6.1.

Taxonomy - introduction
What is Taxonomy?
Taxonomy is the study of classification of organisms.
There are still many organisms that haven’t yet been
discovered. About 8.7 million species of living
organisms have been discovered and is still living on
earth.
Taxonomy plays an important role as important as
other branches in biology. The study of taxonomy has
lead scientists to many possibilities. It relates
organisms to organisms, grouping, organizing,
studying their features and origins. The main job of a
taxonomist is to specifically classify organisms into
respective groups which relate them to other
members.

Binomial nomenclature
Carl Linnaeus (1707-) was a swedish botanist.
During his time of work, the nomenclature of
organisms were not as systemic and is difficult for
many scientists to understand and use. For example,
the scientific name for tomato plant in his age was
Solanum caule inerme herbaceo foliis pinnatis Figure 6.1.1. A photograph of Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778)
incisis racemis simplicibus. Organisms were
classified based on analogous and homoplastic traits
which are structures with similar structures
independent of different origins. This would make a
bird more related to butterfly than reptiles because
both of them fly.
Later when he became professor in Uppsala
university, he studied about plants and other
organisms in his place. The method he used to study
organisms for classification was morphology, the
study of physical structures of organisms. He also
based on the fact of homologous traits such as
reproduction. He catalogued 7,700 plants and 4,400
animals.
He also introduced “Binomial nomenclature” or two
word naming system which is still used today. Every
organism has a two word Latin name which is used
to decode the scientific name of organisms. The first
represents the genus (written with first capital letter)
and the second represents the species (written all in
small letters). For example, the scientific name for
modern human is Homo sapiens.
One species of dog, familiaris and some wolves
species called lupis belongs to the same genus Canis.
The scientific name of the dog is Canis familiaris and
that of the wolf is Canis lupis.

Figure 6.1.2. A dog (Canis familiaris) and a wolf (Canis lupis)

are similar in many ways and is obvious just by the physical
appearance. They belong to the same genus Canis. Both of
them do belong to many groups at different hierarchy (see
the next chapter).
6.2. Taxonomy - an important science
Hierarchy of Classification
The Linnaeus system of classification is based on the
following groups: kingdom, phylum, class, order,
family, genus and species.
A wolf, Canis lupis, belongs to its species lupis and
the genus Canis which include dogs and jackals. All
of them belong to the same family Canidae which
include foxes. The family Canidae and the family
Felidae belong to the same order Carniovora as well
as bears. These are animals which eat meat. All these
animals together with other animals that secrete
milk, have fur and give birth to youngs belong to the
class Mammalia which are mammals. Mammals
belong to the phylum Chordata those with
backbones together with birds, fish, reptiles and
amphibians. All of them as well as invertebrates
belong to the kigndom Animalia. Figure 6.2.1. Levels of classification of human

Was it alright?
Linnaeus system was used for many centuries until
when things began to complicate. Back in his time,
there were only two kingdoms, Animalia and
Plantae. The microscopic organisms such as
protozoa are classified as animals due to lack of
ability to produce own food through photosynthesis.
Algae and fungi were classified as plants. When
bacteria were discovered, scientists had trouble
classifying them because they do not have true
cellular structures. And scientists began to see
similarities of protozoa and algae. To solve the
problem, scientists created a five-kingdom system
which include Monera; bacteria, Protoctista; algae
and protozoa, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
This still does not fit perfectly yet since a new group
of primitive bacteria now known as Archaea were
discovered. Scientists tried many ways and methods Figure 6.2.2. Levels of classification of wolves
and finally come to this system. A three domain
system which include Bacteria, Arachaea and
Eukaryata. Eukarayata includes all the eukaryotes.

Link with evolution

Taxonomy of nowadays begins to have a link with
evolution which is the study of changes of organisms
from a certain point over long period of time. By
using the phylogenetic tree which is a representatives
of all organism groups discovered showing the
relations and origins of each groups, we can study
their ancestors and even the beginning of life. Birds
are related reptiles and so on. Scientists thought that
life begun underwater as unicellular protists. They Figure 6.2.3. Phylogenetic tree of life
later evolved and some adapted on land. Some died
off and are extinct nowadays. New species have
been discovered everyday.
6.3. Viruses
Characteristics
• Viruses are strange materials which is a living
as well as a non-living thing.
• They do not have a cell structure.
• They do not have their own metabolism.
• They require a host to reproduce.

Types Figure 6.3.1. Structure of Bacteriophage

Viruses can be simply classified as animal virus,
plant virus and bacteriophage. Animal viruses live in
animal cells. Plant viruses live in plant cells.
Bacteriophage attacks bacterial cells.

Bacteriophage (Structure)
• Bacteriophage consists of a diamond shaped
head, a long slender shaft or body and spider- Figure 6.3.2. A. Landing B. Contact C. Release of DNA
like legs.
• Within the head, is the viral RNA or DNA that
contains informations for synthesis of proteins.

Bacteriophage (Reproduction)
There are two types of reproduction.
1) The lytic system
• The bacteriophage lands on a bacterial cell
(host) with its legs and anchors itself on the
cell membrane.
• Then the body lowers and contacts with the
membrane and pierces it.
• The phage releases its DNA into the cell.
• The enzymes and proteins within the cell mis-
read the viral DNA with its own producing
new viral proteins.
• The viral proteins are assembled.
• The cell bursted, the host dies and new phages Figure 6.3.3. Lytic cycle
are produced.
2) The lysogenic system
• After the viral DNA have entered the cell, it
binds to the host’s DNA and becomes part of
it.
• When the bacterial cell divides, the viral DNA
is copied with it. This occurs many times.
• When the condition is right, it enters lytic
system and new phages are produced.

Uses of viruses
• Nowadays, viruses become extensively
important in research and biotechnological
studies.
• Since viruses can manipulate a cell functions,
they are used to study cell functions. Figure 6.3.4. Lysogenic cycle
• They are used as vectors for carrying important
genetic materials.
 6.4. Bacteria - Part 1
Characteristics
• Bacteria belongs to the Kingdom Monera of
the domain Prokaryota.
• All bacteria are unicellular prokaryotes.
• They are the most abundant organism.
• They are much larger than viruses.
• Bacteria consists of a cellular structure but Figure 6.4.1. Cocci Figure 6.4.2. Bacilli
differs from Eukaryotic cells.
• They are encased in a porous but rigid cell
wall.
• They live in many places, land, sea, etc.
• Some bacteria are parasitic while most being
free-living types.

Types A B C

Depending on the shape, there are

• Coccus : These are round or spherical bacteria.
- Diplococcus: a pair of coccus
- Streptococcus: a chain of coccus
- Staphylococcus: a bunch of coccus
D E
arranged irregularly like a grape
• Bacillus : These are rod-shaped bacteria. Figure 6.4.3. A. Diplococci B. Staphylococcus
- M o n o t r i ch o u s : b a c i l l u s w i t h a C. Streptococcus D.Vibrio E. Spirilla
flagellum at one end
- Amphitrichous: bacillus with a
flagellum at both ends
- Lophotrichous: bacillus with tufts of
flagella at both ends
- Peritrichous: bacillus
• Spirilla : These are spiral-shaped bacteria.
• Vibrio : These are comma shaped bacteria.

Bacterial cell (Prokaryotic cell)

A bacterial cell or prokaryotic cell have many
common features as eukaryotic cells. The cell is
bounded by a plasma membrane, a cell wall and an Figure 6.4.4. Flagellated bacillus
extra layer of capsule of protein-carbohydrate
mixture called peptidoglycan. The outermost layer is
also called the slime layer. This layer prevents the
bacteria from being phagocytosed and help in
survival. Constituent of this layer varies from bacteria
to bacteria.
Many bacteria have a flagellum for movement. The
cell membrane always have special structures called
pilli which attaches the bacteria to its host surface.
A bacterium does not have a true nucleus and hence
prokaryotes (pro = before, karyotes = nucleus). But
they do have DNA in double circular shape called
plasmids (bits of DNA). There may be a nucleus like
region where the chromatins are condensed. This
region is called the nucleoid region.
There are plenty of ribosomes and food vacuole in
the cytoplasm. Figure 6.4.5. Bacterial cell structure
6.5. Bacteria - Part 2
Reproduction
• Fission
Most bacteria divide by binary fission. The
chromosome and sometimes all or part of
plasmids replicate before the cell divides.
There is internal reorganization or material
during which the two DNA molecules migrate
to opposite ends of the cell. Then at
approximately the middle of the cell, a
constriction appears, a transverse wall is
formed and the cell divides into two. Finally,
the two daughter cells separate and enlarge to
their original size. Under ideal condition, a
bacterium may divide once every 20 minutes.
• Spore formation
Under certain environmental conditions,
cytoplasm becomes aggregated into a
spherical or oval spore. Normally, only one Figure 6.5.1. Binary fission
spore forms near the center or towards one
end. A new cell wall is formed around it. This
wall may consist of one or two layers and is
highly resistant to unfavorable conditions such
as high temperatures, freezing and extreme
dryness.
Spore may remain alive for many years
under conditions unfavorable to growth. The
bacterial spore may germinate by rupture in
the parental cell wall. The cell emerges
through spore membrane and grows into a
new bacterium. In some bacteria, the spore
swells, the membrane is absorbed and the
spore grows to form a new vegetative cell. The
daughter cell may divide by fission.
Figure 6.5.2. Reproduction by spore formation
Uses of bacteria
• Dead organisms, litters and manure are
decomposed into simple materials for the
plants to use.
• Bacteria are used for commercial and
economic important such as making yogurt,
butter and cheese, wineries, biogas fuels.
• Bacteria are widely used in genetic
engineering for production of human
antibodies for vaccines, chemicals such as
hormones.
• Intestinal bacteria of human can be both useful
as in providing vitamin K and harmful in using
body’s vitamin C resulting in vitamin C
deficiency.
Disadvantages of bacteria
• Bacteria can decompose and spoil the food.
• They can cause souring of milk, wine and Figure 6.5.3. Genetic engineering
damaging oil lubricating engines.
• They can cause diseases in man.
6.6. Algae
Characteristics
• Algae belong to phyllum Thallydophyta of
kingdom Protoctista of the domain Eukaryota.
• Mostly unicellular or exists as groups of similar
cells.
• They have plant cell-like characteristics
(cellulose in cell wall and chloroplasts).

Chlorella (Green Algae) Figure 6.6.1. Chlorella

Morphology
• It is a fresh water single celled green algae. It is
spherical in shape with nucleus without
flagellum. It contains green photosynthetic
pigments chlorophyll in its cup-shaped
chloroplast. Single pyrenoid (a collection of
starch grain) is embedded in the chloroplast.
Through photosynthesis, it reproduces.
Uses
• It is thought to boost immune system and help
fight infections.

Spirulina (Blue Green Algae)

Morphology
• It is a blue green algae which grows in alkaline
water. It is multicellular filamentous blue green
bacterium (cyanobacterium). The filaments are
Figure 6.6.2. Diatoms
unbranched and consists of cylindrical cells or
segments. The filaments are motile.
Uses
• It is highly nutritious actually a total food for
human and a pure natural food without
chemical or synthetic supplement and free A
from pathogenic microorganisms.

Diatoms (Golden brown algae)

Morphology
• Most are unicellular while others in colonies.
Generally, marine forms are circular in shape
and fresh water forms are oblong elongated, B
rectangular or wedge-shaped. The cell wall is
made up of silica and called frustule. It
consists of two halves on overlapping another.
The outer half is called epitheca and the inner
the hypotheca. Healthy diatoms are golden
brown because of rich fucoxanthin pigments.
Uses
• When diatoms die, the cell wall collect huge C
deposits of silica known as diatomaceous
earth which makes an excellent filtering agent
and coloring removing materials.
• It absorbs sound and hence used in sound
proofing. Figure 6.6.3. Microscopic views of A. Chlorella B. Spirulina
C. Diatoms
• Manufacture of paints, toothpaste and plastics.
6.7. Fungi - Unicellular
Characteristics
• Fungi belong to the Kingdom Fungi of the
domain Eukaryata.
• They have similarities with plants but none of
them is able to photosynthesize because of
lack of chlorophyll.
• They are all heterotrophs, obtaining energy
and carbon from dead and decaying matter or
by feeding as parasites on living organisms.
• They may be either simple unicellular or with
long thread like fibers called hyphae or large
multicellular such as mushrooms.
• The cell wall is made of chitin not cellulose.
• They do not possess cilia or flagellum.

Yeast Figure 6.7.1. Diagrammatic structure of yeast

Morphology
• It is a single spherical or oval or slightly
elongated cell.
• It has a thin cell wall which is made up of
chitin and the protoplasmic mass.
• The protoplasmic mass is composed of
cytoplasm and single nucleus.
• The nucleus contains large vacuole, nuclear
reticulum and a nucleolus.
• A centrosome lies on either side of the
nucleus.
• Granules of glycogen, protein, volutin, oil
globules and mitochondria are embedded in
the cytoplasmic mass.
• They reproduce by budding, fission or
sexually.
Uses Figure 6.7.2. Budding of yeast
• Yeast ferment various sugars. The process of
fermentation results in production of carbon
dioxide and alcohol. The formed carbon
dioxide is responsible for rising of the dough
and for the porous texture of the resulting
bread or loaf.
• Yeast is also used in production of alcohol and
in wine making.
• Yeast is an important source of vitamin B.

Figure 6.7.3. Budding

Figure 6.7.4. Microscopic view of yeast

6.8. Fungi - Multicellular
Penicillium
Morphology
• Most species are saprophytic growing in
bread, vegetables, citrus fruits and leather.
• It consists of a mass of hyphae forming a
mycelial mat on the surface of the substratum.
The mycelial hyphae are multi-nucleated and
separate. The hyphae branch freely and every
cell of the hypha contains usually a single
nucleus, cytoplasm and food particle, oil
globules may also be present in the cell as
reserve food. The upright hyphae are more or
less branched and are termed as the
conidiophores. Each branch of conidiophores
bears a whorl or cluster of shorter branches Figure 6.8.1. Diagramatic structure of Aspergillus and
called sterigmata. At the tip of each sterigma, Penicillium
one or a row of conidia are produced.
Reproduction
• Reproduction takes place asexually or
sexually.
• The nucleus divides mitotically. One of the
two nuclei migrates to the top of the sterigma.
A constriction appears below the upper
nucleus. The constriction continues until the
cell (conidium) is cut off of the sterigma. The
sterigma nuclues divides again and prepares to
produce a second conidium. In this way a row
of conidia are formed at the tip of the sterigma.
The topmost conidium is the oldest and the
one next to the sterigma the youngest. The
conidia are distributed by air and they
germinate on suitable food material. The
conidial wall bursts open and a hypha grows
out of it. This hypha grows to form the
mycelium.

Aspergillus Figure 6.8.2. Microscopic view of Penicillium

Morphology
• Most species are saprophytic but a few are
parasitic. It grows on damp fruits, butter, ghee,
starchy materials and wood. The somatic body
is a profusely branched mycelium. Mycelium
consists of branched, septate and
multinucleate hyphae. Each hyphal cell
contains several granules and vacuolated
cytoplasm, nuclei and oil globules. An
unbranched conidiophore arises from the foot
plate (thick walled hyphal cell). The
conidiophore is enlarged at the tip,forming a
swollen vesicle. Each vesicle is covered with
flask-shaped sterigmata or phialides. The
sterigmata produces chain of conidia.
Reproduction Figure 6.8.3. Microscopic view of Aspergillus
• The mechanism of asexual reproduction is the
same as that of Penicillium. They can
reproduce vegetatively and sexually as well.
6.9. Protozoa - introduction
Characteristics
• Protozoans belong to the phylum Protozoan of
the Kingdom Protoctista of the domain
Eukaryota.
• They are usually microscopic unicellular
organisms with similar animal like cells.
• Locomotion is possible by flagella, cilia,
pseudopodia or the whole cell itself.
• Some species have protective coverings while
others produce resistant cysts or spores. Figure 6.9.1. Diagram of Amoeba proteus
• They may be free living or parasitic.
• Nutrition is by subsisting on other organisms or
dissolved substances (parasitic) or on dead
organic matter (saprophytic) or by producing
food by photosynthesis as in plants.
• Asexual reproduction by fission or budding
and sexual by fusion of gametes or
conjugation.

Types
There are 4 classes of Protozoa. Figure 6.9.2. Diagram of Euglena viridis
• Sarcodina e.g. Amoeba proteus
• Mastigophora e.g. Euglena viridis
• Sporozoa e.g. Monocystis lumbrici
• Ciliata e.g. Paramecium caudate

Sarcodina e.g. Amoeba proteus

• Protozoa that move by means of false feet
called pseudopodia.
• They are regarded as the lowest form among
animals.
• They live in many different habitats, some
being parasitic to animals including men.
Figure 6.9.3. Diagram of Monocystis lumbrici
Mastigophora e.g. Euglena viridis
• Protozoa that move by means of whip like
processes called flagella.
• They are common in fresh water ponds.

Sporozoa e.g. Monocystis lumbrici

• Protozoa without motile organelles but with a
spore stage in their life cycle.
• Mostly parasitic form.

Ciliata e.g. Paramecium caudatum

• Protozoa that move by means of cilia.
• They are relatively larger and more complex
than other protozoan.
• They can be found in pond weeds.
• Most are free-living, some parasitic. Figure 6.9.4. Diagram of Paramecium caudatum
6.10. Protozoa - Amoeba proteus
Morphology
It is irregular in shape. There are types of cytoplasm:
inner endoplasm and outer ectoplasm. Near the
nucleus is the contractile vacuole. It is carried to the
surface at intervals where it contracts and pushes
fluid contents out of the body. Another type of
vacuole is called food vacuole which contains food
of digested product.

Movement
Movement occurs by pseudopodia which appear at
any point on the surface. The formation is not yet
Figure 6.10.1 Amoeba proteus seen under microscpe
well explained. When pseudopodia is formed, some
endoplasm flows into it and then it enlarges. The
body left behind shrinks posterior to pseudopodia
and then disappears. The Amoeba has moved.

Nutrition
It feeds on minute animals and plants. Food is
engulfed at any point on the surface. First the contact
food is enclosed by pseudopodia formed. Then the
food is drawn into the cell. This is known as
phagocytosis. The food is now within a food vacuole.

Reproduction
Amoeba reproduces asexually by binary fission, the
process in which the parent Amoeba divides into two
daughter Amoebas. The nucleus divides by mitosis.
When the Amoeba is cut in half on purpose, the half
with nucleus continues to live while the other half
dies.

Pathogen
Entamoeba histolytica is the cause of amoebiasis, or
amoebic dysentery. Naegleria fowleri (the "brain-
eating amoeba") is a fresh-water-native species that
can be fatal to humans if introduced through the
nose.

Figure 6.10.3. Movement of Amoeba proteus

Figure 6.10.2. Drawing of Amoeba proteus

6.11. Protozoa - Paramecium caudatum
Morphology
Paramecium caudatum ranges from about 0.15 to
0.3 mm. It consists of blunt anterior and pointed
posterior ends. There is a small depressed groove
backwards from anterior end called oral groove. The
cell mouth or cytostome exists at the end of oral
groove. It opens into short tube, cell gullet or
cytopharynx which passes posteriorly. Fine hair-like
cilia are arranged over the cell surface. One large
contractile vacuole and many variable food vacuoles
may be seen in the endoplasm. Two distinct nuclei
are present. Macronucleus is for vegetative function
and micronucleus is for reproduction. A cell anus is
situated posterior to the oral groove and can only be
seen during egestion.

Movement
Fine hair-like structures called cilia cover the body.
Effective stokes of all cilia force the whole protozoan
forward and backward. Since they beat obliquely,
results in a spiral movement. Figure 6.11.1. Drawing of Paramecium caudatum

Nutrition
They cannot synthesize their own food like euglenas.
Bacteria, yeasts, small protozoans and algae are
captured due to driving of the current of water
produced by beating of cilia in oral groove. The food
is swept into the cytostome and into the gullet. The
food is gathered in the food vacuole. It is released
when it reaches its certain size. It travels in the
cytoplasm in definite route, first posteriorly then
forward and aborally and finally posteriorly to near
the oral groove. During the course, digestion occurs.
The digested food is either stored or used for a vital
activity. The remain is egested.

Reproduction
Reproduction is by binary fission and often by Figure 6.11.2. Conjugation of Amoeba proteus
conjugation. In conjugation method, two paramecia
fuse and series of division, degeneration and
regeneration of macro and micronuclei occurs. The
end result is four daughters paramecia.

Figure 6.11.3. Microscopic view of Paramecium

caudatum
6.12. Protozoa - Trypanosoma gambiense
Morphology
• It belongs to the class mastigophora of the
phylum protozoa.
• It is tapered at both ends.
• It is uniflagellate which means it possess single
flagellum for movement
• It is a parasitic form of protozoan.

Life cycle
• It requires two hosts, primary vertebrate and
secondary invertebrate or vector.
• The vertebrate is man and invertebrate is blood
suckling fly (tsetse fly).
• [Understand figure 6.12.2 for life cycle]

Pathogen
• It causes African sleeping sickness or Chagas’ Figure 6.12.1. Drawing of Trypanosoma gambiense
disease.
• I t s s y m p t o m s i n c l u d e f e ve r, a n x i e t y,
uncontrolled sleepiness, swollen and red
nodule at the site of insect bite and swollen
lymph nodes.

Figure 6.12.1. Life cycle of Trypanosoma

 6.13. The plant kingdom
Characteristics of Plants
• Plants belong to the kingdom Plantae of
domain Eukaryota.
• They are all multicellular photosynthetic
organism.
• A few species being not able to photosynthe-
size and are parasitic.
• Cell walls made up of cellulose.
• They are autotrophs which mean they can
produce their own food.
• Body structure varies from simple without any
organization to large complex with organs.
• Reproduction is either sexual or asexual or
both.

Classifications
There mainly two types of plants distinguished upon
vascularization. They are
(a) Non-vascular plants
• These are plants with no generalized
structure such as stem, root and leaf.
• There is no vascular tissues for transport and
is not necessary. Transportation occurs via
diffusion.
• These include phylum bryophytes such as
moss, liverworts and hornworts.
(b) Vascular plants
• These are plants with much more complex
structures but some still do not possess
higher features such as true root.
• There is a vascularized transport system.

Depending on production of flowers and fruits,

vascular plants are further classified as
(a) Non-flowering plants
• These include (1) seedless vascular plants such
as phylum pteridophytes for example ferns
and (2) naked seed bearing non-flowering
plants such as phylum gymnosperms for
example pine.
(b) Flowering plants
• These include protected seed bearing
flowering plants such as phylum angiosperms
for example sunflower.
Figure 6.13.1. Classification of plants
Flowering plants can be classified in many ways.
(a) According to mode of nutrition, there are
a u t o p hy t e s , p a ra s i t e s , e p i p hy t e s a n d
carniovorous plants.
(b) According to habitat, there are xerophytes (grow
in dry places), hydrophytes (in wet places) and
mesophytes (in intermediate condition).
(c) According to life span, there are annuals (those
grow within one growing season), biennials
(those grow within two seasons) and perennials
(those live for many years).
6.14. Bryophyte - introduction
Characteristics
• Bryophytes are primitive land plants belong to
the kingdom Plantae of the domain Eukaryota.
• Most of them grow on damp rocks and shaded
soil.
• Bryophytes begin to possess stem, leaves and
root or similar structures.
• Their life cycles are dominated by the (A)
gametophyte stage.
• Their sporophytes are unbranched.
• They do not have a true vascular tissue
containing lignin (although some have
specialized tissues for the transport of water).

Types
• Liverworts or Marchantiophyta usually consist
(B)
of leaf-like green thallus and root-like rhizoid
without a stem. Liverworts are typically small
ranging from 2-20mm. Certain species may
cover large patches of ground, rock and tree.
• Mosses grow in as dense green clump of mat
on damp or shady places. They are generally
larger than liverworts ranging from 0.2-10cm.
They possess simple leaves which are only one
cell thick and stem.
• Hornworts grow in many places such as damp
and humid places and even bark of a tree.
(C)
Reproduction
Figure 6.14.1. Three types of Bryophytes (A) Moss
• The life cycle shows two distinct phases. (B) Liverwort (C) Hornwort
• One of them is the leaf or thallus which
reproduces sexually and based on this nature,
bryophytes are gametophytes which mean they
produce gametes.
• The zygote formed by fusion of gametes does
not give rise to gametophyte but forms a
sporogium which produces spore. Hence, it is
also a sporophyte.
• The spore on germination grows into a
gametophyte.
• The two generations regulate alternately with
each other in a single life cycle. This is called
alteration of generations.
• In bryophytes, the gametophyte is the
conspicuous and independent generation
while the sporophyte is dependent on
gametophyte.
• Some members can reproduce vegetatively
due to the presence of gemme cup which Figure 6.14.2. General concept of alteration of
develops into a gametophyte. generation in bryophytes [n= number of set of
chromosomes present]
6.15. Bryophytes - Riccia
Gametophyte
• Riccia possesses flattened branched structure
called thallus which divides dichotomously
with no distinct features between stem and
leaf.
• Root like structures called rhizoid grows from
lower surface to anchor the plant and to take
up nutrients.
• The thallus is thickest in the middle and
becomes thinner towards the margin. The mid-
portion is called midrib.
• Sexual parts of Riccia is contained in
inconspicuous structures known as antheridia
(male) and archegonia (female) which are
borne on stalks antheridiophores (male) and
archegoniophores (female).
• These develop on separate plants.
• Fertilization takes place when sperm meets the
egg resulting in zygote which begins the
sporophyte generation.

Sporophyte
• A mature sporophyte consists of a spherical
capsule which is embedded in the thallus.
• The capsule contains numerous tiny spores.
• These spores are released when the capsule Figure 6.151. Single thallus of (a) male and (b) female Riccia
dies and dispersed by wind.
• Under favorable conditions, they germinates
into new gametophytes.

Figure 6.15.2. Life cycle of Riccia showing alteration of generation

6.16. Bryophytes - Funeria
Gametophyte
• Funeria has a small body consisting of short
branched or unbranched stem.
• Small green leaves are borne spirally on stem.
• Rhizoids arise from the base of the stem and
serve to anchor and absorb nutrients.

Sporophyte
• The sporophyte consists of the foot, seta and
capsule.
• The conical basal portion is the foot which is
embedded in the apex of gametophyte and
absorbs food from it.
• Slender extension from the foot is the stalk or
seta which conduct water and food from foot
to capsule.
• Capsule is situated at the top of the plant and
is a highly complex structure with solid central
portion called columella, spore sac, capsule
wall and a lid.
• The spore sac contains tiny spores.
• The lid opens, the spores are released and Figure 6.16.1. Structure of Funeria
dispersed by wind.
• Under favorable conditions, the spores give
rise to protonema and later gametophytes.

Figure 6.16.2. Life cycle of Funeria showing alteration of generation

6.17. Pteridophytes - introduction
Characteristics
• Pteridophytes belong to the kingdom Plantae
of the domain Eukaryota.
• They are restricted to damp places though can
survive drier conditions than bryophytes.
• It consists of vascular system.
• Ferns range from small clubmosses to large
tree ferns which can be 9 feet tall.
• A fern consists of a central rhizome (horizontal
underground stem) and many leaves or fronds
which can grow to about 6 feet in length.
• A frond or leaf consists of a single central stalk
or rachis with leaflets or pinnae on either side
which makes the frond bilaterally symmetrical.
• The sporophyte generation is independent
unlike bryophytes. Figure 6.17.1. Parts of a fern
• Reproduction is sexual and asexual.

Figure 6.17.2 Diagram of a fern

6.18. Pteridophytes - Adiantum aleuticum
Sporophyte
• It consists of long creeping or short erect
underground stem called rhizome which bears
the leaves.
• Short coiled leaf called circinate vernation arise
from the apex of the rhizome and later grows
into pinnately compound leaf.
• The leaf is called a frond and has a petiole called
rachis.
• Numerous adventitious type of roots grow from
the base of the rhizome.
• It produces spores from sporogonia borned on
under side of the leaflet.
• These sporogonia are called sori and produce
rusty brown power-like spores.
• When the spores are dispersed and germinate Figure 6.18.1. Adiantum aleuticum
under suitable conditions, gametophyte
generation begins.

Gametophyte
• The newly grown gametophyte begins as small,
short, flattened, green and heart-shaped structure
called prothallus.
• The adult plant produces gametes which when
unite form a zygote that grows into adult fern.

Figure 6.18.2. Life cycle of Adiantum showing alteration of generation

6.19. Gymnosperms
Characteristics
• Gymnosperm are naked seeds bearing plants
belonging to the kingdom Plantae of the
domain Eukaryota.
• They possess a vascular system.
• They do not produce flowers.
• The seed is usually protected within a structure
called cone.
• The sporophyte is the dominant form of life.

Reproduction
• Male and female cones are separate structures.
• The female cone tends to be more woody and
covered by ovuliferous scales which protect
the seed.
• The microspore produces male gametes and
megaspore produces female gametes. When
Figure 6.19.1. A female cone
united, form a zygote then an adult plant.
• The cone do not split open but curls open so
the seeds are equipped with wings for
dispersal by wind.

Figure 6.19.2. Life cycle of pine tree

6.20. Angiosperms
Characteristics
• Angiosperms are the most familiar groups of
plants belonging to the kingdom Plantae of
domain Eukaryota.
• They can be found in many places, the sea,
mountain tops, desserts, etc.
• They have true stem, leaves and root structures
and bear flowers.
• They reproduce sexually by flowers and
asexually by vegetative propagation.

Reproduction
• The megaspore mother cell in ovule produces
oogonia.
• The microspore mother cell in anther produces
sperm cell nuclei which are contained in
pollen grain.
• Fertilization occurs on meeting of the gametes
with the result of a diploid zygote which later
becomes a mature plant.
• As usually, there is sporophyte generation
which is the visible plant and is independent.

Figure 6.20.1. Life cycle of an angiosperm

6.21. Some medicinal plants
Gingko bibloba
• It is also known as Maiden hair tree which has
its own division (group) which belongs to
phylum gymnosperm.
• It is found in areas with moderate rainfall and
cold weather.
• It is a perennial dioecious tree with the male
being more slim column like form and slightly
longer while the female has wider crown and
more spread out form.
• Its leaves can be used in dementia, Alzheimer’s
disease, eye disorders, tinnitus and cochlear
deafness, peripheral arterial disease, headache, Figure 6.21.1. Gingko biloba
and as anti-asthmatic agents and platelet
aggregation inhibitors.

Aloe vera
• It is commonly known as Barbados aloes
which belong to phylum angiosperm.
• It grows wild mostly in dry region.
• It is a perennial succulent herb.
• Its leaves can be used in hepatitis and
jaundice, renal diseases, burns, wounds, cuts,
localized edema, alopecia and falling hair, eye
sores and as purgative.
Figure 6.21.2. Cut leaves of Aloe vera
Curcuma longa
• It is commonly known as turmeric which
belong to the phylum angiosperm.
• It grows wildly in southern Asia where the
climate is slightly warm.
• It is a perennial and rhizomatous herb.
• Its rhizome can be used for dysentery,
dyspepsia, Alzheimer’s disease, cancer, insect
bites and as choleretic, antiseptic, antiflatulent,
antipruritic and antiflammatory agent.
Figure 6.21.3. Crash powders of turmeric
Morinda citrifolia
• It is commonly known as morinda or Noni
fruit and belongs to phylum angiosperm.
• It grows in warm and humid regions.
• It is a perennial small tree.
• Its leaves as well as fruits can be used in
retardation of tumour growth, lung cancer,
spongy gum, throat complaints, alleviate
menstrual cramps, diabetes, gastric ulcer,
hypertension, migraine headaches and
Alzheimer’s disease.
Figure 6.21.4. Leaf and fruits of noni fruit
6.22. The animal kingdom
Characteristics of animals
• Animals belong to the kingdom Animalia of
the domain Eukaryota.
• They are all multicellular organs with different
types of specialized cells.
• Cells do not have cell wall.
• Vacuole in cells are temporary and small.
• Locomotion is obvious in many phyla.
• They are heterotrophs and can be free-living or
as parasite.
• Body structure varies from simple to large and
complex.
• Reproduction can be either sexual or asexual
or both.

Classification
Animals are classified into their respective phyla as
follows.
A. Simple animals
(a) Phylum - Porifera
This include sponges.
(b) Phylum - Coelenterata
This include hydra, jelly-fish, etc.
B. Worms
(c) Phylum - Platyhelminthes
This include flat worms, tape worms, etc.
(d) Phylum - Nematoda
This include round worms, hook worms, pin
worms, etc.
(e) Phylum - Annelida
This include earth worms, etc.
C. Complex animals
(f) Phylum - Mollusca
This include snail, slug, octopus, etc.
(g) Phylum - Arthropoda
This include
1. Class - Insecta e.g. ant, fly, etc.
2. Class - Arachnida e.g. spiders, etc.
3. Class - Crustacea e.g. lobsters, crabs, etc.
4. Class - Myriapoda e.g. centipedes, etc.
(h) Phylum - Echinodermata
This include sea star, sea urchins, etc.
(i) Phylum - Hemichordata
(j) The only species are the acorn worms.
(k) Phylum - Chordata Figure 6.22.1. Classification of animals
This include
1. Class - Pisces (fish)
2. Class - Amphibia (amphibian)
3. Class - Reptilia (reptile)
4. Class - Aves (birds)
5. Class - Mammalia (mammals)
6.23. Porifera
Porifera or sponges are the most primitive forms of
invertebrates. They look like plants in many ways
and the most obvious one is the inability for them to
move from one to another but grow attached to a
firm substrates usually rocks. They are the most
simple form of animals with least organization of
body structure.

Morphology
• The outer surface of a sponge is covered by
many small flat cells called pinacocytes.
• Porocytes, cells with pores, are found
scattered throughout the body which allow
water into the body. Figure 6.23.1. A sponge (Leucosolenia)
• The hollow body is supported by a soft
network of fibers ,spongin and protected by
hard particles called spicules.
• The central cavity called spongocoel is
separated from the outer surface by gelatinous
space called mesohyal.
• Choanocytes, cells with cilia, force water
through the spongocoel thus bringing in food
and removing wastes.
• Water leaves the body through a large pore at
the top called osculum.
• Amebocytes bring the food to other parts of
the body.

Reproduction Figure 6.23.2. External features of a sponge

• Reproduction by sexual and asexual means.

• In asexual reproduction, the bud arises from
any point of the body and breaks off from the
parental animal which then exist as separate
animal.
• In sexual reproduction, gametes lie in jelly-like
layer called mesoglea in the body wall.
• The animal is hermaphroditic that is both eggs
and sperms occur in single individual.
• If an individual sponge is cut into pieces, they
grow into normal separate animals due to the
process of regeneration.

Figure 6.23.3. Structure of a sponge shown L.S

6.24. Cnidaria
Cnidaria or coelenterata are much more complex
than sponges in that they have well-developed tissue
level of organization and are diploblastic (develops
from embryo with two germ layers). Cnidaria are
radially symmetrical. The phylum include:
(1) Class - Hydrozoa e.g. hydra and colonial polyps
(2) Class - Scyphozoa e.g. jellyfish
(3) Class - Anthozoa e.g. sea anemone and corals

Hydrozoa e.g. hydra

• Hydra are found commonly in fresh water
ponds and streams.
• Their bodies are tube-like hollow structure.
• The tentacles are free motile extending out
from top of the body catching and bringing
food into the mouth which is surrounded by
tentacles.
• The part attached to the substrate is the foot or
basal disc which secretes sticky substance for
anchorage and also act as locomotor organ.
• Reproduction is both sexual (separate male
and female animals or hermaphrodites) and Figure 6.24.1. Structure of hydra
asexual (budding).

Scyphozoa e.g. jellyfish

• Jellyfish are mostly free-swimming marine
forms with umbrella shaped bell and tentacles.
• A few species are immovable being attached
to rocks.
• The bell is a hollow structure filled with jelly-
like substance, mesoglea which consists of
amebocytes.
• Outside the bell is the manubrium which is a
stalk with opening for mouth as well as anus.
• Tentacles are borne on the margins of the bell.
• Nematocyst, stinging cells are usually present
on the tentacles. Figure 6.24.2. Structure of a typical jellyfish
• Reproduction is mainly sexual consisting of
medusa stage in its life cycle and asexual.

Anthozoa e.g. sea anemone

• A typical sea anemone is a single polyp which
is attached at the base to the surface by basal
disc.
• The trunk is more or less cylindrical.
• The oral disc bears the central mouth
surrounded by short tentacles.
• The tentacles are usually pitted by pores or not
pitted at all.
• Cnidocytes, cells with stinging nematocysts
and other defensive functions are found on the Figure 6.24.3. Sea anemone
tentacles.
• Reproduction is sexual without medusa stage
and asexual by fission, budding and
fragmentation.
 6.25. Platyhelminthes - introduction
Characteristics
• Platyhelminthes both free-living in fresh or salt
water and parasitic.
• They bilaterally symmetrical and are more
advanced than cnidarians.
• They possess three germ layers (triploblastic).
• They are the first phylum to possess the organ
system level of organization with distinct
nervous system.
• They are acoelomate which means they do not
have a body cavity since they are flattened
dorsoventrally.
• The mouth and anus are united (incomplete
digestive tract).
• Reproduction is either asexual or sexual being
hermaphrodites.

Types
The phylum include:
(1) Class - Turbellaria e.g. planarian (free living)
(2) Class - Trematoda e.g. liver flukes (parasitic)
(3) Class - Cestoda e.g. tapeworms (parasitic)

Turbellaria e.g. Planarian

Figure 6.25.1. Structure of planarian, on the left,
• Planarians are the most common fresh water nervous and digestive systems are shown, on the
flat worms. right, excretory and reproductive systems are
• The body is flat dorsoventrally which allows shown
easy exchange of materials with the
environment by diffusion.
• A pair of eyes is at the anterior end of ventral
surface.
• The mouth is not present on the head but near
the middle of ventral surface.
• There is no circulatory and respiratory systems
developed.
• The digestive system is well-developed and
reaches into body at majority since substances
need to be taken in and out efficiently.
• The mouth also acts as anus taking in food
while removing wastes at the same time.
• The excretory system consists of a complex
network of small tubes on each side.
• The nervous system is well-developed with
inverted V-shaped brain and two longitudinal
nerve cords on each side connected by many
transverse nerve fibers.
• Reproduction is asexual by fission.
• Regeneration occurs if the individual is cut
into pieces.
• It is hermaphroditic though self-fertilization
does not occur.
Figure 6.25.2. Regeneration in planarian
• Development is direct without larval stage.
6.26. Platyhelminthes - Taenia solium
Morphology
• The body is covered with cuticle beneath
which is a layer of epidermis.
• The head or scolex bears four suckers and a
circle of hooks on crown like portion called
rostellum.
• The body consists of many pieces (as many as
1000) of proglottids.
• The proglottids become wider and more
mature as they are pushed in the direction
away from the head.
• Male reproductive organs are produced first
then female organs. There is a region of
hermaphroditic proglottids.
• Beyond that, there is no reproductive organs
but the mature proglottids filled with zygotes.

Life cycle
• Taenia solium or pork tapeworm is an obligate
parasite which means it dies if lack of a host.
• It is an endoparasite because it lives inside its
host, primary host being man and secondary Figure 6.26.1. Structure of Taenia solium
host pig.
• It attaches to the internal intestinal lining of
man by its head.
• The mature proglottids fall off into the
intestinal cavity and pass out with feces.
• The hexacanth larva (developed zygote) are
released from the proglottids once on the soil.
• Pig ingests the larva through its meal, the larva
attaches to its stomach wall then into blood
stream and changes into cyst form in muscle.
• When the human consumes pork, the cyst is
digested releasing the contained immature
worm which develops into an adult worm.

A cysticeri forms

Human infected by eating raw or

uncooked infected pork

The larva circulates to muscle of pig

The pig ingests the larva and becomes infected

The proglottid with zygote

Figure 6.26.2. Life cycle of Taenia solium

6.27. Platyhelminthes - Fasciola hepatica
Morphology
• The mouth of Fasciola hepatica (hepatic =liver)
or liver fluke lies in middle of the oral sucker.
• The ventral sucker serves for attachment.
• Between the mouth and ventral sucker is the
genital pore through which the egg is passed to
the exterior.
• The digestive system is with mouth, pharynx,
short esophagus and intestine.
• The excretory is with only one tube and one
excretory pore near the extreme posterior end.
• It is hermaphroditic.

Life cycle
• It is an endoparasite with primary host being
the herbivore and secondary host snail (usually
aquatic).
• It lives in the bile ducts of sheep, cows and
many other herbivores and also man.
• The egg in the uterus is released into the bile
duct and eventually out with feces.
• Those which encounter water becomes
miracidia (ciliated larvae).
• They change into sporocysts in about two
weeks containing embryos.
• Each embryo develops into redia (secondary Figure 6.27.1. Structure of Fasciola hepatica
larvae).
• These give rise to third kind of larvae with long
tail called cercaria.
• Cercaria leaves the snail and later become
encysted into metacercaria.
• They are ingested by an herbivore and the cyst
wall is digested releasing the metacercaria.
• Finally, on reaching the bile duct, it stays and
develops into an adult form.

Figure 6.27.2. Life cycle of Fasciola hepatica

6.28 Nematoda - introduction
Characteristics
• Body of Phylum Nematoda is un-segmented,
bilaterally symmetrical, elongated and tapering
at both ends.
• They are triploblastic animals.
• Body of of Phylum Nematoda is generally
covered with thick, flexible multi-layered
collagenous cuticle and often bears cuticular
setae (hairs), spines or annulations.
• Cuticle molts periodically.
• They are pseudocoelomate.
• Alimentary canal provided with distinct mouth
and anus (complete digestive tract).
• Circulatory and respiratory system are absent.
• Nerve cords are present in epidermis.
• Sexes of of Phylum Nematoda are separate
(gonochoristic).
• They are aquatic as well as terrestrial.
• They are free-living or parasitic (mostly).

Round worms
• Ascaris is the largest nematode.
• It is round and tapered at both ends, anterior
end being thinner.
• The mouth opens at anterior end and possess
finely toothed lips, one dorsal and two ventral.
• In male, near the posterior end is the cloacal
opening from which two spinous extensions,
penile spicules continue. The spicules serve as
copulatory organs.
• In female, vulva or genital pore is located
ventrally at about one-third of the length from
anterior end.
• Male is smaller and more slender than female
but the most distinguishable feature is the
sharp and curved tail of male whereas the tail
is straight and blunt in female.
• Its infection causes Ascariasis.
Figure 6.28.1. Round worm, on the right,
Hook worms female Ascaris, on the left, male Ascaris

• Hook worms have a bent head which

resembles a hook.
• Trichinella causes anemia in infected livestock
which causes great economic loss.

Pin worms
• Enterobius although less dangerous irritate
many children because many pinworms infect
intestine and inflame the anus.
• Children often scratch themselves and put
fingers in the mouth unaware of being infected
got reinfected themselves.
• Its infection is known as Enterobiasis.
6.29. Nematoda - Ascaris lumbricoides
[Morphology has been described in Chapter 6.28]

Life cycle
• It passes its life cycle in the host, man.
• The fertilized egg containing the unsegmented
ovum passes out with feces. It is not infective.
• A rhabditiform larva develops from ovum within
a shell in the soil. It is infective to men. Before
hatching, it undergoes molting.
• When ingested, the embryonated egg passes
down to duodenum where its shell is digested
and the larvae are released.
• The larvae do not directly develop into mature
worms but burrow their way into the intestinal
wall. Figure 6.29.1. Fertilized egg of Ascaris
• They are carried by blood to liver where they
stay for a while and then reaching the alveoli
where they molt twice.
• From the lungs, they eventually returns back to
small intestine and molt again.
• The larvae reaching their habitat grow into adult
worms.

Figure 6.29.2. Life cycle of Ascaris lumbricoides

6.30. Annelida - introduction
Characteristics
• Most are marine form but there are fresh-water
and terrestrial forms.
• The body is elongated and segmented both
externally and internally. Segmentation is the
most distinguishable feature.
• Small appendages called setae are found on
the head and on the side of the body.
• The body is covered with thing moist cuticle.
• It is coelomate and the coelom is divided into
compartments by septa.
• The digestive is complete with mouth and anus
at different locations.
• The circulatory and respiratory systems are
well-developed.
• The excretory system is with nephridia.
• The nervous system consists of a pair of
cerebral ganglia or brain with connectives to a
solid ventral nerve cord. Sensory cells are
present.
• Reproduction is only sexual and it is
hermaphroditic. Regeneration is possible.

Polychaeta e.g. clam worm

Figure 6.30.1. General structure of Earthworm
• Most polychaetes are free-living but some are
partly or wholly parasitic.
• Some lives in fresh water while others live in
salty water.

Oligochaeta e.g. earthworm

• Most members are terrestrial. There are some
which inhabit aquatic life with no parapodia
and the head has no distinct appendages.
• They are hermaphroditic with no larval stage.
• The most common member is the earthworm.

Hirudinea e.g. leech

• Most species are marine forms but there are Figure 6.30.1. Structure of Lumbricus terrestris
fresh-water and terrestrial forms.
• Their bodies are flattened dorsoventrally but
differs from flatworms in that their bodies are
segmented distinctly.
• They also differ from other annelids in that
they lack setae.
• Some of the leeches are blood sucking
parasites while others are free living carnivores
that feed on other worms.
• Leeches are medically used by surgeons to
suck out blood in the patients wound to clear
the path of surgery (blood letting) hence the
name Hirudo medicinalis though the
procedure is rare nowadays.
Figure 6.30.3. Hirudo medicinalis
6.31. Annelida - Lumbricus terrestris
Lumbricus terrestris or earthworm belongs to the
phylum Annelida.

Body structure
• Earthworms have segmented body with each
segment bearing the same fundamental
structures.
• Setae, tiny bristles like structures allow the worm
to grip to the surface tightly aiding in movement
as well as grasping onto the soil firmly when the
predators try to pull it out of its burrow.
• Earthworms have no eyes but they do have light
sensitive cells which detect light intensity.
• Earthworms eat by pulling the food towards it by
using prostomium. Figure 6.31.1. External features of an earthworm
showing dorsal view (left), ventral view (right) and
Movement lateral view of head piece (middle top)

• There are two types of muscles involved, circular

muscles and longitudinal muscles.
• When circular muscles contract, longitudinal
muscles relax and the segments elongate.
• When circular muscles relax, longitudinal
muscles contract and the segments shorten.
• At rest, the earthworm is short and fat.
• To move, setae at the back tightly grips the
ground and the circular muscles of the front
segments contract lengthening the worm.
• Then, the front and back segments shorten while
those in middle is left elongated. Figure 6.31.2. Digestive system of an earthworm
• After that, the front and middle segments are
shortened pulling the worm forward.
• The whole body gets shorten again and the steps
repeat.

Reproduction
• Earthworms are hermaphrodites but they cannot
fertilize themselves.

Ecological importance
• The burrows made by earthworms allow air into
the soil which improves drainage.
• The casting consists of finest soil mixed with
broken vegetative tissues make a high quality
humus.

Figure 6.31.3. Movement in an earthworm 1. Back

segments are in contracted (original position)
state, middle segments are relaxed, front
segments contracted 2. Front segments are
relaxed (pushed forward) 3. The worm has now
moved forward
6.32. Mollusca - introduction
Characteristics
• They are among most abundant after
arthropoda in all animals, living on land, seas
and fresh-water.
• Their bodies are soft and usually with shell
produced by mantles, folds of body cavity. (If Figure 6.32.1. A chart showing different types of molluscs
there is one fold, a univalve shell is produced with respective arrangements of organs
as in snails. If there are two folds, a bivalve
shell is produced as in clams.)
• Respiration is through gills and mantle.
• Three pairs of ganglia can be found in nervous
system, cerebropleural ganglia, visceral
ganglia, and pedal ganglia.
• Sexes are separate and a few are united.

Class - Polyplacophora e.g. chiton

• They are protected by a shell of 8 transverse
plates which are arched and overlapped. This
is not segmentation.
• They live on rocky shores mostly in water.

Class - Gastropoda e.g.s snail, slug Figure 6.32.2. A snail

• They live in fresh and sea water, and on land.

• Some are parasitic.
• Snails must protect themselves from severe
conditions so they retire into their shells.
• Locomotion is very resting aided by the
muscular foot and slime gland in the anterior
part of the foot.

Class - Bilvalvia e.g. clam

• They live in fresh water as well as in sea.
• Their shells have two halves called valves.
• Their shell has three layers: outer layer
(periostracum) for protection, middle layer
(prismatic) with crystals of lime stones and
inner layer (nacreous) also called mother-of- Figure 6.32.3. A squid
pearl with horizontal lines of lime stones.

Class - Cephalopoda e.g. squid

• The mostly highly developed among mollusks.
• The foot bears 10 legs with suckers and a
siphon.
• The legs are for capturing the prey and the
siphon acts as principal steering organ.
• The shell of a squid is feather-shaped and is
concealed beneath the skin.

Figure 6.32.4. A clam

6.33. Mollusca - snail and clam
Snail
• Snails belong to the class Gastropoda, largest
group of the phylum Mollusca.
• Snails have single coiled shell with space
between the inner of the shell and the mantle
for gas exchange. Since they do not have gills,
mantle acts as simple lungs.
• Snails have well-developed eyes and tentacles.
The head is well-developed with brain capable
of handling significant level of sensory inputs.
Figure 6.33.1. External features of a snail
• Snails have an organ called radula which is
toughened and equipped teeth-like structures
made of chitin. Snails use radula to dislodge
the food from substrate. Radula can also
breaks up food so the snail can swallow and
digest easily.
• Circulatory system is open.
• Snails reproduce sexually, lay eggs and are not
hermaphrodites.

Clams
Figure 6.33.2. Internal structure of snail
• Clams belong to the class Bivalvia.
• The largest clam is the giant clam which cam
reach about four feet across. Most clams are
only a few inches long.
• Clams are good example of Molluscs with two
hard shells called valves protecting the soft
body.
• Strong muscles called adductor muscles open
and close the clam. When it is open, the foot
protrudes between the valves allowing the
clam to partially bury itself in seabed and
riverbed.
• Clams are filter feeders. They take in water
through two holes called siphons. The food is
then extracted and digested in the clam’s gut.
The gut is complete running from mouth to Figure 6.33.3. Structure of clam
anus. Flow is one way.
• Circulatory system is open.
• Clams reproduce sexually and are not
hermaphrodites.

Figure 6.33.4. Layers of shell of a clam

6.34. Echinodermata - itnroduction
Characteristics
• They are all marine forms but some are sea
shore visitors.
• They are radially symmetrical in adult life but
bilaterally symmetrical in larval stage.
• The body is covered with spinous outgrowths
from the epidermis.
• There is no segmentation.
• Digestive, circulatory and respiratory systems
are well-developed.
• Water-vascular system with tube feet is
present. Figure 3.34.1. A starfish
• The body wall contains calcareous plates
which form the endoskeleton.
• Sexes are separate and regeneration is also
possible.

Class - Crinoidea e.g. sea lily

• Adult is with 5 branched rays, with pinnules
and tube feet suckerless.

Class - Asteroidea e.g. starfish

• Adult typically with 5 rays whose ends are not Figure 6.34.2. Structure of sea urchin
sharply marked off from disks.
• Ambulacral grooves present.

Class - Ophiuroidea e.g. brittle star

• Adult typically with 5 rays sharply marked off
from disks.
• Ambulacral grooves absent.

Class - Echinoidea e.g. sea urchin

• Body is hemispherical or oval with no free
rays.
• The spines are movable.
Figure 6.34.3. Structure of one of the rays of starfish
• The tube feet are with suckers.

Class - Holothuroidea e.g. sea

cucumber
• Adult body is elongated and soft with retractile
tentacles around mouth.
• No rays and no spines are present.
• Tube feet is usually present.

Figure 6.34.4. Sea lily

6.35. Starfish

Morphology
• Starfish belongs to class Asteroidea of the
phylum Echinodermata.
• The central area of the starfish is the stomach
and intestine which is continuous with tubes
that run along the rays. Starfish can take food
into their body but they often eat by everting
their stomach onto the prey and digesting it
outside. They can eat bivalves by prying their
shells and inserting their stomach into the gap
and digesting it.
• Starfish have limited regeneration power. They
can grow back an arm when cut off provided
that the condition is suitable. In some species,
a cut arm can grow into a new starfish.
• Starfish reproduce by a process called free-
sprawning. The gametes are released into the
water where they are fertilized by gametes of
the opposite sex.
• Starfish like other echinoderms have a water
vascular system. The water vascular system is a
hydraulic system that works under water Figure 6.35.1. Internal structure of a starfish
pressure. Water comes in and goes out of the
body through this system. This system allows
sea stars to move, catch prey, exchange gases
and excrete wastes. As the water goes through
the body, it passes the medreporite, disk-like
structure on upper surface of the body. It
prevents large particles from entering the body.
The tube feet is part of the system. They are
hollow tubes with suckers. The other end of
the tube is round and swollen and is called
ampulla. It acts as a bulb of a dropper where
the dropper is the tube feet. When the ampulla Figure 6.35.2. Section of one of the rays
contracts and relaxes, the suction action is
created. This suction is so strong that a starfish
can pulls the clam shell open by sticking its
rays onto the shell. Each tube feet works
independently of other tube feet. Characteristics

Figure 6.35.3. Regeneration in starfish. One cut half only

pocesses rays which grows into new starfish body.
6.36. Arthropoda
• They are bilaterally symmetrical.
• They are coelomate.
• They consists of longitudinal series of segments
on all or some are pairs of appendages.
• The body is covered with hard exoskeleton
made up of chitin which is flexible allowing
joint movements.
• They are the dominant animals on earth.
• The body systems are well-developed.
• Sexes are separate.

Class - Insecta e.g. grasshoper

• The body is divided into three parts: head,
thorax and abdomen.
• A pair of antennae are attached to the head.
• Three pairs of legs are grown from the thorax.
• Some insects have pairs of wings.
• The life cycle of insects are different due to
variation in metamorphosis: some insects
undergo complete metamorphosis such as fly
and some undergo incomplete metamorphosis
such as cockroach.

Class - Arachnida e.g. spider

Figure 6.36.1. Class - insecta
• The body is divided into cephalothorax (fused
head and thorax) and abdomen.
• They have four pairs of legs and no wings.
• The appendage of most anterior segment is
modified into chelicerae for feeding and as
fangs.
• Second pair of appendages is pedipalp
m o d i fi e d f o r p r e y i n g , s e n s a t i o n a n d
copulation.

Class - Crustacea e.g. crayfish

• The body consists of cephalothorax and
abdomen, every segment bears a pair of
appendages.
• Their bodies are very hard and tough.
• They have more than four pairs of appendages Figure 6.36.2. External features of mexican red
as many as 12 pairs. legged tarantula
• There are three main types of appendages:
foliaceous (second maxilla), biramous
(swimmerets) and uniramous (walking legs).

Class - Myriapoda e.g. centipedes

• The body is slightly flat, long and segmented.
• The body bears from 15 to 173 segments each
with a pair of appendages except the first
which is modified into poison claws and the
last two which are lacking.
6.37. Insecta - grasshopper
Insects are the most successful groups on the planet.
There are both more individual insects and more
species of insects than all other animals of all groups
combined. They live in all major habitats and
dominate terrestrial habitats. The reasons for their
tremendous success may be due to a rigid
exoskeleton and jointed appendages. They are
coelomate and the circulatory system is open.

Body
• The body has three regions: head, thorax and
abdomen. Body is covered with exoskeleton
made up of tough, fibrous material called
chitin.
Figure 6.37.1 External features of a grasshopper
• They have six jointed legs and many species
have pairs of wings. Wings are not modified
appendages just like in birds. They are rather
evaginations of thoracic exoskeleton.
• The head is well supplied with sense organs
including compounds which can form
accurate images, antennae can detect
vibrations and some species can detect
extreme chemicals and smells over large
distance.
• Insects do not have lungs. Respiration takes
place through holes in the body called
spiracles. These connect with the tubes of
opened circulatory system. Since insects do
not have lungs and well-developed heart, they
cannot grow beyond their normal size or they Figure 6.37.2. Internal features of a grasshopper
will be unable to get oxygen efficiently.
• Some insects such as bees and ants have
complex social structures with intricate
behavior. They live in large groups with single
queen.

Life cycle
• The life cycle of grasshoppers is through
gradual metamorphosis, one of the types.
• This is a type in which the young are strikingly
like the adults in general form of the body and
in manners of life.
• There is gradual growth of body and wings
which takes place slowly and are not very
great between any successive stages.

Figure 6.37.3. Life cycle of a grasshopper

6.38. Adaptive modifications of insects
Mouth part
• The mouth parts in general are either for
chewing (mandibulate mouth) or for sucking
(suctorial mouth).
• Mandibulate mouth parts are for crushing.
Mouth parts of insects which live on vegetation
have this type of mouth part.
• Suctorial mouth parts are for piercing the
tissues of plants and animals.
• The mouth part of female mosquito has a
labrum and hypopharynx combined forming a
sucking tube. The mandibles and maxillae are
piercing organs. The hypopharynx carries the
saliva. Figure 6.38.1. Mouth part of a female Aedes A. Structure of
• The proboscis of butterfly and moth are the head B. L.S. of mouth part
sucking tubes.

Coloration
• Some individual species may have different
colors different seasons. They are called
seasonal dimorphic (two types) or trimorphic
or polymorphic.
• Some species have color variation between
males and females. They are called sexual
dimorphic.
• Coloration is important and helps an insect
from becoming prey of their predators. The
most common method is protective mimicry.

Wings
• Wings help the insects fly from place to place
rapidly aiding in escapism and nutrition. Figure 6.38.2. The coloration of a butterfly
• Not all insects have wings. Some have tiny
club-like like threads called haustra for
balance.
• Wings are venated and varies with species.

Social insects e.g. bee

• Insects like bees and ants live together in
colony which enhances the following
purposes.
(4) Protection and defense
(5) Feeding
(6) Reproduction
• Bees are the most common among the social
insects. The queen lives through the winter. In
spring, she lays eggs on the ground from which
workers are formed. Workers are infertile
female bee which carry out the rest of the
activities except reproduction. In summer, the Figure 6.38.3.Veins on wings of a dragon fly
drones (males) and queen mate and the sperm
stays in the queen’s body. Later, the drone and
workers die. The queen stays for winter.

6.39. Insect vectors - mosquitoes
Aedes and Anopheles

Anopheles Aedes

- Adult lives in houses, shelters, animal - Adult lives in houses resting in dark ans
houses and paddy field. (mostly rural) shady places. (highly domestic)
Habitat - - Larva lives in transient collection of water
Larva lives as large collection on fresh-
water, fields, ponds and stream. and artificial container.

- Nocturnal generally active at twilight to - Diurnal and nocturnal

Habit early morning. - Some anthropophilic and others
- Both anthropophilic and zoophilic. zoophilic.

- Body is yellow to dark brown. - Body is dark brown with white patches.
- Maxillary palp - Maxillary palp
Morphology In male, longer than proboscis and tip is In male, broom-shaped, tip-bent and as
club-shaped. long as proboscis.
In female, as long as proboscis. In female, shorter than proboscis.

Adult resting - Body straight - Body parallel to surface

position - Rest vertical at angle of 45o to surface - Abdomen slightly drooping
- Eggs - with a pair of floats laid singly. - Eggs - no float, laid singly
Life cycle - Larva - resting parallel to water surface. - Larva - hangs downwards
- Pupa - quick movement - Pupa - slow movement
- It carries parasitic protozoan, Plasmodium - It carries viruses which can cause Dengue
Disease which can cause Malaria. and yellow fever.
transmission - It is intermediate host of some parasitic - It is intermediate host of some parasitic
worms such as Wuchereria. worms such as Wuchereria.

What is insect vector?

An insect can carries certain pathogenic organisms
and parasites in their body especially in their salivary
glands. The mosquito inserts its proboscis into the
flesh of the host. These organisms are released into
the host during the blood feeding of the mosquito.

Figure 6.39.1. Comparison of Anopheles and Aedes

6.40. Arachinida - spider and scorpian
Spider
• Spiders are segmented but their segments are
fused into two main parts: prosoma or
cephalothorax at the front and opisthosoma or
abdominal part at the rear.
• They do not have true lungs but have
rudimentary book lungs which are series of
plates. Air bathes the outer surface of the
plates and circulation on the inside facilitating
gas exchange.
• Spiders have eight walking legs, two pedipalps
which is a pair of segmented legs and two
chelicera arising from the prosoma.
• The pedipalps are for holding and grasping Figure 6.40.1. External features of a spider
prey as well as copulation.
• The chelicera are for piercing the prey and
injecting the poison.

Scorpion
• Scorpions are large arachnida that live in
dessert areas.
• Their bodies are covered with tough
exoskeleton and are elongated in shape.
• The opisthosoma consists of mesosoma and
metasoma.
• Mesosoma consists of book lungs, digestive
organs and sexual organs.
• The metasoma consists of a tail with telson or
stinger.
• The movable tail is curved over the abdomen
which is in position to strike the prey with
venomous stinger.
• Their pedipalps are modified into claws similar
to those of crustaceans which are used for Figure 6.40.2. External features of a scorpion A.
grasping prey and as defensive organs. Dorsal view B.Ventral View
• The chelicera are used to crush the prey and
bring food into the mouth.

Figure 6.40.3. Pedipalp of scorpion

6.41. Crustacea - crayfish
Morphology
• The body is highly segmented.
• The body plan follows general arthropod’s
structure with head, thorax and abdomen.
However, the head and thorax are fused
together into cephalothorax.
• The head is well supplied with sense organs
including a pair of antennae.
• In crayfish, lobsters and crabs, the first pair of
legs are modified into pincers also called
chelipads.
• Crayfish can grow in size by molting their
exoskeleton, growing rapidly and reforming a
tough exoskeleton.
• This can occur a number of time during its life Figure 6.41.1. External features of a crayfish
cycle.
• The molting and redevelopment of
exoskeleton imposes a significant
cost on animals in terms of calcium
and this is recovered from old
exoskeleton before it is shed.
• They lay eggs either containing
larvae or containing a fully formed
but small crayfish.

Figure 6.41.2. Internal features of a crayfish

6.42. Chilopoda and diplopoda
Chilopoda
• Chilopoda or commonly known as centipedes
are about 1 inch to about 10 inches in length.
• There are roughly 3000 known species of
centipedes.
• Centipedes consist of a single pair of legs on
each segment.
• The first pair modified into claws with poison
glands. These are called maxillipeds. They
allow centipedes to be effective predators.
• Eyes are simple rather than compound.
• The upper and lower surfaces of the trunk
segments are armored with tough and
thickened plates called tergal plates and are
joined by flexible membrane.
• The last segment of the body is the telson and
is not considered true segment because it lacks
legs.
• They mainly live in soil and humus under
rocks and stones.

Diplopoda
• Diplopoda or commonly known as millipedes
consist of two pairs of legs on each segments. Figure 6.42.1. External features of a centipede
• A millipede can be 0.08 to 12 inches long with
most species being 2 to 6 inches in length.
• There are about 10,000 known species.
• A millipede can have about 100 to 300 legs in
total. There is a kind of millipede which
processes 750 legs.
• Most are detritivores or herbivores feeding on
decaying organic matters.
• Eyes are rather simple.
• Most millipedes are nocturnal.
• They secrete an irritating chemicals from
glands in thorax when they are threatened by
their predators such as centipedes.

Figure 6.42.2. External features of a millipede

6.43 Hemichordata and chordata
Chordata
They are characterized by
• A skeletal axis, notochord in some stages of
life.
• Paired gill slits which connect the pharynx to
the exterior at some stages of life. All chordates
up to and including fishes carry on respiration
by means of gills throughout life. In some
higher vertebrates, gill slits or traces of them
are usually present in embryonic stage. In
mammals, the slits never open.
• A dorsal hollow central nerve cord with cavity
or systems of cavities exist.
They include
• Subphylum - hemichordate which include
worm like animals.
• Subphylum - urochordata (tunicata) which
consists of tunicates (sea squirts).
• Subphylum - cephalochordata which include Figure 6.43.1.Vertebrates
fish like animals called lancelets.
• Subphylum - vertebrata which include
vertebrates.

Hemichordata
They are not considered true chordates because
• They do not have a true notochord but what is
called stomocord.
• They, however, have a dorsal nerve cord but is
not hollowed wholly.
• They possess a pharyngeal slits.
They live in shallow water along the sea shore. Their
bodies are soft. Acorn worm, the most common Figure 6.43.2. Structure of typical chordate
member burrows itself in the mud and sand. The
body consists of proboscis, collar and trunk. All the
organ systems are well developed. Sexes are
separate.

Figure 6.43.3. External features of acorn worm

6.44. Pisces
Superclass - Pisces
• Pisces or fish are the gill bearing aquatic
organisms that lack limbs with digits.
• They form a sister group to tunicates.
• The first chordate to be considered as fish does
not have a spine and is called Hagfish.
• They are exothermic meaning cold-blooded
(poikilotherm).
• Fish can be found in all bodies of water.
• They include Figure 6.44.1. Class - Agnatha showing external
(1) Class - Agnatha (jawless fish) features a. Hagfish b. Lamprey
(2) Class - Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish)
(3) Class - Osteichthyes (bony fish)

Class - Agnatha
• They are the representatives of earliest stages
in evolution of vertebrates.
• They lack jaws but have cartilaginous endo-
skeleton and a notochord.
• Seven pharyngeal gill slits are present near the
head.
• The mouth is at the center of the round buccal
funnel and is armed with horny teeth and
rasping tongue.
• The class include lampreys which are
exoparasites.
• They attach their buccal funnel to the side of
the fish, rasp and hole in the body and feed on
the body fluids of the fish.

Class - Chondrichthyes
• Their skeleton is cartilaginous and the first gill Figure 6.44.2. A shark - representative of cartilaginous
arches are modified into jaws. fish
• Sharks and many other relatives are included
in this class.
• They are predators and scavengers.

Class - Osteichthyes
• Bony fish are the diverse class of Pisces.
• Advanced features include bony skeleton,
modified gill arches and internal air bladder
for balance and buoyancy.
• Gills are protected by a movable gill covering.
• The lateral system can be found on the lateral
side of the fish.
• The line is with pits which detect water
currents and predators or preys nearby.

Figure 6.44.3. Internal features of a bony fish

6.45. Chondrichthyes
Chondrichthyes is a class of the phylum Chordata
which include sharks, skates and rays. There are
about 1000 known species. They do not have true
bony structure hence sometimes called cartilaginous
fish. Even in sharks, calcification occurs only in teeth
but in different pattern as in true bone. They are
more primitive than bony fish. Sharks and dogfish
share basic characteristic features. Sharks are
ferocious hunters and predators to mollusks and
other fish.

Characteristics
• They are equipped with fins. The mouth is a
slit on ventral surface. Just behind the eye are
6 gill slits. Between the pelvic fins is the anus.
Their bodies are streamline which helps them
swim in the water easily and quickly.
• The skeleton is entirely of cartilage.
• The digestive tract is long. Gill slits open into
the pharynx. The tract ends in cloaca. Liver,
pancreas, gall bladder and spleen are also
present.
• The circulatory system is a closed system with
single circulation through the two-chambered
heart. The heart contains venous blood only. It
is pumped through the ventral aorta then into
afferent branchial arteries to gill where it is
oxygenated. It is carried by efferent branchial
arteries to various body parts. The venous
blood returns via dorsal aorta to the heart.
• The brain is highly developed with olfactory
lobes, cerebrum, a pair of optic lobes,
cerebellum and medulla.
• They have a series of sense organs running
down their body called the lateral line which
detect changes even minute changes in
pressure around them caused by other fish.
Sharks also have very good sense of smell
which can detect chemicals from miles away
even at low concentration. They, however,
have poor eye sight. Figure 6.45.1. Internal features of a shark
• Respiration is by means of gills only. They have
gills on ventral arches which form the external
gill slits. They do not pump water over the
gills. They have to be in constant motion
forwards to maintain the respiration otherwise
they die off drowning. Oxygen is absorbed
through the gills as water enters the mouth and
out through the gill slits.
• The body temperature is variable and changes
with the environment. They are cold-blooded
animals or poikilotherms.
• Excretion is by mesonephric ducts (almost
kidneys).
• Sexes are separate. Fertilization is external.
6.46. Osteichthyes
Osteichthyes are also called bony fish
because their skeleton is made of bone.
Th e y a r e m o r e va r i a b l e t h a n
cartilaginous fish comprising more than
29,000 species across marine and fresh
water. Bony fish have a sense of smell
and lateral line as in cartilaginous fish
but they have a good eye sight. Some
species have an amazing fluorescent
organs.
Figure 6.46.1. External features of a bony fish
Characteristics
• The body is soft and slimy covered
by numerous bony plates called
scales arranged in longitudinal
rows. The body can be divided
into head, trunk and tail. They are
two dorsal fins, a caudal fin, a
median fin, an anal fin, two lateral
pectoral fins and two lateral pelvic
fins.
• It consists of both exoskeleton
(scales) and endoskeleton (bones
and teeth).
• They mouth is large and terminal
and possess tooth-bearing jaw.
Rudimentary tongue projects from
floor of mouth though not capable
of free movement but serves as Figure 6.46.2. Skeleton of a bony fish
tactile organ.
• Circulation is similar to that of shark.
• Behind the eyes, there are 4 gill slits covered
by an operculum with a free edge posteriorly
and ventrally. Bony fish breathes by 4 pairs of
gills. Each girl has two filaments supplied by
capillaries. As the water flow through, oxygen
is absorbed.
• An air bladder, thin walled sac,
filled with air lies on dorsal part of
the fish aids in respiration and acts
as hydrostatic organ or float. It
adjusts the fish weight so that the
fish cam stay in the water with
balance.
• The body temperature is variable
and changes with the environment.
They are cold-blooded animals or
poikilotherms.
• Just anterior to the anal fin is the
anus and the urogenital organs.
Excretion is by mesonephric ducts. Figure 6.46.3. Circulation in a bony fish
• Sexes are separate.
6.47. Amphibia
The class Amphibia includes frogs, toads, newts,
salamanders and caecilians. There are about 5000
species known. They spend parts of their lives in
water and part on land. The eggs and larva called
tadpoles are in the water and the adult near the
water or on land. Some members possess tail while
others do not. They may be confused with reptiles
especially lizards. There may be similarities but there
is also a vast difference between them. The class
include
(1) Order - Apoda or Gymnophiona
(Limbless amphibians)
(2) Order - Caudata Figure 6.47.1. External features of a toad
(Tailed amphibians)
(3) Order - Salientia
(Tailess amphibians)

Characteristics
• The body does not have scales but is covered
by skin which is moist and glandular. The body
can be divided into head and trunk while neck
is absent in most frogs and toads.
• Some species are poisonous and secrete
poisonous fluid from glands in the skin.
• The two nostrils are connected to the mouth
cavity. The eyes are with lids. The ear drum is
external. The mouth bears fine teeth and the
tongue is usually protrusible.
• The endoskeleton is largely bony.
• Circulation is a partial double circulation with
three-chambered heart.
• Respiration is by gills, lungs, skin or mouth Figure 6.47.2. Circulation in a frog
lining. The tadpole (juvinile stage for frogs and
toads) are rather-like fish and have gills for gas
exchange. As the tadpole age, they lose their
gills and tail, and develops legs and lungs.
• The nervous system is highly developed.
• The body temperature is variable and changes
with the environment. They are cold-blooded
animals or poikilotherms.
• Excretion is by mesonephros.
• Sexes are separate. Fertilization is external or
internal with complete metamorphosis.

Figure 6.47.3. Internal features of a frog

 6.48. Reptilia
The class Reptilia include snakes,
turtles, lizards and many more. They
live in marine, fresh water and on land.
They are better adapted on land than
amphibians due to the following
reasons.
(1) They have dry skin.
(2) The eggs are covered with hard
shell and another layer of amniotic
membrane which prevents water
loss and drying.
(3) The skeleton is well-ossified. Figure 6.48.1. External features of a crocodile
(4) The heart contains well separated
oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood though not completely as in
higher animals.
(5) Limbs for locomotion.
The class include
(1) Order - Chelonia
(Turtles and tortoise)
(2) Order - Rhynchocephalia
(Lizard like reptiles, etc.)
(3) Order - Squamata
(Lizards and snakes)
(4) Order - Crocodilia
(Crocodiles and alligators, etc.)

Characteristics
• The body is covered with dry scales and bony
plates.
• Circulation is complete double circulation in
crocodiles with four-chambered heart. The rest
of the members have partial double circulation
and three chambered heart.
• Respiration is by lungs throughout life. Figure 6.48.2. Circulation in a turtle
• The nervous system is highly developed with
larger cerebrum. The grey and white matter is
slightly distinct.
• The body temperature is variable and changes
with the environment. They are cold-blooded
animals or poikilotherms.
• Sexes are separate and fertilization is external
or internal.

Figure 6.48.3. External features of a texas horned lizard

6.49. Venomous snakes
Viper Vipera russelli
• They are terrestrial.
• They can grow up to 5 feet.
• The head is triangular like an arrow head.
• Tail is round and short.
• Body has three chains of brown patches.
• Small scales are present on the head,
• Mental groove is present.
• Belly scales are full and white with black
specks.
• Sensory pit is absent.
• Venom is hemorrhagic.

Copra Naja naja

• They are terrestrial.
• Tail is cylindrical.
• Shields (large scales) are present on head.
• Belly scales are full.
• Mental groove is present.
• Vertebral is not enlarged.
• Third supra-labial shield touches the eye and
nose shields.
• Neck is with hood and markings.
• Venom is neurotoxic.

Venoms and their symptoms

• The teeth or fangs of venomous snakes are Figure 6.49.1. Identification of non-venomous or venomous
connected to the modified salivary glands snakes
which is situated below and behind the eyes.
• These glands contain venom which contain
eight to nine enzymes. Half of them destroy
proteins and half destroys fat and bases.
• According to the amount of proportions, snake
venoms are classified into hemorrhagic, those
with larger protein destroying enzymes and
neurotoxic, those with larger fat and base
destroying enzymes.
• Vipers have hemorrhagic venom which destroy
protein structures such as muscles, connective
tissues and plasma proteins. The symptom of
individual bitten by this kind of snakes include
intense burning pain at the site of bite,
bleeding from fang wound, bruises, swelling,
low blood pressure, pupil collapse with no
response to light, hemorrhage and death due
to circulatory failure.
• Cobra venom are neurotoxic meaning they
destroy myelin fat of nerves. The symptoms Figure 6.49.2. How a snake injects its venom
include radiating pain, drowsiness, vomiting,
nausea, numbness, paralysis, blurred speech,
dropping eyelids, dripping of saliva, difficulty
in swallowing, drooping of head, difficulty in
breathing (cyanosis) and eventually death.
6.50. Aves
Birds belong to the class Aves. They are the most
interesting animals because of the beautiful and
varied colors, pleasing songs and call notes, flight,
migration, behaviors and activities such as nesting.
Birds are reptilians in origin and they were referred
to as glorified reptiles.

Characteristics
• The body is covered with colorful feathers
which serves for insulation and flight. The body
is streamlined so that they can fly in the air
with ease.
• Wings are the most peculiar organs when it
comes to birds. Most aerial birds such as
swallows and gull have long pointed wings
which keep them in the air for a long period of
time. Terrestrial birds such as bobwhite and
sparrows have short wings that enables rapid
flight for short distance. Birds like penguins
and auks use their wings for swimming.
Flightless birds like ostrich and kiwi only have
remnant of wings but better legs as adaptation.
• Feet are used for locomotion, building nests,
obtaining food, offensive and defensive
purposes. The type and structure varies with
species.
• Bills are the hands of birds but most
importantly for the function of procuring food.
• Circulation is with four-chambered heart.
• Respiration is by lungs.
• Excretion is by metanephric kidneys.
• Nervous system is highly developed.
• The body temperature is relatively constant
and does not varies with environment. They
are homeotherms.
• Sexes are separate. Fertilization is internal. The
embryo is contained in egg shell as in some
reptiles.
Figure 6.50.1. Feet tell how a bird survive
Adaptation to flight
The most important functions of birds is flight. To
do so, they are adapted with the following
features.
• The body is streamlined or boat-shaped
thus offer little resistance to air.
• They have strong and heavy musculature at
the chest to move the wings.
• The skeletal system is lightweight.
• They have a very high body temperature
for high metabolism for sufficient energy
supply.
• They have efficient respiratory system to
supply enough oxygen.
Figure 6.50.2. The bills tell how a bird feeds
6.51. Flight
Wings
• The wings are the
• A bird’s wing is composed of three limb bones:
humerus, radius and ulna.
• Primary feathers are attached to the carpo-
metacarpus. They are the largest and furthest
groups of feathers attached to a bird’s wing.
They propel the birds in the air and are the
major flight feathers.
• Secondary feathers are attached to ulna. They
sustain the bird in the air giving it a lift.
• A group of feathers attached to alula reduce Figure 6.51.1. Structure of a wing
turbulence and drag which assist the steering.

Mechanics of flight
• Shape of wings are importance in flight.
• The shape of a wing (lateral view) is somewhat
like wider at the front and tapered at the back.
This is called an air foil.
• The air flowing in opposite direction to the
bird comes in contact with the bird’s wing
above and below.
• The touched areas above the wing is less than
those below due to the rate of air flow. (Faster
at the top and slower at the bottom.)
• Thus, the air lifting up from below is more than
the air pushing down. This causes the bird to
be lifted in the air.
• As the wings flaps downward, it not only
pushes the air downward but also backward.
This creates the lift upward and forward so the
bird moves.
• Two forces are involved: the lift and the drag.
The life is the force which pushes the wing
upward. The drag is the force which acts on
opposite direction as the wing. This takes a lot
of energy.
• To reduce the amount of energy used during
flight, birds have large lungs, strong muscles
and light-weight skeleton.

Figure 6.51.2. How flight works in birds showing

movement of wings
6.52. Mammals
There are more than 5000 species of mammals living
on earth. They are widely distributed ranging from
tropics to polar regions, from ocean to driest
desserts. Most are terrestrial, a few are aquatic such
as whales and dolphins and some can glide in the air
while others can fly such as bats. The class include
(1) Egg-laying mammals
These are the most primitive types of mammals.
The young before hatching live on the yolk
contained in an egg. After hatching, it is for a
short period nourished by mother’s milk. A well-
known mammal is the platypus. It is aquatic and
constructs burrows like beavers. Males have
claws on their heels which is connected to Figure 6.52.1. External features of a platypus
poison glands.
(2) Pouched mammals or marsupials
The youngs are born in embryonic conditions
without any protections. They are kept in
mother’s external pouch where they are
nourished and protected until the end of natal
life. These include kangaroo and koala.
(3) Placental mammals
With placenta developed in the uterus of mother,
the baby and mother can exchange materials
during development.

Characteristics
• The body is covered with hairs and numerous
glands are present. The most distinguishable is
the mammary (milk) glands.
• There are 4 or 5 digits each with claws, nails
or hoof. In some species, the hind limbs may
be modified.
• Circulatory system is with four-chambered Figure 6.52.2. Marsupials
heart.
• Respiration is by lungs.
• Excretion is by metanephric kidneys. Urine is
fluid.
• The body temperature is relatively constant
and does not varies with environment. They
are homeotherms.
• Sexes are separate.
• Mammals are viviparous and their youngs are
nourished before birth through the placenta.
The placenta is unique among all animals. It
exchanges materials between mother and the
baby. It makes possible the development of
young to a more advanced stage before birth.
• Parental care is highly developed in this group.

Figure 6.52.3. A female lion (lioness) with her cub

6.53. Position of human
The derivation and position of human species, Homo
sapians, in the realm of living things has long been a
subject of great interest. Primitive people nave myths
that imply their ancestry from animals, or inanimate
materials, or other sources. To some people, humans
are just creations of super natural power. Biologists
have determined the origin and position of human
using knowledge of structure and physiology human
body, its embryonic development, the historic,
prehistoric and fossil records. We belong to the
following groups due to the following reasons.

(1) Kingdom - Animalia

Human shows characteristics of animals such as
multicellular, inability to photosynthesize,
requiring organic food.
(2) Phylum - Chordata
Humans have notochord, pharyngeal arches and
pouches in embryonic life. They also have a
dorsal tubular brain and nerve cord throughout
life.
(3) Subphylum - Vertebrata
Humans have a well-defined skeleton with
vertebral spine and cranium.
(4) Superclass - Tetrapoda
Members of tetrapoda (tetra=four, poda=limbs)
have two pairs of limbs.
(5) Class - Mammalia
Humans show characteristics of mammals such
as hair on skin, mammary glands, etc.
(6) Order - Primates
Primates have four well-developed and
generalized limbs each with five digits bearing
nails.
(7) Superfamily - Hominoidea
Humans do not have cheek pouches and a tail.
(8) Family - Hominidae
(8.1) The brain is with far greater functional
ability and of larger larger size.
(8.2) The face is flat and vertical with protruding
lower jaws.
(8.3) Hair grows long on head and short on body.
(8.4) Hands are more generalized with thumbs
being well-developed.
(8.5) Arcuate tooth row, teeth evenly in size, Figure 6.53.1
small canines, bicuspid premolar.
(8.6) Prolong infancy
6.54. Animal development
Cleavage
• When the one of the many sperms and egg
unite, they form a unicellular zygote which
then divides immediately into a two-celled
zygote by mitosis.
• The zygote continues to divide 2 to 4 to 8 and
eventually 16 celled zygote called the marula.
This process of division is called cleavage.
• The cells in marula are called blastomeres.
Cleavage differs in various animals according
to amount of yolk present. If there is little yolk,
the entire zygote divides. This is known as total
or holoblastic cleavage. If the cells are equal
in size, it is called equal holoblastic cleavage
which can be seen in starfish. If the cells are
unequal in size, it is called unequal
holoblastic cleavage as in frogs. If there is
considerable amount of yolk, cleavage is
restricted to only parts of the egg. If the
restriction is a small cap on egg, it is termed as Figure 6.54.1. Different kinds of cleavage, holoblastic
meroblastic cleavage as in birds. If the -with little yolk, meroblastic -with much yolk,
restriction is at a layer of cytoplasm around the superficial with central yolk mass
egg, it is called superficial cleavage.
• Marula continues to divide but the size does
not change. The resulting ball of cells is called
blastula which is hollow with a fluid-cavity
called the blastocoel.

Gastrulation
• The cells at one end of the blastula begins to
invaginate (infold) interiorly. This depressed
area is called blastopore. Blastocoel cavity is
obliterated during the process. A new cavity,
gastrocoel (archenteron) is formed. At this
stage, it is called gastrula. The gastrocoel is
lined by endodermal cells.

Germ layers formation

• The gastrula of simple animals such as sponges
and cnidaria are of two germ layers, outer
ectoderm and inner endoderm. These animals
are said to be diploblastic. In higher animals, a
middle layer, mesoderm arises between the
two germ layers. These animals are triploblastic
consisting of three germ layers.
• From ectoderm, body coverings such as
epidermis of skin and the nervous system
develop. Figure 6.54.2. How a zygote undergoes
• From mesoderm, dermis of skin, connective cleavage and then gastrula resulting in two
tissues, muscles, skeleton, reproductive organs germ layered embryo. The difference body
(mostly) and circulatory system develop, structures such as presence of coelom,
• From endoderm, lining of digestive, respiratory complete or incomplete digestive tract
and reproductive systems develop. occur during these two stages.
6.55. Gas exchange
Unicellular organisms such as amoeba and smaller
Animal A
animals such as sponges, cnidarians and • Side = 1mm each
platyhelminthes can exchange materials with their • Area = 1mm2
surrounding by simple diffusion because they have Animal A • Total surface = 6
• Total surface area = 6mm2
large surface area in relation to volume. However, in • Volume = 1mm3
larger animals, diffusion isn’t great enough for the • SA:V = 6:1
materials to reach every cells that is the volume is
Animal B
too large. This can be explained by using surface • Side = 2mm each
area to volume ratio. • Area = 4mm2
• Total surface = 6
• Total surface area = 24mm2
Surface area to volume ratio • Volume = 8mm3
Animal B • SA:V = 24:8 = 3:1
To understand this, we need to consider an animal as
a cube. A cube has 6 surfaces. Let’s assume that
animal ‘A’ has a cube with 1mm sides. The area for Animal C
one surface is 1mm x1mm so it is 1mm2. For total • Side = 3mm each
• Area = 9mm2
surface area, multiply 1mm2 with 6 resulting 6mm2. • Total surface = 6
The volume can be calculated as 1mm x1mm x1mm • Total surface area = 54mm2
giving us 1mm3. We can now take the ratio and it is • Volume = 27mm3
• SA:V = 54:27 = 2:1
6:1. This means that it has large surface area to
volume ratio. Now, let’s look animal ‘B’ with a cube
of 2mm sides. The total surface area is 24mm2 and
the volume is 8mm3. The ratio is 24:8 or 3:1. As you Animal C
can it gets smaller ratio. For animal ‘C’ with cube of Figure 6.55.1. Calculations of surface area to volume ratios
3mm sides, the ratio is 2:1. As the animal gets larger,
its surface area to volume ratio falls. This mean that
larger animals cannot simply exchange materials in
and out through the surface because it too far away
from the center or inner volume which could cause
the cells inside to death in case of oxygen and
nutrients exchange. So larger animals would require
a system that brings materials into the body and
transport them to all parts of the body. This is when
respiratory and circulatory systems come in place.
The lungs of mammals have large surface area for
exchange of gases.

Respiratory surface
For materials especially gases to be exchanged they
pass through a surface between inner body and outer
environment. This is called the respiratory surface.
Gas exchange through this surface occurs by
diffusion. The respiratory surface must thin-walled as
possible, moist because the gases entering the body
has to be dissolved in solutions i.e. blood and in
contact with inner body mass as in amoeba so that
the gases can be either used or removed and
transport system as in larger animals so that the gases
can be transported. In complex and large animals,
the respiratory surface exists inside the specialized
organs i.e. lungs.

Figure 6.55.2. Different types of respiratory surfaces

modifications
6.56. Respiratory systems
Respiratory system in insects
Insects have large surface area to volume ratio which
means they can exchange gases through the surface
but not as efficiently as lower animals. They have
two long tubes across the body on each side called
the tracheae which give branches to tracheoles. Each
tracheole opens to the exterior through an opening
called spiracle. Movement of abdomen pumps
Figure 6.56.1. Respiratory system of insect
oxygen into the tracheae through the spiracles. Since
the spiracles are scattered throughout the body,
insects have to limit water loss. Most of the time,
these spiracles are closed to reduce water loss. So
the air is usually stored in air sacs. This system is
quite limited therefore, insects cannot grow larger
than their certain size. Oxygen demand cannot be
supplied by this system if they are larger.

Respiratory system in fish

Fish have internal gills made up of gill arches. Each
gill arch possess stacks of gill filaments which in turn
consist of series of gill plates on each. Each gill plate
is supplied with blood capillaries, one towards
afferent vessel with oxygenated blood and another
from efferent vessel with deoxygenated blood.
Water flows through the mouth and through the gills.
The operculum on each side then opens to allow
water out of the gills.
Gas exchange occurs in gill plates. The flow of water
and flow of blood are in opposite direction but are
very close to each other. This is known as the
countercurrent system and is efficient. The blood
flowing to one side would gains oxygen from water Figure 6.56.2. Respiratory system of fish
flowing to opposite side as it loses oxygen. The
oxygenated blood then supplies the tissues.

Respiratory system in birds

The two lungs in a bird is greatly assisted by
numerous air sacs. The air enters through the trachea
during inspiration. Trachea divides into two main
bronchi which connects the lungs. Smaller branches
of bronchi also connect to larger air sacs such as
cervical air sacs and clavicular air sacs. These air
sacs extend into the spaces between organs and
cavities and also into cavities of large bones such as
humerus. Thoracic and abdominal air sacs arise from
the lungs.
These air sacs serve principally as accessory
breathing organs. They also have a role in regulation
of temperature.

Figure 6.56.3. Respiratory system of bird

 6.57. Circulations
In simple animals such as cnidarians and flat worms,
the gastrovascular system is extended throughout the
body and is in close contact with the surface. So
exchange of materials occurs via diffusion and is
transported in this system. So there is no transport
system of fluid required as in larger animals. But
animals with many layers of cells cannot depend on
diffusion for transport of materials throughout the
body. In these animals, a systemic transport
mechanism with fluid is necessary.

Open circulation
This system can be seen in arthropods and most
mollusks where the blood is circulating inside the
body cavity with no distinct between blood and
body extracellular fluid. The fluid is more correctly
termed hemolymph. One or more tubes of heart
pump the hemolymph into interconnected system of
sinuses. The heart is an elongated tube located
dorsally. The pumped hemolymph is drawn back into
the heart through pores called ostia. Body movement
squeezes the hemolymph into the sinuses which
enhances the circulation.

Closed circulations
In closed circulatory system, blood is confined to
vessels and distinct from interstitial fluid. This type of
circulation is common in most mollusks and larger
animals such as vertebrates.
In fish, the two chambered heart contains only
venous blood. The blood circulates through the heart
only once in a circulation.
In amphibians, the ventricle is partially divided and
the heart is three-chambered. There is mixing of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. This is termed
incomplete double circulation.
In reptiles, the ventricle begins to show more
separation.
In some reptiles, birds and mammals, the ventricle is
completely divide by inter-ventricular septum. The
heart is completely four-chambered. The two blood
streams never mix but in fetal life there is slight
mixing of the blood.

Figure 6.57.1. Different types of circulations

6.58. Excretions
Vertebrate kidneys or nephroi are all built in with
basic structural pattern consisting of
1) Glomeruli - incorporated in renal corpuscles
2) Tubules - surrounded by peritubular capillary
3) A pair of longitudinal ducts
In present day vertebrates, uriniferous tubules
develop antero-posteriorly in two or three stages in
succession which include pronephros, metanephros
and mesonephros.

Pronephros
Pronephros develop in the anterior most part of the
nephrotome. There are 1 to 13 uriniferous tubules in
each, one pair to each segment. Near each tubule is
the glomerulus but the Bowman’s capsule and
peritoneal funnels are lacking. These glomeruli are
external glomeruli. The uriniferous tubules open inti
common pronephric duct which runs backward and
open into embryonic cloaca. These types of a pair of
pronephros can be found functioning only in
cyclostomes. In vertebrates, these degenerate
without functioning.

Mesonephros
These lie behind the pronephros. At first, it consists
of paired segmented uriniferous tubules each with
peritoneal funnel opening into coelom and
glomerulus enclosed in Bowman’s capsule. These
tubules join the pronephric duct and together form
mesonephric duct or Wolffian duct. Later, the
tubules undergo budding and lost their funnels.
These can be found functioning in fish, amphibians
and embryos of vertebrates. They degenerate in
Figure 6.58.1. Different types of kidneys
adults and form reproductive or genital ducts.

Metanephros
Metanephric duct appears as ureteric diverticulum
arsing at the base of the pre-existing mesonephric
duct. It grows dorsally into nephric ridge. It later
forms the ureter and renal tubules. These are the
adult kidneys of vertebrates.
6.59. Coordination and behavior
Response to stimuli
In coelenterates, there is a sort of nerve net for neural
mechanism. True nerve cells first appear in this
phylum. Sensory cells (receptors) are in direct
continuity with conducting fibers which end on
effectors. All together, they form a plexus called
receptor-effector neural mechanism.
A definite nervous system exists in worms and
become more complex in higher animals. In flat
worms, there exist long nerve cords on each side
connected by transverse nerve fibers which represent
the nervous system. Sense organs such as eyes are
present.

Brain of vertebrates
In fish, the optic lobe and medulla are quite large.
The size of cerebellum depends on the ability of the
fish to swim (for equilibrium and balance). In
amphibians, olfactory lobes are large and elongated.
The optic lobes are small. The cerebellum is mere
transverse band. In reptiles, olfactory lobes are not
well developed. Cerebral hemispheres are large and
small amount of gray matter is present in the cortex.
Both pineal and parietal lobes are present. In birds,
olfactory lobes are small. Cerebrum is short and
broad. Gray matter is limited to posterior region.
Optic lobes are large. In mammals, olfactory lobes
are well-developed. Cerebral hemispheres quite
large due to large amount of grey matter.

Animal behaviors
Behavior may be thought of as the reaction of the
whole body to its environment. There are two types
of behaviors: innate and adaptive.
Innate behaviors are those inherited or already part Figure 6.59.1. Coordination in animals
of its life. It determined by genetics which is carried
from generation to generation. The build-in effect
cannot be changed although can be modified. Some
innate behaviors are due to instinct. For example, a
baby turtle which just hatched from her egg would
crawl towards the ocean from her nest. A human
baby would grabs the finger of his mother when she
hands it towards him.
Adaptive or acquired behaviors are those which
develop during the life or changed according to
environment. It may be learnt. For example, a cub
learning how to hunt by observing its parents. We
can classified learning by conditioning in which an
unrelated stimulus causes the response. The famous
Pavlov’s dog experiment is based on this. Another
learnt behavior is unconditioning in which a
stimulus causes a response which is through Figure 6.59.2. Different types of brain of vertebrates
learning. Birds usually come to the place where they
get food.
6.60. Identification keys
Identification keys are used in many scientific and
technical fields to identify various kinds of entities,
such as diseases, animal species, soil types, minerals,
or archaeological and anthropological artifacts.
identification keys have most commonly taken the
form of single-access keys. These work by offering a
fixed sequence of identification steps, each with
multiple alternatives, the choice of which determines
the next step. If each step has only two alternatives,
the key is said to be dichotomous, else it is
polytomous. At each step, the user must answer a
question about one or more features (characters) of
the entity to be identified. For example, a step in a
botanical key may ask about the color of flowers, or
the disposition of the leaves along the stems.

Jack pine

Figure 6.60.1. Identification keys example 1 (How to read an identification keys?) For every leaf, we following the same
steps. Let’s identify leaf 1. We starts with 1a. It said, “if the leaves are like needles, read the sentence number 2”. Our
leaf 1 is needle-shaped. So we skip 1b and go to 2a. It said, “if there are two needles binded together in a single bundle,
it is the leaf of a plant called jack pine”. Our leaf 1 is two needles. So the answer to number 1 is “Jack pine”. It has been
done for you.
Now, finish the rest of the leaves.
End-Of-Unit Questions 6
6.1. The scientific name of one kind of rabbit is Lepus cuniculus and another is Oryctolagus cuniculus. By these
names, what do you know about these rabbits? [2]
6.2. Finish the classification hierarchy. [2]
Kingdom ............. Animalia
________ ............. Chordata
Class ............. Mammalia
________ ............. Felis
Species ............. catus
6.3. Explain why viruses are non-living? Explain why viruses are living? [2]
6.4. State the structure and functions of a bacterial cell. [3]
6.5. How is bacteria useful to scientists? [2]
6.6. State the importance of the following algae. [2]
6.7. Why are yeasts economically important? [1]

6.8. State the structural differences between Penicillium and Aspergillus. [3]
6.9. Identify the given protist by its class. Give one reason for your identification. [2]

6.10. Draw a fully labeled diagram of ameba. [3]

6.11. Why does Paramecium feed? [4]
6.12. Explain the life cycle of Trypanosoma gambiense. [5]
6.13. List the plant types distinguished based on their habitat. [3]
6.14. Tabulate the differences between moss and liver wort. [3]
6.15. Explain the alteration of generation in Riccia. [4]
6.16. Give the names of all the labels. [3]

A B

C
6.17. How are Pteridophytes different from Bryophytes? [5]
6.18. Discuss the reproductive life of Adiantum aleuticum. [5]
6.19. Explain the sporophyte generation of Gymnosperm. [3]
6.20. Explain the development of fertilized zygote in flower plants. [4]
6.21. A. Which plants can be used to cure Alzheimer’s disease. [3]
B. Complete the table. [3]

Plant name Medicinal part

Maiden hair tree

Fruit

Barbados aloes

6.22. List all phyla of the invertebrates. [8]

6.23. State the functions of the following structures found in a sponge. [4]
a. Amebocyte
b. Osculum
c. Choanocyte
d. Porocyte
6.24. Discuss why sea anemones are animals but not plants. [4]
6.25. What is meant by regeneration? [2]
6.26. Give a fully labeled diagram of a pork tape worm. [3]
6.27. A. State the two hosts of Fasciola hepatica. [2]
B. Why is it called Fasciola hepatica? [1]
6.28. A. Are all classes nematodes mostly parasites? State those classes’ name. [3]
B. State the diseases that each class of nematodes cause. [3]
6.29. State the life cycle of a parasite which causes Ascariasis. [5]
6.30. A. What is the most obvious characteristics that distinguish annelids from nematodes? [1]
B. How are leeches useful in medicine? [2]
6.31. Why is earthworm classified as annelid? [3]
6.32. State three ways in which the shells in mollusks are arranged. [3]
6.33. Discuss the shell formation in clam. [3]
6.34. A. Which echinoderms do have no free rays or no rays at all? [2]
B. Describe about the ray of echinoderm. [2]
6.35. What is the water system in starfish? [5]
6.36. A. Explain why spiders are not insects? [3]
B. Identify the following arthropod. Give reasons for your answer. [4]
C. State the function of label B. [1]

A
6.37. A. Define metamorphosis. [1]
B. What is exoskeleton? [2]
C. Describe the life cycle of a grasshopper. [6]
6.38. A. How are bees socialized? [2]
B. Give a gross structure of a body of house fly. [4]
C. How does a butterfly sucks nectar from a flower? Describe about its apparatus. [3]
6.39. A. Identify mosquito A and B as male or female and Aedes or Anopheles. [2]

A B
B. Name a disease that is causes by both Aedes and Anopheles. [1]
6.40. A. Describe the structure and functions pedipalps in scorpion. [2]
B. How are pedipalps and chelicera of spider and scorpion similar and different? [2]
6.41. Explain why shrimps belong to crustacean. [3]
6.42. Tabulate to show three differences between centipedes and millipedes. [3]
6.43. Why are acorn worms not chordates? [3]
6.44. A. Describe about lamprey. [5]
B. What does it mean by poikilotherm? [1]
6.45. A. The following diagram shows external features of a shark. Outline the taxonomic position of shark. [1]

B. Why are they called cartilaginous fish? [1]

C. Add labels A and B to the diagram (label A shows gills and label B shows anal fin) [2]
6.46. A. Give a full external features of a bony fish. [3]
B. Compare and contrast Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes. [4]
C. Describe about circulation in bony fish with relevant diagram. [5]
6.47. List three orders of Amphibians and describe their characteristics. [6]
6.48. How would you distinguish snake and limbless amphibians? [2]
6.49. A. What is venom? [2]
B. Describe about neurotoxic venom. [3]
C. Describe the morphology of king cobra. [5]
D. A man was bitten by a snake which he does not know the name of. He did was in serious pain and is
almost unconscious. His family brought him to hospital. The doctor asked them whether they saw the
snake. His sister said, “I saw a long snake with pointed snout and a sharp pointed tail. As soon as I saw
the snake, it quickly ran away. It also has big scales on head. There are stripes on the body. That’s all I
saw”. Is the snake venomous? Which features made it obvious? [2]
6.50. A. Some birds like ostriches cannot fly. Which features might they be lacking? [2]
B. What are the beaks of birds for? [5]
6.51. Explain the mechanism of flight in birds and name two physical forces involved. [6]
6.52. A. How are mammals different from other vertebrates? [4]
B. What does “parental care” means? [1]
C. Whales are aquatic mammals. Explain why they belong to class Mammalia. [4]
6.53. A. Why do humans belong to superclass Tetrapoda? [1]
B. State characteristics of family Hominidae. [6]
6.54. A. Describe about the following ball of cells. [3]

B. Some animals have no distinct mouth and anus. Explain why this happen? [2]
C. What is meant by diploblast? [1]
6.55. A. Calculate surface area to volume ratio of the following cubes. [4]
(i) Animal A, Side = 4 cm
(ii) Animal B, Side = 7 cm
B. Conclude on your result. [2]
6.56. What is meant by countercurrent system in fish? Why is it efficient? [3]
6.57. Draw a diagrammatic drawing of a frog’s heart labeling the chambers. [5]
6.58. Describe about development of kidneys in human. [5]
6.59. Explain why fish have larger cerebellum. [2]
6.60. Identify the names of the given animal A and B by using identification keys. [2]

A. B.