 represents the temperature of exhaust gases at discharge from the heat exchanger. The maximum temperature to
which the air could be heated in the heat exchanger is ideally that of exhaust gases, but less than this is obtained in
practice because a temperature gradient must exist for an unassisted transfer of energy. The effectiveness of the heat
exchanger is given by :
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