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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews: Venkateswarlu Chintala, K.A. Subramanian
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews: Venkateswarlu Chintala, K.A. Subramanian
A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T
Keywords: Compression ignition (CI) engines emit high levels of particulate matter (PM) and oxide of nitrogen (NOx)
Hydrogen emissions due to combustion with heterogeneous air fuel mixture. The PM emission could be reduced
Dual fuel engines significantly along with thermal efficiency improvement using hydrogen in the engines under dual fuel mode
Performance, combustion and emission (diesel-hydrogen). In hydrogen dual fuel engines, other emissions including hydrocarbon (HC), carbon
characteristics
monoxide (CO) and smoke decrease to near zero level whereas greenhouse gas emissions (carbon dioxide
Hydrogen energy share enhancement
(CO2) and methane (CH4)) from CI engines decrease substantially. However, the literature review indicates the
maximum hydrogen energy share in the dual fuel engines at rated load is limited from 6% to 25%. This is mainly
due to higher in-cylinder peak pressure and rate of pressure rise, knocking and autoignition of hydrogen-air
charge. In addition to this, NOx emission in the engine under dual fuel mode is higher (about 29–58%) than
conventional diesel mode due to high localized in-cylinder temperature. The suitable strategies for improvement
of maximum hydrogen energy share (up to 79%) and NOx emission reduction (up to a level of conventional
mode) in CI engines under dual fuel mode are discussed in detail.
Abbreviations: 32/40DF and 51/60DF, Engine models from M/S MAN Diesel; 34DF and 50DF, Engine models from M/S Wartsila; BDC, Bottom dead centre; BMEP, Brake mean
effective pressure; C-10 DFNG, C-12 DFNG, and C-15 DFNG, Engine models from M/S Caterpillar; CA, Crank angle; CH4, Methane;; CI, Compression ignition; CNG, Compressed
natural gas; CO, Carbon monoxide;; CO2, Carbon dioxide; CR, Compression ratio; CV, Calorific value; CxHy, Hydrocarbon; Ea, Activation energy; EGR, Exhaust gas recirculation; EHI,
End of hydrogen injection; EPA, Environmental Protection Agency; EVC, Exhaust valve closing; EVO, Exhaust valve opening; GHG, Greenhouse gas;; GWP, Global warming potential;
H2, Hydrogen; HC, Hydrocarbon; HCCI, Homogeneous charge compression ignition; HFCP, High frequency component of in-cylinder pressure; IC, Internal combustion; IVC, Inlet
valve closing; IVO, Inlet valve opening; k1, k2, k3, Constants; m, Mass flow rate of species; MI, Manifold injection;; N2O, Nitrous oxide; Nc, Number of cylinders; NOx, Oxides of nitrogen;
O, H, and OH, Oxygen, hydrogen and hydroxyl radicals; P, Brake power; PHCCI, Partial homogeneous charge compression ignition;; PI, Port injection;; PM, Particulate matter; QSK50,
KTA38-G2A, and KTA50-G3, Engine models from M/S Cummins; rpm, Rotations per minute; RPR, Rate of pressure rise;; RR, Reaction rate; Ru, Universal gas constant; SHI, Start of
hydrogen injection; SI, Spark ignition; T, In-cylinder temperature; TDC, Top dead centre; TPE, Total premixed charge energy
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: subra@ces.iitd.ernet.in (K.A. Subramanian).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.247
Received 3 December 2015; Received in revised form 7 May 2016; Accepted 21 November 2016
Available online 30 November 2016
1364-0321/ © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
1.1. Hydrogen utilization in internal combustion engines Cummins Diesel and natural QSK50, KTA38-G2A, and
gas KTA50-G3
Caterpillar Diesel and natural C-10 DFNG, C-12 DFNG, and C-
Hydrogen as a fuel is best suitable for spark ignition (SI) engines
gas 15 DFNG
due to its high octane number of about 120 [7]. Hydrogen utilization in Wartsila Diesel and natural 34DF and 50DF
SI engines would give zero carbon based emissions due to high gas
localized in-cylinder temperature. However, hydrogen utilization in MAN Diesel Diesel and natural 32/40DF and 51/60DF
the SI engines is limited due to power de-rating (throttling losses), low gas
Indian Railways Diesel and CNG 1400 HP engine
thermal efficiency, low volumetric efficiency and high level of NOx
HUNDAI Diesel and CNG VERNA (Under progress)
emission [8]. In order to overcome these negative aspects, a major Mahindra & Mahindra Diesel and CNG SCORPIO (Under progress)
engine hardware modification or new technology need to be developed.
On the other hand, if the hydrogen is used in CI engines under dual-
fuel mode, thermal efficiency would improve significantly due to high natural gas based dual-fuel engines emit high levels of unburned HC
compression ratio, no power de-rating due to no throttling losses, fuel (methane hydrocarbon and non-methane hydrocarbon) and CO
economy would improve due to constant volume combustion, and HC emissions at part loads. Engine-out methane (CH4) emission effect
CO, smoke and greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, CH4, N2O) would the environment adversely as global warming potential (GWP) of
decrease significantly. However, hydrogen could not be utilized in methane for 100 years time horizon is higher (21) than GWP of CO2
conventional CI engines as the hydrogen is having the properties of low (1). In order to resolve these issues, replacement of natural gas with
cetane number and high autoignition temperature. But hydrogen can hydrogen could be a viable option as there is no such problem of
be used in CI engines under dual-fuel (diesel-hydrogen) mode. A small hydrogen availability. Hydrogen is one of the most available
amount of diesel (pilot fuel) could be used as an ignition source and elements on the earth. However, it is not available in its actual
hydrogen (main fuel) as the major energy contributing fuel in a CI form (H2), it is combined with other molecules including water
engine under dual-fuel mode. (H2O) and hydrocarbons (CxHy) [7]. So, the hydrogen element needs
to be dissociated from the feedstock/energy source. The significant
1.2. Driving forces for hydrogen utilization in CI engines in Indian energy sources and suitable production methodology is given in
context Fig. 1. Moreover, hydrogen utilization in CI engines could produce
almost zero HC, CH4 and CO emissions, and low CO2 emissions
• India, one of the fast economic development countries, is known as along with an additional benefit of high thermal efficiency.
diesel driven economy as the consumption ratio of diesel to gasoline
is about 5.6:1 [9]. This significant diesel demand could easily be The existing natural gas infrastructure (storage, transportation and
satisfied with hydrogen due to its abundant availability (common dispensing) could also be used for hydrogen blended natural gas fuel.
element in the universe), could be drawn from wide variety of The government of India is also taken further amendment by for-
sources/methods and renewable in nature. mulating fuel policy for implementation of hydrogen blended natural
• The utilization of hydrogen as an energy carrier is proposed in most gas (hydrogen: 18% by volume) as a fuel for internal combustion
of the governmental strategic plans for a sustainable energy system. engines/vehicles [10].
The Indian Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, the US
Department of Energy (DOE), the European Commission's 1.3. Dual fuel technology
Directorate-General for Research, the Japanese Ministry of
Economy, Trade and Industry; and many others formulated vision Typically in a dual-fuel engine, gaseous hydrogen fuel (main fuel) is
reports for hydrogen programs. For example, in India, a National supplied to the engine during suction stroke and diesel fuel (pilot fuel)
Hydrogen Energy Roadmap has been formulated by Ministry of New is directly injected in to the combustion chamber at the end of
and Renewable Energy in the year 2007 [10], and it is envisaged in compression stroke to initiate the ignition as shown in Fig. 2[14].
the Roadmap that one million hydrogen fuelled vehicles and Dual-fuel engines can operate either on dual-fuel mode if gaseous
1000 MW hydrogen based electrical power generation would be hydrogen fuel is available or on single diesel fuel mode in the absence
targeted in the country by 2020. of the gaseous fuel (fuel flexibility). Valve timing and process diagram
• As hydrogen is available as a by-product from Chloro-Alkali of hydrogen and diesel are shown in Fig. 3. Hydrogen was injected into
industries, it could be used in diesel engines under dual-fuel mode the intake manifold after the outlet valve closed (43° CA after TDC) in
for in-house electrical power generation. order to avoid scavenging losses [15]. Start of hydrogen injection (SHI)
• As thermal efficiency of a CI engine is higher than a spark ignition was maintained constant as 43° CA after TDC throughout the
engine due to its high compression ratio, hydrogen utilization in CI experimentation whereas the end of hydrogen injection (EHI) was
engines would be more beneficial. varied with respect to the engine loading [15]. These injection timings
• Particulate matter (PM) emission from CI engines would decrease were optimized based on better performance and lower emissions for
drastically with the use of gaseous hydrogen, which is otherwise a diesel-hydrogen dual-fuel operation [15].
major concern for sustainability of CI engines. The hydrogen fuel could be added into a CI engine using three
• Natural gas based dual-fuel engines are already commercialized by
original engine manufacturers (OEMs) (Table 1). In the world, Delhi
(India) is one of the largest vehicle fleet fuelled with natural gas. In a
significant step towards adopting green fuel, the Indian railways
launched its first CNG (compressed natural gas) train in 2015. The
railways modified a CI engine (rated power: 1400 hp) to run on
dual-fuel mode through fumigation technology with 20% CNG
substitution [11]. However, natural gas availability for meeting the
future huge global energy demands is uncertain. In addition to this, Fig. 1. Energy sources and production methodologies for hydrogen.
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V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
Fig. 4. Brake thermal efficiency variation with respect to hydrogen flow rate at moderate and higher loads (a) from [23] and (b) from [24] (c) from [22] and (d) from [20].
could be a significant improvement in mixing rate of air with hydrogen Exergy efficiency increased from 29.1% with base diesel to 31.7% with
gaseous fuel. In addition to this, as the gaseous fuel is typically 18% hydrogen energy share at rated load [2]. The efficiency increased
inducted into the engine during suction stroke, more time is available significantly with high amounts of hydrogen energy shares at 75% and
for air-fuel mixture formation process. Thus, combined effects of the 50% loads as shown in the figure. This could be attributed due to
higher diffusivity and the availability of more mixing time would increase in combustion efficiency by decrease in total irreversibility of
increase the amount of air-hydrogen premixed charge, resulting in the system as compared to conventional mode [2]. The combustion
better combustion and enhanced thermal efficiency. irreversibility of a dual-fuel engine decreases with increasing amount of
hydrogen substitution as the combustion with high temperature
2.2. Effect of hydrogen on exergy efficiency of dual-fuel engines reduces entropy generation [2]. The irreversibility in the dual-fuel
engine decreased from 3.14 kW with base diesel mode to 1.73 kW with
Fig. 5 shows exergy efficiency of a CI engine (7.4 kW rated power at hydrogen dual-fuel mode [2].
1500 rpm) for different hydrogen energy shares at different loads.
2.3. Effect of hydrogen on volumetric efficiency
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V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
Fig. 6. Volumetric efficiency variation with respect to hydrogen energy share (a) from [23] and (b) from [29].
increase in the intake system temperature. As a consequence, the lence ratios of hydrogen-air charge used in the experiments conducted
intake air density may decrease and thus decreases the volumetric by Varde and Frame [24] were leaner than the lean flammability limit
efficiency of the engine [29]. However, the percentage reduction in the for hydrogen at ambient conditions. At low hydrogen energy shares, all
efficiency would depend on engine configuration and its operating the hydrogen inducted in to the combustion chamber may burn late
conditions. during expansion stoke which causes slight decrease in the exhaust gas
temperature as shown in Fig. 7(b). However, increasing the amount of
2.4. Effect of hydrogen on exhaust gas temperature hydrogen increased the exhaust gas temperature due to rapid combus-
tion and high flame temperature for a given equivalence ratio.
As hydrogen has higher heat content (120 MJ/kg) than base diesel
(42.5 MJ/kg), the in-cylinder temperature in a CI engine is higher with 3. Effect of hydrogen usage on combustion characteristics of
combustion of hydrogen than diesel. In case of diesel-hydrogen dual- dual-fuel engines
fuel engines, as hydrogen gas is a major energy source, the combustion
temperature (in-cylinder temperature) is significantly high as com- Combustion process in a dual-fuel engine is combined processes of
pared to base diesel engine. Exhaust gas temperature increased from CI and SI engines. As the hydrogen is supplied during suction stroke, it
364 °C to 427 °C with increase in hydrogen energy share to 10.1% as mixes with air during suction and compression processes and form
shown in Fig. 7. High heating value of hydrogen (120 MJ/kg) could be high degree of homogeneous hydrogen-air charge. At the end of the
the main reason for increase in the exhaust gas temperature. Edwin compression stroke, the diesel fuel is injected which spontaneously
Geo also reported that the main reason for the increase in the ignites due to its high cetane number. The ignited diesel fuel actually
temperature might be due to high amount of heat energy release at acts as an ignition source for igniting the premixed hydrogen-air charge
the end of expansion stroke [23]. The studies of Chintala and which surrounds the diesel spray. A review on the important combus-
Subramanian revealed that the exhaust gas energy increased from tion characteristics such as in-cylinder pressure, in-cylinder tempera-
24% with base diesel to 25.7% with 33.6% hydrogen energy share at ture, heat release rate etc. in hydrogen based dual-fuel engines is given
75% load [2]. Varde and Frame also stated the reasons for increase in below.
the exhaust temperature with increasing hydrogen energy share are
due to rapid combustion and high flame temperature of hydrogen for a 3.1. Effect of hydrogen on in-cylinder pressure
given equivalence ratio [24]. Late occurrence of in-cylinder peak
pressure at low hydrogen energy shares could be possible due to With hydrogen addition in a CI engine, in-cylinder pressure
delayed burning of hydrogen in the combustion chamber. The equiva- increases at high and medium loads whereas the pressure decreases
Fig. 7. Exhaust gas temperature variation with respect to hydrogen energy share (a) from [23] and (b) from [24].
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V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
the pressure increased from about 108 bar with 0% hydrogen volume
share to about 122 bar with 6% hydrogen volume share at 70% load
(Fig. 11) [33]. A clear conclusion emerged from the above literature
discussion that in a hydrogen dual-fuel engine, in-cylinder pressure
increases at high and moderate loads whereas it decreases at lower
loads.
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V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
Fig. 10. In-cylinder pressure variation with respect to degree CA at high load (a) from reference [31] (b) from reference [32].
Fig. 11. Difference between in-cylinder pressure curves at high and low loads [33].
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V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
Fig. 13. Different components of energy release rate in a dual-fuel engine under (a) heavy load (b) light load conditions [34].
70% load (high load) [33]. However, at low load the combustion
duration increased drastically with high amount of hydrogen share
[33]. Similar decreasing trend for the combustion duration at high and
moderate loads in hydrogen dual-fuel engines were reported by other
researchers [23,38] (Fig. 17). On the contrary, Lata et al. reported a
fluctuating trend at lower load (10%) with increasing hydrogen volume
share under dual-fuel mode [38].
Fig. 14. Heat release rate with respect to degree CA different loads [33].
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V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
Fig. 17. Combustion duration variation with respect to hydrogen fuel substitution (a) from [33] (b) from [38] (c) from [23].
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V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
Fig. 18. Combustion efficiency variation with respect to hydrogen substitution (a) from [33] (b) (a) from [14].
Fig. 19. In-cylinder peak pressure variation with respect to hydrogen substitution (a) from [23] (b) from [20].
Fig. 20. Maximum rate of pressure rise with respect to hydrogen energy share at different loads [23].
emission formation is promoted by fuel-rich mixture, and tends to 2.31 g/kWhwith 10.1% hydrogen energy share under dual-fuel mode
increase constantly with increase in the equivalence ratio. However, as [23]. Senthil Kumar et al. reported near zero CO emission with about
CI engines operate at lean mixtures, CO emission level will be low even 28% hydrogen mass share in a CI engine at 20%, 40% and 60% loads as
with base diesel operation. The CO emission further decreases in case seen in Fig. 21[20]. Miyamoto et al. also reported the similar findings
of hydrogen dual-fuel engines as the equivalence ratio decreases of less CO emission about 3 g/kWh in a hydrogen based dual-fuel
significantly with hydrogen addition. The CO emission decreases engine [36]. The CO emission formed during the hydrocarbon combus-
substantially at all loads with increasing amount of hydrogen substitu- tion mechanism is given by Eq. (4) [39].
tion level. For example at 100% load, CO emission decreased from
RH→R→RO2→RCHO→RCO→CO (4)
3.14 g/kWh with base diesel mode (0% hydrogen energy share) to
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V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
Fig. 21. Variation of emissions with respect to hydrogen substitution (a) from [20] (b) from [36].
The CO formed during the combustion via this route is then In case of hydrogen dual-fuel engines, this reaction rate increases
oxidized to carbon dioxide (CO2) as given in Eq. (5). This reaction significantly due to increase in the combustion temperature, which
rate is dependent on the temperature exponentially as shown in Eq. (6). reduces CO emission level drastically.
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V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
CO+OH→CO2+H (5) drastically to almost zero level with the addition of hydrogen in a CI
engine along with diesel fuel at all loads [32]. This could be postulated
The rate constant for this reaction is
that with addition of hydrogen gas, degree of homogeneity in the air
k f ,CO = 6.76 × 1010 exp(T /1102) (6) fuel mixture increases that leads to better combustion and low smoke
emission. The smoke emission decreased from 15.4% opacity with base
Where, T: In-cylinder temperature, K; kf,CO: Reaction constant for CO diesel mode to 3.8%opacity with dual-fuel mode (18.8% hydrogen
formation energy shares) at 100% load [32]. Similarly, Miyamoto et al. also
reported the similar findings of zero smoke emission with hydrogen
4.2. Effect of hydrogen on HC emission substitution in a CI engine (Fig. 21) [36]. The smoke/PM emission
formation is mainly due to rich mixture at local points (i.e., localized
Formation of HC emission in CI engines is generally due to rich mixture even though global lean mixture is available in CI
incomplete combustion of the hydrocarbon fuel. Various research engines), heterogeneous combustion, lubricating oil, unburnt hydro-
studies confirmed the significant reduction in HC emission in hydrogen carbons, and dominant diffusion combustion phase. With hydrogen
based dual-fuel engines at all loads [23,24,28,40]. For example, at addition, the emission level decreased drastically due to improvement
100% load, HC mass emission level decreased from 0.55 g/kWh to with in degree of homogeneity, reduction in hydrocarbons, and reduction in
base diesel mode (0% hydrogen energy share) to 0.44 g/kWh with diffusion combustion phase [36].
10.1% hydrogen energy share under dual-fuel mode [23]. Senthil The smoke/soot emission of a dual-fuel engine is significantly lower
Kumar et al. reported decrease in HC emission from 130 ppm and as compared to conventional base diesel mode particularly at high
40 ppm with 0% hydrogen mass share to 70 ppm and 20 ppm with 18% loads. The emission increases drastically with increasing load in case of
hydrogen mass share in a CI engine under dual-fuel mode at 100% and base diesel mode whereas increasing load has no significant influence
20% loads respectively (Fig. 21) [20]. The emission reduction could be on the emission in case of dual-fuel mode [52]. At equilibrium
postulated that the increase in in-cylinder temperature due to rapid condition, the smoke formation occurs when carbon to hydrogen ratio
and better combustion. Miyamoto et al. also reported the similar (C/O) exceeds unity (Eq. (7)) [39]. The critical C/O ratio for the
findings of significant decrease in HC emission to about 1 g/kWh emission formation decreases significantly with decreasing in-cylinder
(Fig. 21) [36]. temperature. As the hydrogen fuel has no carbon element, the
corresponding C/O ratio becomes zero and thus the fuel doesn't form
4.3. Effect of hydrogen on NOx emission smoke emission in case of dedicated hydrogen fuelled internal combus-
tion engines. However, in a hydrogen dual-fuel engine, the emission
In hydrogen based dual-fuel engines with increasing hydrogen forms due to the oxidation of pilot diesel fuel. In the hydrogen dual-fuel
energy share, the NOx emission increases at high and medium loads engine, C/O ratio may decrease significantly with decreasing diesel
while decreases at low loads. For example, Senthil Kumar et al. found a fuel, which results in drastic reduction of the smoke emission.
drastic increment in the NO emission at 100% load as shown in
Fig. 21[20]. The NO emission increased from about 740 ppm with base CxHy+aO2→2a CO+(y/2) H2+(x−2a) Cs (7)
diesel operation to about 930 ppm with 18% hydrogen mass share The corresponding equivalence ratio is given in Eq. (8).
(Fig. 21). However, at 20% and 40% loads, the effect of hydrogen
addition on the NO emission was insignificant [20]. Miyamoto et al. ⎛C⎞ y
Equivalence ratio, ∅ = 2 ⎜ ⎟ (1 + )
reported a slight decrease in the NO emission with small amounts of ⎝O⎠ 4x (8)
hydrogen addition and then a significant increase in the emission as
Earlier experimental studies carried out on a CI engine by Heywood
shown in Fig. 21(b) [36]. On the contrary, Dhole et al. reported
revealed a fact that the most of the smoke/PM emission forms mainly
decrease in NOx emission from 1.8g/kW h without hydrogen to 0.67g/
due to incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels [39].
kW h with 50% hydrogen volume substitution at 13% load in a direct
Christodoulou and Megaritis reported mainly three reasons for
injection multi-cylinder CI engine [41]. This is due to increase in
smoke/soot emission decrease; (i) reduction in carbon content in
fraction of H2O which decreases the cylinder peak temperature with
diesel-hydrogen mixture (carbon is the main soot component), (ii)
hydrogen addition [42]. However, at high load when more than 1% of
enhancement in soot oxidation rate due to high in-cylinder tempera-
hydrogen was substituted, NOx emission increases as a result of faster
ture rise with hydrogen combustion, and (iii) enhancement in soot
hydrogen combustion due to high diffusivity and the high flame speed
oxidation due to increase in OH radicals with hydrogen-oxygen
[43]. As the combustion of hydrogen is possible at a wide range of air
reactions [44]. Tsolakis reported that total particle number and total
fuel ratios, the combustion of rich air-hydrogen mixture at high
particle mass decreased from 0.55 cm−3 and 98.66 mg/cm3 with base
temperatures creates an ideal environment for NOx emission formation
diesel mode to 0.37 cm−3 and 77.64 mg/cm3 with 20% hydrogen added
[30]. In case of variable speed engines, for a particular load and
EGR (exhaust gas recirculation) in a 8.6 kW direct injection CI engine
hydrogen energy share, the NOx emission is higher with low speed than
under dual-fuel mode [53]. Research findings of Liew et al. also
high speed [44]. Although combustion temperature is increased with
confirms a significant reduction in PM emission with increasing
hydrogen addition, the emission is lower at higher speeds due less
hydrogen volume share as shown in Fig. 22 [48]. A drastic reduction
residence time. The summary of literature information on variation of
in the emission from about 0.26 g/kWh with base diesel mode (0%
NOx emission from hydrogen dual-fuel engines is given in Table 2.
hydrogen volume share) to 0.06 g/kWh with 7% hydrogen volume
share under dual-fuel mode was observed at low load (10% load)
4.4. Effect of hydrogen on smoke/PM emission
(Fig. 22) [48]. The addition of up to 2% hydrogen at 10% load reduced
the PM emission significantly but beyond 2% hydrogen the reduction
Smoke emission in CI engines is mainly caused due to the
rate was relatively low as seen in Fig. 22 [48].
heterogeneous air-fuel mixture and it decreases significantly with
increase in degree of homogeneity in the air-fuel mixture. It generally
occurs at regions wherever the insufficient air/oxygen presents (for 4.5. Effect of hydrogen on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
oxidation) in the combustion chamber. If the air fuel ratio decreases,
the smoke emission may increase significantly. At high loads, the Utilization of hydrogen in a CI engine under dual-fuel mode is one
smoke emission is high due to the fact that, rich mixture is supplied in of the promising solutions to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
order to meet the high load demand. The smoke emission decreased (carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O)) at
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V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
Table 2
Literature summary of NOx emission variation in hydrogen dual-fuel engines.
Köse and Ciniviz [45] Nc=4, CR=17:1, P=58 kW@2250 rpm • Increased from 2200 ppm without H to 2900 ppm with 7.5% H at 2200 rpm
• Decreased
2 2
from 1370 ppm without H to 1010 ppm with 7.5% H at 1000 rpm
• Increased
2 2
Christodoulou and Megaritis [44] Nc=4, CR=18.2:1, Engine capacity=1998.23 cc about 29% with 25.3% H at 5 bar BMEP and 2500 rpm
•1. Decreased
2
Insignificant effect at low load and speed
Wu et al. [46] Nc=1, CR=18:1, P=9.2 kW@2400 rpm about 59.5% with 20% H +40% EGR at 60% load
2
Singh Yadav et al. [47] Nc=1, CR=16.5:1, P=3.5 kW@1500 rpm 1. Increased from 440 ppm without H2 to 470 ppm with 0.04 kg/h H2 at 80% load and
1500 rpm
Liew et al. [48] Nc=6, CR=16:1, P=265 kW@1800 rpm • At low load, the addition of H2 had mild effect
• At medium to high loads, the addition of a small amount of H2 ( < 3–5%) slightly
reduced
• At high load, significantly increased with the addition of 4% volume of H2
Liew et al. [49] Nc=6, CR=16.5:1, P=276 kW@2100 rpm • Increased from 4.8g/kW h with 2% volume H2 to 6.4g/kW h with 6% volume at 70%
load and 1200 rpm
• Decreased from 7g/kW h with 2% volume H2 to 0.8g/kW h with 6% volume at 10%
load and 1200 rpm
Liu et al. [50] Nc=6, P=276 kW@2100 rpm
Engine capacity=10.8 L
• Increased from 4.57g/kW h with 2% volume H2 to 5.28g/kW h with 4% volume at
70% load
• Decreased from 5.6g/kW h with 2% volume H2 to 1.8g/kW h with 6% volume at 15%
load
Rahul Banerjee and Bose[51] Nc=1, CR=17.5:1, P=5.2 kW@1500 rpm Increased from 810 ppm without H2 to 1211 ppm with 0.15 kg/h H2 flow rate at 80%
load
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V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
Table 3 sections.
Summary of effects of hydrogen on performance, combustion and emission character-
istics of dual-fuel engines.
6.2. Knocking at high amount of hydrogen substitution
Description of the With increasing H2 With increasing H2
parameter energy share at higher energy share at
and moderate loads lower loads Maximum hydrogen energy share in a dual-fuel engine is typically
restricted by onset of knocking. Knocking could be defined as abnormal
Thermal efficiency Increases (higher than base Decreases
combustion phenomenon which constraints the improvement in engine
diesel mode)
Exergy efficiency • Increases at higher load Fluctuating trend performance. Knocking combustion could be detected in several ways
• Fluctuating trend at such as in-cylinder pressure based detection, cylinder block vibration
moderate loads measurement, acoustic wave measurement analysis, heat transfer
Volumetric efficiency Decreases Decreases based analysis, etc. Both rate of pressure rise (RPR) and heat release
Exhaust gas temperature Increases Increases
rate together can be used for an analysis of the knock tendency in a CI
In-cylinder pressure and Increases Decreases
in-cylinder peak engine [55]. Torregrosa supported the fact that the knocking combus-
pressure tion in a CI engine is directly proportional to its maximum rate of
In-cylinder temperature Increases Decreases pressure rise [56]. If a CI engine operates with knocking, the engine
and in-cylinder peak
gets severe damage including breakage of piston rings, piston melting,
temperature
Start of combustion Advances Retards and erosion of cylinder head. So, CI engines typically operate with less
Heat release rate Increases Decreases hydrogen energy share for knock prevention in the engine. A suitable
Ignition delay Decreases/fluctuating trend Fluctuating trend technology needs to be identified and assessed for substitution of high
Combustion duration Decreases Increases hydrogen energy share in a CI engine under dual-fuel mode for knock
Combustion efficiency Increases Decreases
free operation.
Rate of pressure rise Increases Decreases
HC emission Decreases Decreases It may be noted that the primary requirement of any gaseous fuel
CO emission Decreases Decreases for dual-fuel engines is that the gaseous fuel-air mixture would not
Smoke/PM emission Decreases Decreases autoignite spontaneously [34]. Failing to do so can lead to the onset of
CO2 emission Decreases Decreases
knock, high rate of pressure rise, high peak pressure and overheating of
NOx emission Increases Increases
the cylinder walls. The knock limited power output of a dual-fuel
engine with any gaseous fuel and pilot liquid fuel setting has been
(i.e., pi≤0.5), which is identical with low temperature combustion, is an shown to deteriorate logarithmically with the inverse of the intake
effective means for minimizing NOx emissions in CI engines [43]. absolute temperature [34]. Hydrogen addition in a CI engine leads to
Various NOx emission reduction technologies such as exhaust gas production of knocking or detonation because of its lower ignition
recirculation (EGR), water injection, homogeneous charge compression energy, wider flammability range, and shorter quenching distance [57].
ignition (HCCI) and injection time retarding etc. are reported in With hydrogen fuel, knocking problem could occur not only at the end
literature. An engine with EGR could reduce NOx emission because it stage of combustion as is typical for gasoline engines but also at earlier
dilutes the intake air and lowers the combustion temperature with the stages [58–61]. Heavier knocking occurs when hydrogen is self-ignited,
penalty of lower volumetric efficiency and power output. It also unlike hydrogen burning under controlled ignition [31,61]. Chintala
increases smoke/PM emission; hence, it may not be viable option for and Subramanian found an occurrence of autoignition of hydrogen-air
NOx reduction in hydrogen dual-fuel engines. Therefore, other alter- charge at a higher hydrogen energy share of 18.8% in a CI engine as
natives such as water injection and HCCI mode operations are focused shown in Fig. 24[14].
in this study and brief literature review of these topics are given in next Szwaja et al. investigated on a CI engine (swept volume: 1.65 l and
compression ratio: 17:1) under (i) HCCI (homogeneous charge com-
Fig. 24. Autoignition of hydrogen-air mixture at higher hydrogen energy share [14].
485
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
Fig. 25. High frequency component of in-cylinder pressure with respect to degree CA [31].
Fig. 26. Maximum limit of hydrogen energy shares in dual-fuel engines (a) from [31] (b) from [14] (c) from [24].
pression ignition) mode with 100% hydrogen and (ii) dual-fuel mode from the in-cylinder pressure after applying a band-pass (3–15 kHz)
with varying hydrogen energy share [31]. They expressed the knocking Butterworth digital filter from Matlab signal processing tools [31]. It
tendency in terms of high frequency component of in-cylinder pressure could be concluded from the figure that the frequency fluctuation
(HFCP) for three modes (diesel mode, dual-fuel mode, and pure component amplitude varies significantly with increase in hydrogen
hydrogen mode) as shown in Fig. 25 [31]. The HFCPs were measured energy share. Neat hydrogen mode (HCCI mode) is characterized by a
486
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
relatively ultra-high amplitude of the HFCP, which reaches 4 MPa [31]. factor that affects the hydrogen substitution levels. At low and medium
With reference to higher mean peak pressure about 250 kPa (mean loads higher amounts of hydrogen could be substituted than at high
peak pressure for 120 HFCPs) and lambda approaches to 1 (which loads [2]. For example, the hydrogen energy share increased from
promotes to knock), they concluded that about 17% hydrogen energy 18.8% at 100% load to 48.4% at 50% load in a direct injection CI engine
share was the maximum limit in the engine at rated load (with base [2]. High amounts of hydrogen supply to CI engines under dual-fuel
compression ratio of 17:1) as shown in Fig. 26 [31]. Similarly, Chintala mode create several problems including abnormal rate of pressure rise,
and Subramanian reported the knocking tendency in a hydrogen based high in-cylinder peak pressure, too advanced combustion, high in-
dual-fuel engine (7.4 kW rated power at 1500 rpm with compression cylinder peak temperature, autoignition of premixed hydrogen-air
ratio of 19.5:1) in terms of ringing intensity (Fig. 26) [14]. The ringing charge, and loss of available work due to advanced combustion
intensity was increased radically with increasing hydrogen energy [27,36,63,64]. Miyamoto reported autoignition of hydrogen-air charge
share. With base compression ratio and at 100% load, the ringing for a higher hydrogen fraction than 8% volume in a diesel-hydrogen
intensity reached to 4.9 MW/m2 (Upper limit: 5 MW/m2) with about dual-fuel engine [36]. Similarly spontaneous autoignition of air-
19% hydrogen energy share. So they concluded in their investigation gaseous fuel (propane) was found in a diesel-propane dual-fuel engine
that about 19% hydrogen share was the maximum amount that could due to its high reactivity nature like hydrogen fuel [64]. Wong and
be substituted in the engine for knock free operation at 100% load Karim stated reasons for autoignition of hydrogen-air charge are due to
(with base compression ratio of 19.5:1) [14]. However, the knock high polytropic index of hydrogen, higher in-cylinder temperature, and
limited hydrogen energy share was enhanced with reduction of increasing preignition chemical reactions [63]. Selim, in his experi-
compression ratio as seen in the figure. Many other research studies mental investigation, found that the increasing mass of gaseous fuel
also confirm that the knocking problem in a dual-fuel engine gets (Liquefied Petroleum Gas/Methane/ Natural gas) leads to significant
rapidly intensified with increase in compression ratio of the engine increase in the maximum rate of pressure rise in a single cylinder
[59,62]. Varde and Frame in their experimental study on a CI engine variable compression indirect injection CI engine (Ricardo E6: 9 kW
(single cylinder direct injection engine with compression ratio of rated power) [65]. He also concluded that the gaseous fuel existing in
17.4:1), measured acoustic noise levels in the test cell at two different the combustion chamber could be more susceptible to autoignite with
locations, about two meters from the engine. The noise level increased increasing in-cylinder temperature. The autoignition of premixed
drastically from about 99 dB with 6% hydrogen energy share to about hydrogen-air (in the intake manifold) problem is more susceptible
107 dB with 14% hydrogen energy share (Fig. 26). It could be observed with manifold injection method; however, this problem could be
that the acoustic noise level increased sharply when the fuel mixture avoided/reduced with the use of port injection method. With port
contained more than 11% of hydrogen energy, as shown in Fig. 26 [24]. injection of hydrogen, the start of combustion timing may control as
per desirable degrees CA which allows slight improvement in hydrogen
substitution as compared to manifold injection strategy. However, the
6.3. A limited hydrogen energy share detailed comparative analysis between intake manifold and intake port
injection strategies under dual-fuel mode needs to be investigated in
Hydrogen based dual-fuel engines suffer a major obstacle of limited future.
hydrogen energy substitution. The details of literature review on the From the literature review it is observed that the aforementioned
maximum amount of hydrogen utilized in CI engines under dual-fuel triple problems (research challenges) could be addressed using low
mode are given in Table 4. It could be observed from the table that the temperature combustion strategies. A number of specific strategies
maximum hydrogen energy share achieved at high loads is in the range including HCCI/PHCCI (partial homogeneous charge compression
of 6–25%. However, this energy share could further increased to 30% ignition) [27], water injection [73], compression ratio reduction [14],
at low loads. It may be noted that the engine loading is a predominant
Table 4
Literature summary of the maximum hydrogen energy share in hydrogen dual-fuel engines.
Saravanan et al. [18] Nc=1, CR=16.5:1, P=3.7 kW@ Timed manifold injection 6.7% energy share at 100% load
1500 rpm
Edwin et al. [23] Nc=1, CR=17.5:1, P=4.4 kW @ Timed manifold injection 12.7% energy share at 100% load
1500 rpm
Mathur et al. [66] Nc=1, CR=17.5:1, P=4 kW @ 1500 rpm Timed manifold injection 14.8% energy share at 100% load (without power loss)
de Morais et al. [29] Nc=4, CR=17:1, P=49 kW@1800 rpm Timed manifold injection 20% energy share at 80% load
Nguyen and Mikami [67] Nc=1, CR=16.7:1, P=5 kW@1500 rpm Timed manifold injection 10% volume of intake air (or) 15% energy share (approx.) at
100% load
Bose et al. [68] Nc=1, CR=17.5:1, P=5.9 kW@ Timed manifold injection H2 flow rate of 0.15 kg/h (or)17.6% energy share (approx.) at
1500 rpm 100% load
Yadav et al. [26] Nc=1, CR=17.5:1, P=4.4 kW@ Timed manifold injection 16.4% energy share at 100% load
1500 rpm
Christodoulou and Megaritis [44] Nc=4, CR=18.2:1, P=55 kW@1500 rpm Timed manifold injection 8% volume of intake air (or) 12.8% energy share (approx.) at
100% load
Dhole et al. [41] Nc=4, CR=17.5:1, P=62.5 kW@ Continuous manifold 25% energy share at 80% load
1500 rpm induction
Wu H-W and Wu Z-Y [25] Nc=1, CR=18:1, P=9.2 kW@2400 rpm Timed port injection 30% energy share at 30% load
Saravanan et al. [69] Nc=1, CR=16.5:1, P=3.7 kW@ Timed port injection 10% energy share at 100% load
1500 rpm
Wu H-W and Wu Z-Y [70] Nc=1, CR=18:1, P=9.2 kW @2400 rpm Timed port injection 20% energy share at 60% load
Adnan et al. [71] Nc=1, CR=17.5:1, P=7.4 kW@ Timed port injection A constant flow rate of 5 lpm (or) 11.5% energy share (approx.)
3600 rpm at 100% load
Buomsik Shin et al. [72] Nc=4, CR=17.3:1, P=107 kW @ Timed manifold injection 10% energy share at low load (11.8 kW) and 1500 rpm
4000 rpm
Miyamoto et al. [36] Nc=1, CR=16.7:1, Engine capacity=551 Timed manifold injection 10% volume share at high load and 16% volume at lower load
cc
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V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
retarded injection timing of liquid fuel (pilot fuel) [32], lowering the dual-fuel PHCCI operation, homogeneous premixed charge could be
intake air and water jacket temperatures [34], use of high cetane prepared by using direct and port injections to control the ignition
number pilot fuel [32], and EGR could be used to enhance the timing and heat release rate during the combustion [76]. Ibrahim and
hydrogen energy share and reduce the NOx emission in a dual-fuel Ramesh studied the performance, emission and combustion character-
engine. The literature review on the strategies used for hydrogen istics of a hydrogen-diesel HCCI engine (3.7 kW at 1500 rpm). They
energy share enhancement is described in Section 7. reported the increase in thermal efficiency from 30.2% with diesel-
HCCI mode to 31.9% with hydrogen-diesel HCCI mode at 4 bar brake
7. Review on strategies used for enhancement of hydrogen mean effective pressure [77].
energy share
7.2. Water injection strategy for CI engines
Detailed literature information on PHCCI strategy, water injection,
and compression ratio reduction in hydrogen based dual fuel engines is Water addition into a CI engine is the most effective means for
given in this section. reducing the in-cylinder temperature reduction as it cools thermal
sources of ignition as well as reduces the chemical reaction rate. The
7.1. Partial homogeneous charge compression ignition (PHCCI) capability of water to absorb heat of combustion specifically at high
strategy temperature range reduces the temperature of combustion products
[73]. This reduction in the in-cylinder temperature could help to
Partial homogeneous charge compression ignition (PHCCI) mode is enhance the hydrogen energy share in CI engines. Water addition into
a low temperature combustion strategy, generally used for simulta- a hydrogen based dual fuel engine reduces the chances of back firing,
neous reduction of NOx and PM emissions. For instance, Arjan and knocking tendency in the engine. Prabhukumar et al. inducted water
Ingemar reported 98% reduction in NOx emission and 95% reduction along with the intake charge of a hydrogen dual-fuel engine. Water
in smoke emission in diesel HCCI mode as compared to the conven- injection into a dual fuel engine via intake manifold along with
tional diesel combustion mode [74]. Increasing quantity of premixed hydrogen, increases the knock limited power output as it significantly
charge increases the degree of homogeneity or reduces degree of decreases the unburned mixture temperature [78]. Some other re-
heterogeneity resulting in simultaneous reduction of both the emis- searchers investigated on a CI engine gen-set system under hydrogen
sions. With high quantity of premixed charge, NOx emission decreases dual-fuel mode using diluents such as helium, nitrogen and water [79].
due to reduction in localized in-cylinder temperature during the They found that hydrogen could be substituted for diesel fuel up to 38%
combustion, whereas the PM emission decreases due to high degree of full-load energy with no penalty of efficiency and power output.
of homogeneity. Saxena and Bedoya concluded that the diesel engines However, they succeeded up to 66% hydrogen energy substitution
with high quantity of premixed charge would lead to low temperature along with water injection for smooth knock free engine operation and
combustion resulting in reduction in NOx and PM emissions [75]. drastic reduction of exhaust smoke and NOx emissions. Similarly,
From the literature survey, it is found that very few studies were Chintala and Subramanian reported the improvement in hydrogen
reported on utilization of gaseous fuels along with liquid diesel fuel for energy share from 20% without water 39% with specific water
PHCCI/HCCI operation. For example, Chintala and Subramanian consumption of 270 g/kWh in a biodiesel-hydrogen dual fuel engine
conducted experiments on a CI engine with PHCCI strategy for (7.4 kW rated power at 1500 rpm) [40].
enhancing the amount of hydrogen substitution level [27]. The hydro- Water addition into CI engines could also decrease NOx emission
gen energy share increased from 18.8% hydrogen energy share (total significantly due to reduction localized in-cylinder temperature. For
premixed charge energy (TPE): 25.4%) with conventional hydrogen example, Subramanian reported that the injection of water in a DI
dual fuel mode to 24.4% (TPE: 56.4%) with PHCCI dual fuel mode diesel engine using timed manifold injection system decreases NO
[27]. Homogeneous premixed charge which comprises of diesel, emission significantly from 1034 ppm with base diesel to 643 ppm with
hydrogen, and air was prepared using hydrogen manifold injection water injection at 100% load operation [80]. Tauzia et al. investigated
and diesel split injection (port and direct injections) [27]. The total the effect of water (as vapour and as liquid) injection on ignition delay,
premixed charge energy (TPE) supplied to the engine was classified rate of heat release and emission of an automotive turbocharged direct
into three modes; (i) energy supplied by diesel direct injection (DI), (ii) injection diesel engine [81]. They utilized the water mass of about 60–
energy supplied by diesel port injection (PI), and (iii) energy supplied 65% of the fuel and achieved 50% NOx reduction. Tesfa et al. used
by hydrogen manifold injection (MI). The percentage of total premixed manifold water injection system to reduce the problem of high NOx
charge energy (TPE) was determined using Eqs. (9–12) [27]. emission from a biodiesel fuelled CI engine [82]. It was reported that
water injection of 3 kg/h resulted in NOx reduction by 50% without
E premixed,DI + E premixed,PI + E premixed,MI deteriorating engine performance due to reduction in premixed
TPE = ×100
h diesel (ṁ premixed,DI + ṁ diesel,PI) + (ṁhydrogen,MI ×hhydrogen) (9) combustion temperature. However, HC, CO and smoke emissions
increased with increase in water content with intake air [83]. Gonca
Where TPE: total premixed charge energy, %
reported about 34% reduction in NO emission with supply of the
E premixed,DI = Calorific Valuediesel ṁ premixed,DI , kW (10) optimum steam rate i.e., 20% of injected fuel by mass in a 13 kW direct
injection diesel engine [84]. From the literature survey, it is emerged
E premixed,PI = Calorific Valuediesel ×ṁ diesel,PI ,kW (11) that water addition into a CI engine could increase hydrogen energy
E premixed,MI = Calorific Value hydrogen ×ṁ hydrogen,MI ,kW share and decrease the NOx emission drastically due to occurrence of
(12)
low temperature combustion.
Increasing the premixed charge quantity either by additional fuel
like hydrogen (diesel-hydrogen) or increasing mixture preparation time 7.3. Compression ratio (CR) reduction
by injecting some portion of diesel fuel during suction stroke (some
diesel portion by auxiliary injection and remaining portion by main A very few studies on influence of compression ratio on hydrogen
injection) would lead to PHCCI mode. Some studies on the simulta- energy share improvement in diesel-hydrogen dual-fuel engines are
neous utilization of two different fuels under dual-fuel PHCCI opera- available. For example, Masood et al. reported an increment in the
tion were reported in the literature. Utilization of gaseous fuels amount of hydrogen substitution from 0.096 kg/h with 24.5:1 com-
including natural gas and hydrogen along with diesel under dual-fuel pression ratio to 0.138 kg/h with 16.35:1 compression ratio in a
mode would enhance the premixed charge energy significantly. Under hydrogen fuelled dual-fuel engine [19]. Similarly, Chintala and
488
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489
V. Chintala, K.A. Subramanian Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70 (2017) 472–491
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