O.W.

Andersen

USER’S MANUAL FLD8

SKIN EFFECT AND EDDY CURRENTS

PROGRAM INSTALLATION

FLD8 is transmitted as a zip-file. It is extracted and installed in any directory (folder). The program can
also be installed on a memory stick and run from there.

RUNNING THE DEMO INPUT

Here all the Command Prompt commands and file names will be in capital letters. However, they are case
insensitive, and small letters can also be used.

To run the program with an input file DEMO.INP, enter:

RUN DEMO.INP

After a few seconds, a flux plot with 25 flux lines appears on the screen. It has been drawn on a Visual
Basic Form. If the picture appears to be cropped or too small, adjust the file SIZESCR.FIL. At the same
time a bitmap picture file PLOTFILE.BMP has been produced. Close the form and enter command:

PLOT

The flux plot now reappears in a standard Windows program. The tic-marks to the left and at the bottom
show the positions of horizontal and vertical finite element grid lines. The conductor is red.

If it is now desired to print the flux plot, crop the picture file first to remove empty space and save it.
Microsoft Office Picture Manager or Microsoft Paint can be used for that. Rather than printing it directly,
it is recommended to transfer the picture file to Microsoft Word. Here it can easily be resized and
comments added before printing.

Output from FLD8 is stored in file OUTPUT. To display it on the screen, enter:

FILE OUTPUT

Batch command FILE starts the standard Windows program NOTEPAD. It will be used here for viewing,
editing and printing text files. The first time it is invoked, it should be set to Courier New size 9, word
wrap, and to no top and bottom extra text when printing. The window should always be maximized.
 -2-

To display the finite element grid on the screen, enter:

GRID
After the form is closed, the grid also reappears with the command:
PLOT

INPUT

The demo input file can be viewed with the command:

FILE DEMO.INP

What the numbers mean can be found on the input sheet, page 5. For an explanation of what else can be
done with the input file, copy it first to a new file with the command:

COPY DEMO.INP NEW.INP

Introduce headings with the command:

HEADINGS NEW.INP

To see how the file now has been modified, enter:

FILE NEW.INP

The abbreviated headings on the input file also explain the numbers. With a little experience, that
explanation suffices to enter new numbers and to make up new input files.

Old input as similar as possible is first copied to a new input file. Then headings are introduced and the file
changed. Numbers always start in columns 1, 11, 21 and so on. They can be entered with or without
decimal point.

Before the new file can be run, the headings must be removed. Do this first with:

CLEANUP NEW.INP

A file without headings can have headings introduced and be viewed at the same time with:

HEADFILE NEW.INP
 -3-

Input must be entered very carefully, following explanations on the input sheets and instructions elsewhere
in this manual. Small mistakes like a comma instead of a decimal point or a number starting in the wrong
column are not tolerated. Some mistakes are caught by the program and are explained on the output.
Another way to catch mistakes is by giving a command such as:

CHECK NEW.INP

The input must here be in the standard format, without headings. A picture similar to a flux plot, but
without flux lines, will be displayed on the screen. Mistakes with the geometry can be caught this way.

Headings can also be removed and the file run at the same time with:

CLEANRUN NEW.INP

Another command which does the same, and also modifies the input grid automatically, if necessary to
satisfy program requirements, is:

CORRECT NEW.INP

Modified input will replace the original input, in this case in file NEW.INP. If desired, the original input
can be retrieved from file INP1.FIL.

Before modification of the grid with CORRECT, it should be reasonably close to being right, and the
number of vertical and horizontal break lines should be less than the maximum 64 with a good margin.
However, even so, there is no guarantee of a successful modification.
 -4-

PROGRAM DESCRIPTION

A derivation of the finite element equations and the diffusion equation governing this type of problems can
be found in the paper:

O.W. Andersen, "Finite Element Solution of Skin Effect and Eddy Current Problems", IEEE Paper
A77 616-6, Mexico City July 1977.

An early version of the automatic grid generation is described in the paper:

O.W. Andersen, "Laplacian Electrostatic Field Calculations by Finite Elements with Automatic Grid
Generation", IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-92, Sept./Oct. 1973,
pp. 1485-1492.

The grid generation has since been vastly improved, to give the best possible grid under all circumstances
with maximum numerical accuracy, and a minimum of restrictions on the input specifications.
SKIN EFFECT AND EDDY CURRENTS PROGRAM FLD8 INPUT SHEET

Numerical data are entered with the first digit in columns 1,11,21 etc., as indicated. (Does not apply to coordinate lines.)
Decimal point is optional.

IDENTIFICATION (line 1): No commas and max. 80 characters, including blanks

Col. Data Line

FLAT / AXI-SYMMETRIC FIELD (1 or 2) 1
MINIMUM RADIUS (zero if flat field) 11
SCALE, INPUT DRAWING (usually 1) 21
NUMBER OF PHASES (USUALLY 0, 1, 2 or 3) 31
RMS PHASE CURRENT ( 0 only if no. of phases  0) 41 2
FREQUENCY 51
PERIODICITY CONDITION (yes = 1 or 2, no = 0, usually 0) *1 61
IF YES, ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT (degrees, otherwise 0) 71
1 3
VERTICAL GRID 11 4
DENSITY BREAK LINES 21 5
(Remainder of lines must 31 6
be filled out with zeros. 41 7
Max. 300 grid lines and 51 8
30000 nodes.) 61 9
71 10
COORDINATE LINE(S) *2 11
1 12
HORIZONTAL GRID 11 13
DENSITY BREAK LINES 21 14
(Remainder of lines must 31 15
be filled out with zeros. 41 16
Max. 300 grid lines and 51 17
30000 nodes.) 61 18
71 19
COORDINATE LINE(S) *2 20
DETAILED INFORMATION REQUIRED BETWEEN
FIRST HORIZONTAL LINE ) 1 21
LAST HORIZONTAL LINE ) zeros, if not 11 22
FIRST VERTICAL LINE ) required 21 23
LAST VERTICAL LINE ) 31
SCALE, FLUX PLOT (on printer or plotter, but not used on newer computers) 1
NUMBER OF FLUX LINES 11 24
NUMBER OF CONTOUR LINES (max. 150) 21

For each contour line:

NUMBER OF POINTS (max. 150, 1500 total) *3 1
REL. PERMEABILITY (0 or 1, except for iron) 11
CONDUCTIVITY, M/OHM*SQ.MM ( 47.6 for Cu) 21 25
PHASE CONNECTION (usually 0, 1, 2 or 3) 31 27
DIRECTION OF PHASE CURRENT (0, 1 or -1) 41 29
CODE *4 51
COORDINATE LINE(S) *2 26,28,30

*1: See page 8 for codes 1 and 2. Code 3 forces internal node numbering to be done horizontally, code 4 vertically.
Code 4 is often used when sheet windings are present (see page 7).
*2: See separate description.
*3: Actually pairs of coordinates, codes, etc.
*4: See next page.
 -6-

CODES (input lines 25, 27 etc.)

0 Normal eddy current zone. One or more parallel phase connected conductors, all with the same U.
Non phase connected conductors with U=0.

1 Area excluded from the calculations, with flux lines perpendicular.

2 Specified flux line, or area bounded by specified flux line. Flux lines should usually be entered
first, so that they receive the proper code throughout, also if they have line segments in common
with other contour lines. The grid is fitted to the line segments only the first time they are entered.
Normally the items in columns 11 to 41 are entered as zeros, and the vector potential A will be kept
constant equal to zero along the line (and within the line, if it is a closed curve). This also serves the
purpose of providing a reference potential for the program. Therefore, it is necessary to enter at
least one flux line. However, it can be specified as a single point. In some rare cases it is desirable
to enter flux lines with A different from zero. This is done by giving the absolute value of A in
column 31, and the phase angle in degrees in column 41 (see "Calculation by Analogies").

2.1 Linear variation of vector potential along a straight line. The absolute value of the vector potential
at the first point is given in column 11, the phase angle in degrees in column 21. For the second
point, vector potential and phase angle are given in columns 31 and 41.

2.2 Vector potential in axi-symmetric fields inversely proportional to radius along a straight line. The
absolute value of the vector potential at the first point is given in column 31, the phase angle in
degrees in column 41. This makes the line into a flux line with Ar constant, but different from zero.

3 One or more parallel phase connected conductors with uniform current distribution.

4 Conductors with eddy currents, sharing total phase current equally.

5 Similar to code 4, but specifies half a conductor, often next to a centerline.

6 Single non phase connected conductor with zero total current. For codes 4-8, the program is limited
to 10 different values of U.

7 Parallel non phase connected conductors with zero total current.

8 Conductor with total current specified in column 31, phase angle in degrees in column 41. Non
uniform current distribution.

9 Similar to code 8, but for uniform current distribution.

 -7-

10 As code 8, but makes U a function of total current and vector potentials at all the nodes in a conductor.
The function is derived by multiplying both sides of Eq. 8 in the paper "Finite Element Solution ---" by
triangle area, and summing up for all the triangles in the conductor. This increases the band width of
the matrix equation, but may be acceptable if the node numbers (in the internal numbering) are not too
far apart. This is often the case in sheet windings of transformers and reactors. The internal node
numbering must be in the direction of the sheet, i.e. in the vertical direction. A code 4 in column 61 on
input line 2 forces it to be done this way. The sheets must be separated by insulation of a finite
thickness, and there must be two vertical grid lines per sheet. The total number of horizontal grid lines
plus the number of horizontal grid lines across the sheet must not exceed 174. Code 10 gives a one
pass solution, and within the limitations of the grid layout, there can be any number of different values
of U.

15 Saturable iron (see page 24). Permeability and conductivity are given as zero in the input data. Current
carrying conductors should preferably have codes 3 or 9 when saturable iron is present.

OTHER INPUT SPECIFICATIONS

LINE 1. The identification can consist of up to 80 characters, including blanks. Most combinations of
letters, numbers and special symbols on the keyboard can be used.

LINE 2. Even though it is not mentioned on the input sheet, a zero can also be entered in column 1. This
signifies that the contour lines are specified in polar coordinates, and that the initial grid consists of circular
arcs and radial lines. A more detailed explanation of this will be given later (page 13).

10 added to the number in column 1 signifies that the input after line 2 is to be generated by a subroutine
INPGN.

The drawing is always oriented with the x or r-axis horizontally, and with the y or z-axis vertically. The
origin for input coordinates can be anywhere as long as all the coordinates come out positive, but output
coordinates always have:

x-min = 0 (Flat field)

r-min = minimum radius, as specified in column 11 (Axi-symmetric field)
y-min = 0 (Flat field)
z-min = 0 (Axi-symmetric field)

Axi-symmetric problems always have the z-axis to the left. The minimum radius is the true radius from the
axis of symmetry. It will be equal to zero if the axis of symmetry is the left field boundary.

The scale of the input drawing (a smaller drawing has a smaller scale) should nearly always be specified as
one. In any case, it should be between 0.1 and 10, for the output to contain a sufficient number of
significant digits. If in fact the scale is outside of this range, it should be multiplied by an appropriate
factor, for example 0.1 or 10, to make it come out right. The specified minimum radius (col. 11) and the
output information must then also be modified accordingly.

The number of phases and the rms phase current can be given as zero, if codes applying to phase connected
conductors are not used.
 -8-

The periodicity condition can be used both with Cartesian and polar coordinates. It is a boundary condition
for the left and the right boundaries, as shown on the figure. If it applies, a code 1 is specified in column
61.

A1 A2 A2

A1
Cartesian coordinates Polar coordinates

Vector potentials in corresponding positions have the same absolute value |A1| = |A2|, and an angular
displacement as specified in column 71.

The matrix band width limits the number of vertical or radial grid lines to 173 when periodicity condition
with code 1 applies.

A code 2 in column 61 signifies that the periodicity condition applies to the lower and upper boundaries, in
a similar way.

With polar coordinates, a complete circle can be calculated. The last radial grid line will then coincide with
the first. The periodicity condition must be specified, and the angular displacement given as zero.

LINES 3 TO 10.

20

17

1
1 7 14

Line numbers are entered for vertical grid lines, where the grid density changes (grid density break lines).
In the example in the figure, which shows a cylindrical conductor over a plate, they are 1, 7 and 14.
 -9-

Flux densities are assumed to be constant within each triangle in the numerical solution, and the grid should
be fine enough for this to be true within acceptable accuracy, especially in critical regions. In any case, the
grid lines must be close enough, so that contour line points are at least as far apart as the grid lines in the
same region.

LINE(S) 11. One or more lines which contain x or r-coordinates of the grid density break lines are entered
here. Up to 10 coordinates are entered on one line. Each coordinate consists of a five digit number with one
digit after the decimal point. Then there is a blank before the next coordinate. When a coordinate is less
than 1000 mm, it is entered with leading zeros. In the example, the coordinates are:

0000.0 0015.0 0085.0

LINES 12 TO 19. In the example, horizontal grid density break line numbers are 1, 17 and 20.

LINE 20. y-coordinates in the example:

0000.0 0040.0 0070.0

LINES 21 TO 23. The detailed output information increases the bulk of the output and the computing time
significantly, and should therefore be limited to those areas where it is of real interest. The information
includes node coordinates, vector potentials, permeabilities, conductivities, current densities and flux
densities.

If only one area of detailed output is desired, lines 22 and 23 are filled out with zeros.

LINES 25. It is important that the contour lines are entered in a proper sequence, since the grid is fitted
to line segments that are common for two or more lines only the first time they are entered. This usually
means that flux lines should be entered first, so that they receive the proper code throughout.

The number of points (col. 1, line 25) is used only to enable the program to read the input properly. It
actually means the number of pairs of five digit numbers, entered in coordinate line format. This should be
kept in mind when preprogrammed shapes (see separate instructions) are used to describe the contour lines.

For structural steel, a relative permeability of 400 will often make the calculated losses come out about
right, even though in actual fact the conditions are highly non linear. The reasons for this are explained in
the paper "Finite Element Solution ---". The conductivity of structural steel is often in the neighborhood of
6.5 m/ohm*sq.mm.
 - 10 -

COORDINATE LINES

A line can contain one, two, three, four or five pairs of coordinates, codes, etc. When more lines are needed
because there are more than five pairs, only the last line can have fewer than five.

Each coordinate usually consists of a five digit number, with one digit after the decimal point. Then there is
a blank before the next coordinate. The x or r-coordinate is entered first, then the y or
z-coordinate. When a coordinate is less than 1000 mm, it is entered with leading zeros. Example:

0000.0 0100.0 0030.2 0400.5 0102.6 1206.8

x y x y x y
point 1 point 2 point 3

Other possibilities are:

123.45 Normally coordinates can be rounded to the nearest 1/10 mm.

1234.56 To be avoided, because no blank will separate the next number.
-123.4 Permissible as coordinate of center of circular arc.

PREPARATION OF INPUT DRAWING

The preparation of the input drawing for transfer of coordinates should be done with great care.

1. A rectangular section is framed (by pencil), where the field is to be calculated.

2. If the boundary conditions make it desirable, estimated flux lines can be drawn in, deleting parts of the
section from the calculations. This is rarely necessary.

3. Positions of grid density break lines, whose coordinates are to be entered on input lines 11 and 20, are
marked on a horizontal and a vertical line on the drawing. The spacing between the lines can also be put in,
and the line numbers which are to be entered on input lines 3-10 and 12-19. During this process it is
important to make mesh sizes reasonably in accordance with the requirements in the various areas. Near
the surface of conductors with eddy currents, the mesh depth should usually be no more than about 1/3 of
the theoretical depth of penetration. Outside of eddy current zones, the grid should have the finest meshes in
regions where the flux density is expected to change most rapidly. It is also important to observe
requirements 8 and 10 in the "Instructions for Entry of Coordinates". Grid lines must always be spaced at
least as close to each other as the contour line points in the same region. If they are not, the situation may
be remedied by running program CORRECT (see page 3).

4. Now all the points along conductors, estimated flux lines, etc., whose coordinates are to be entered, are
marked on the drawing. This is done in accordance with "Instructions for Entry of Coordinates".
 - 11 -

INSTRUCTIONS FOR ENTRY OF COORDINATES

1. The position of the reference point (origin) is unimportant, except that coordinates should always come
out positive.

2. The grid lines are horizontal and vertical, and the drawing should be oriented accordingly. For axi-
symmetric problems, the axis of symmetry must be in the vertical direction (the same as the y-direction in
flat, two dimensional problems), with the axis to the left.

3. On input line 11 only x(r)-coordinates are entered, on line 20 only y(z)-coordinates.

4. Contour lines can be open or closed curves. Single points can also be entered. For closed curves, the last
point must have the same coordinates as the first. Only for closed curves, permeability and conductivity
can be given different from zero. Whether the curves are entered in a clockwise or counter-clockwise
direction is unimportant.

5. When points are supposed to have the same coordinates, or a point is supposed to be on a line segment
belonging to another contour line, a maximum error of 0.01 mm is permitted, to allow for slight
inaccuracies.

6. When the same line segment is entered twice, the grid is only fitted to the line segment the first time.
Therefore, whenever specified flux lines have line segments in common with other contour lines, the flux
lines should be entered first, to make sure that all the points on them receive the proper code. At least one
flux line or point with code 2, 2.1 or 2.2 must be specified.

7. A maximum of 150 points is permitted per contour line, for a maximum of 150 lines, but the total
number of points must not exceed 1500. If more than 150 points are required for a contour line, it must be
divided up into two or more parts.

8. The points should not be closer to each other than necessary, and with a spacing at least equal to the
mesh size in that region (except when the points coincide).

9. If a contour line is put in outside of the section boundary, the program will move it to the section
boundary.

10. When part of a contour line follows a section boundary, this part must be entered first, and points
inside of the boundary must be further away from it than half a mesh size. This avoids problems that
otherwise might arise due to grid points being unavailable on the boundary when this part of the line is
fitted.

11. If a portion of the section is to be excluded from the calculations and the flux lines are to enter at right
angles, a closed curve around this portion is specified with code=1. If the area is to be bounded by a flux
line, code=2 is used.

12. Problems have sometimes arisen when three lines meet in a

point at sharp angles, as shown in the figure. In such a case, the
middle line must not be entered last, because grid points may then
no longer be available for the line fitting.
 - 12 -

13. In the figure, two intermediate points are marked on Contour 2 contour
1, coming from contour 2. Such intermediate points are put in
automatically by the program. Contour 1

ERROR MESSAGES

The program aborts and prints out one or more of the following error messages, if it is necessary to modify
the input.

1. The number of horizontal or vertical grid lines is more than 300.

2. The number of nodes in the grid is more than 30000.

3. There are more than 150 contour lines.

4. The contour line is described by more than 150 points.

5. The total number of points exceeds 1500.

6. The input is for a closed curve, but the last point on the contour line is not equal to the first.

7. The line fitting was interrupted for line segment - near -. (Coordinates define the line segment and the
point where the line fitting got stuck.)

8. This point is too close to the preceding point -. (The point is defined by its coordinates.)

9. The program has moved node no. - from one line to another line which is too close. (The node is defined
by its number and its coordinates.)

10. The area came out negative or zero for triangle with -. (The triangle is defined by its node numbers and
coordinates.) Change line sequence or move grid lines.

11. Coordinates of grid density break lines are not in increasing order.

12. There is no specified flux line.

13. The radial lines span more than 360 degrees (see the section on polar coordinates).

14. Due to the periodicity condition, half the band width came out more than 175.

15. With code=10, half the band width came out more than 175.

16. The program is limited to 10 applied voltages. In this case there are - .
 - 13 -

PREPROGRAMMED SHAPES

Two preprogrammed shapes that can be entered in a simplified manner are used very frequently, circular
arcs and rectangles with horizontal and vertical sides. The way they are entered will be explained by means
of the example in the figure.

mm
35

25

15

5
0
0 10 55 mm

The half cylindrical conductor includes a circular arc, described by 7 points, between which straight line
segments are drawn by the program. It can be specified as follows:

0000.0 0035.0
9000.0 0001.0 Codes
0007.0 0010.0 Number of points and radius
0000.0 0025.0 Coordinates of center (can be negative)
0270.0 0450.0 Starting angle and finish angle (degrees)

An x-coordinate 9000 mm is recognized by the program as a code, telling it that a preprogrammed shape of
some kind follows. The value 1 in the corresponding y-position indicates that the shape is a circular arc.

Angles are measured counter-clockwise from the horizontal, in the usual way. If the contour line progresses
through the arc counter-clockwise, as in the example, the finish angle must be greater than the starting
angle. Conversely, if the progression is clockwise, the finish angle must be smaller than the starting angle.

The bottom plate is a rectangle with horizontal and vertical sides, which can be specified as follows:

9000.0 0002.0 Codes

0000.0 0000.0 Coordinates of lower left corner
0055.0 0005.0 Coordinates of upper right corner
 - 14 -

Right angles with sharp and rounded corners have also been preprogrammed, but they are used much less
frequently.

SHARP RIGHT ANGLES (4 possible orientations)

X2, Y2
9000.0 0004.0 Codes
X1 Y1
X2 Y2
T1 T2
Th’k = T2

Th’k = T1

X1, Y1 X1, Y1

X2, Y2

CURVED RIGHT ANGLES (4 possible orientations)

The angles are similar to the ones shown above, except that the right angle corner is rounded. This makes
T1=T2=T, and the specifications are:

9000.0 0005.0 Codes

X1 Y1
X2 Y2
T R Thickness and inside radius of corner

In the region of the rounded corner, it is important that the grid is sufficiently dense. It will usually be
satisfactory to have the line spacing no more than T or (outside radius)/5, whichever is smaller.
7 contour line points are generated along the inside radius, 8 along the outside radius.
 - 15 -

POLAR COORDINATES

As mentioned earlier, a zero in column 1 of input line 2 signifies that the contour lines are specified in polar
coordinates, and that the initial grid consists of circular arcs and radial lines. In the example below, this
would be required.

outer flux line

boundary

cylindrical steel tank

center conductor
copper
bar symmetry
unmagnetic steel insert line

For the grid to come out with meshes of a finite size near the center where the radial lines meet, it is
necessary to have an inner boundary at some finite radius, for example 10-50 mm. So the center current
carrying conductor must be modeled with a hole in it, even though in actual fact it may be a solid cylinder.

The initial grid and the contour lines could be as shown below (an actual calculation for a similar
configuration had 32 * 32 grid lines).

radial
grid
line 6
3
21
1 23
tangential grid line
1 3 6 9,12,13 16
 - 16 -

Radial grid density break lines 1, 3, 6, 21 and 23 are entered on input line 3. Their positions are given on
input line 11, with x-coordinates as 1000 times radial positions in radians, starting with zero for grid line 1.
This is the same as tangential distance, normalized to a one meter radius.

The tangential grid density break lines are specified on input line 12, with y-coordinates given as the radius
directly on input line 20.

To enter the contours, they may be thought of as transformed to a coordinate system in which tangential
lines become horizontal and radial lines become vertical, as shown below.

outer flux line boundary

copper bar
steel tank

unmagnetic steel insert

center conductor

Coordinates are given in the same way as explained for the grid lines. Since all the contours are now
rectangles with horizontal and vertical sides, they can be specified in a simplified manner, as explained in
the section "Preprogrammed Shapes".

In the detailed output for the nodes and triangles, polar coordinates are changed to Cartesian coordinates,
with the origin in the bottom left corner.

The program accepts field problems in polar coordinates, which span up to 360 degrees. For 360 degrees,
the periodicity condition must be specified, and the angular displacement given as zero. For a problem
which spans 90 degrees, the drawing is oriented as shown on the next page.
 - 17 -

The first radial grid line is always in the same horizontal position.

The current in the center conductor is specified only for that part of the conductor which enters into the
calculation.

SCALING

Format specifications require input coordinates to be less than 10 meters. In some applications, this
limitation is exceeded, notably in geophysical applications, where it is desired to calculate induced currents
in rock and ore. Also, conductivities are very low in this case.

The problem can be reduced in size by a factor 1/k, where k can be in the order of 5000. Frequency and
permeabilities can be kept unchanged, and conductivities increased by a factor k2. The depth of penetration
then changes by a factor 1/k, the same as the other dimensions. Provided the inducing current is kept
unchanged, other calculated quantities change as follows:

Current density J proportional to k2

Flux density B proportional to k
Vector potential A unchanged
Voltage V/m U unchanged
Loss kW/m P unchanged
 - 18 -

CALCULATION BY ANALOGIES

Some problems are two-dimensional, but the currents flow parallel to the plane, not perpendicular to the
plane, as normally assumed by the program. Such problems can be solved with models by making use of
analogies according to the following table. Standard symbols are used, and the indices indicate directions in
Cartesian coordinates. In axi-symmetric problems with cylindrical coordinates, x and y are replaced by r
and z, and z is replaced by .

ACTUAL MODEL (calculated)

 x Hz = Jx,y  x Az = Bx,y

Jx,y Bx,y

Hz Az

Jx,y =  Ex,y Bx,y =  Hx,y

Ex,y Hx,y

 

 Ex,y Jx,y dv  Hx,y Bx,y dv

 x Ex,y = -j  Bz  x Hx,y = Jz

-j  Bz Jz

Bz =  Hz Jz =  Ez

 

-j  Hz Ez

2  Hz Bz dv  Ez Jz dv

The most important analogy is that flux density in the model corresponds to current density in the actual
problem. The flux lines in the flux plot are therefore interpreted as current flow lines.

It is seen from the analogies that the depth of penetration

2
=


is kept unchanged.
 - 19 -

In a normal set of input  is given as relative permeability, and the conductivity  in m/(ohm x mm2). In a
calculation by analogies it is convenient simply to interchange the values for  and , and to interpret the
output according to the table:

ACTUAL MODEL

Jx,y rms A/mm2 Bx,y peak tesla

Hz rms A/m Az  2 106 rms Wb/m

 Ex,y Jx,y dv watt ½  Hx,y Bx,y dv  0.8

with rms values of E and J with peak values of H and B

Bz peak tesla (j/) Jz  0.8 rms A/mm2

½  Hz Bz dv Ws (1/2)  Ez Jz dv  0.8 watt

with peak values of H and B with rms values of E and J

A typical example of a calculation by analogies is current distribution and losses in a busbar joint.

y
current
current x

It is assumed that dimensions in the z-direction are large compared to the y-direction, so that the problem is
essentially two-dimensional. The busbars can be of different thicknesses and materials, and contact
resistance can be taken into account.

The problem is solved by setting up a flux which replaces the current in the actual problem. This can be
done by means of the model:

A = -A0 y
A = -A0
A = A0 x
A = A0

An example of an axi-symmetric calculation by analogies is losses due to current flow through a hole in a
conducting plate.

A proportional to 1/r z
A1 A2
r

current
 - 20 -

LIST OF SYMBOLS IN COMMON BLOCKS

CDENS Array containing current densities A/sq.m in each triangle

CPOT Array containing vector potentials at each node
CURVO Array for applied voltages
J,1 Total current, applied voltage number J
2 Applied voltage, volts/m or volts/radian
DATLN Array containing data for contour lines
I,1 Relative permeability, contour line I
2 Conductivity, m/(ohms*sq.mm)
3 Phase connection. If code 8, 9 or 10, total current.
4 Direction of phase current (0, 1 or -1). If code 8, 9 or 10, phase angle of current.
5 Calculation code (see pages 8 and 9)
6 Applied voltage number J
7 Number of parallel conductors
8 Min. x or r-coordinate, mm
9 Max. x or r-coordinate, mm
10 Min. y or z-coordinate, mm
11 Max. y or z-coordinate, mm
12 Uniform current loss, kW/m or kW/circle
13 Sum of D (twice area), sq.m
14 Sum of D times radius to centroid, cub.m
15 Actual loss, kW/m or kW/circle
DISPL Angular displacement for periodicity condition
FLAXI 0.0 = polar coordinate flat field, 1.0 = Cartesian coordinate flat field,
2.0 = axi-symmetric field
FLXLN Number of flux lines
FREQ Frequency
HORF Array containing first horizontal grid lines, detailed output
HORL Array containing last horizontal grid lines, detailed output
I5 Number of triangles
I6 Number of nodes
IDENT Array containing run identification
ILN Array containing last contour point numbers, numbered consecutively.
ITRI4 Array containing contour line numbers for each triangle
ITRI5 Array containing applied voltage numbers for each triangle
LINC Array containing coordinates for all the contour points, mm
LINTO Total number of contour lines
LNHOR Number of horizontal grid lines
LNVER Number of vertical grid lines
MASS Logical unit number for mass storage device (= 3)
NCOD3 = 0 if no codes 3 or 9, 1 otherwise
NOCOL Number of columns in grid
NVOLT Number of independent applied voltages U
OUT Logical unit number for output device (= 6)
PCHH Array containing horizontal grid line numbers, where the grid density changes
PCHV As above, but for vertical grid lines
 - 21 -

PHAS Number of phases

PHCUR Rms phase current
PER Periodicity condition, yes = 1 or 2, no = 0 (see page 10)
PERMO Permeability of free space, 4.0**10-7
PI 3.1415927
POINT Array containing node numbers for all the contour points
RMIN Minimum radius to left field boundary, axi-symmetric fields
SCALE Scale of flux plot on printer or plotter. Not used on newer computers.
TRI Array containing triangle information
I,1 Relative permeability
2 Conductivity, m/(ohms*sq.mm)
VERF Array containing first vertical grid lines, detailed output
VERL Array containing last vertical grid lines, detailed output
VERT Array containing data for the nodes (vertices)
I,1 x or r-coordinate, meters (initially mm)
2 y or z-coordinate, meters (initially mm)
WARN Warning code (refers to format number for message)
XPOS Array containing x or r-positions of vertical grid lines, mm
YPOS Array containing y or z-positions of horizontal grid lines, mm
 - 22 -

LOSSES IN SUBDIVIDED CONDUCTORS

An ac current carrying conductor is often subdivided into small series connected or transposed
subconductors or strands, where all the strands are forced to carry the same total current. The overall
current density distribution in the conductor is essentially uniform, but eddy currents will flow within the
strands, because of the ac flux cutting through them. The following output information makes it possible to
calculate the losses due to such eddy currents:

SUM BX-SQUARED TIMES CUB.M

SUM BY-SQUARED TIMES CUB.M
BX-MAX
BY-MAX

In axi-symmetric fields, BR replaces BX, and BZ replaces BY.

kW eddy current loss due to either BX(R) or BY(Z) is:

(fill factor) * ( * f * mm)2 * (B2 m3) / (resistivity * 6000)

where:

fill factor = net/gross conductor area

f = frequency
mm = strand dimension in mm perpendicular to the flux
B = peak value of flux density in tesla, either in the x(r) or y(z)-direction. The program output is for peak
values.
resistivity = ohms * sq.mm/m (.0.021 for Cu at 75 degrees)

The per unit eddy current loss due to either BX(R) or BY(Z) is:

{( * f * mm * B-MAX)/(1000 * resistivity * A/mm2)}2/6

where:

A/mm2 = rms current divided by net conductor area

Again, for B-MAX the peak value should be used, as supplied by the program output.
 - 23 -

POST PROCESSING

After the main program has been run, the run identification and all the essential calculated and input
information are in file FOR.FIL, and can be retrieved for further processing. This includes all the vector
potentials, current densities and node and contour line coordinates.

Three post processors are supplied with the program, both in source code and in executable versions. One
of them calculates forces in both directions at t=0 and average through the cycle, between specified grid
lines. It is started with the command:

FORCES

Output will appear on the screen.

If a graph of flux densities is required, another post processor is started with the command:

GRAPHF

Some questions on the screen must be answered. One of them asks if flux densities should be on a straight
line or a contour line. They will be below or to the left, if there is a choice. If they are different from zero
only on one side. those values will be used.

The last post processor is for a graph of current densities:

GRAPHC

The Fortran source code for all post processors is in file PPROC.FOR. It contains numerous comment
lines, and new post processors can be added by the user, if desired. A suitable Fortran 77 compiler must
then be available, such as the free Watcom compiler.
 - 24 -

SATURABLE IRON

Data for saturable iron are in file ATPCM.FIL. Part of the file with data for two materials is shown below.
The file can contain data for up to 20 different materials, and it can be changed and added to by the
program user.

For saturable iron with codes 15, permeability and conductivity are given as zero in the input data.
Current carrying conductors can only have codes 3 and 9 when saturable iron is present (the current
distribution must be uniform).

The relaxation factor 0.1 at the end of the file should ideally be set to give optimum convergence, and the
user may want to try a different factor. The solution will not converge at all if the factor is set too high.
How the convergence has proceeded can be seen from the output file.

FLD8 solves the field problem by calculating complex potentials, which implies that currents, voltages and
flux densities all vary sinusoidally. This in turn means that the permeability at a given point is assumed to
be constant, and in saturated iron it must represent a weighted average through the cycle.
Therefore, it must be calculated for a flux density which is lower than the peak value, and the factor 0.9 at
the end of the file has been found to be about right. It also includes a correction for a stacking factor
slightly less than one. It may be changed if a different factor gives better agreement between tests and
calculations.

Interpolation is done along straight line segments between points on a graph with flux density on a linear
scale along the abscissa and AT/cm on a logarithmic scale along the ordinate. Below 1 tesla, AT/cm is taken
proportional to flux density. Above 2.1 tesla, AT/cm versus flux density is assumed to have the same slope
as in air.

SATURATION CURVES
AMPERETURNS PER CM FOR B=1.0,1.1--2.1
CODE=15.0 0.35 MM H-10
1 1.3 1.8 2.9 5.7 14.3 35 66 107 167 295 875
CODE=16.0 0.5 MM 1.3W
1.8 2.3 2.9 4.1 6.5 11.1 20 39 65 111 200 510
CODE=17.0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
---------------------
CODE=34.0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
RELAXATION FACTOR (about 0.08-0.13)
0.1
MAX. NO. OF ITERATIONS (about 30-50)
50
MAX PERCENT CHANGE OF POTENTIAL (about 0.01-0.05)
0.03
B-FACTOR (avg. through cycle = factor times peak, with factor about 0.9)
0.9
 - 25 –

THE COMMAND PROMPT ENVIRONMENT

The Command Prompt window should be maximized and the size adjusted to fill the screen after right
clicking the top title bar. Cursor size small and letter size 12x16 pixels are recommended. If Command
Prompt goes into full screen mode by an application, it can be brought back with Alt-Enter.

Since many PC users are not familiar with Command Prompt, here are some hints and frequently used
commands. The commands are examples and may be modified in obvious manners. Large and small letters
are interchangeable.

Commands given once on startup, perhaps in a STARTUP.BAT file:

SET COPYCMD=/Y Deactivates warning on overwriting existing files.
PATH=C:\SYSTEM;C:\QBASIC Specifies search paths for executable files.
SUBST P: C:\DRIVEP Substitutes drive P for directory (or folder) C:\DRIVEP making P a virtual drive
(or unit).

Other commands:
C: Moves to unit C or another unit.
CD\ Changes to base directory.
MD GRAPHICS Makes directory GRAPHICS.
CD\GRAPHICS Changes directory to GRAPHICS, just below the base directory.
COPY OLD.INP NEW.INP Copies old file OLD.INP to a new file NEW.INP.
COPY /? Explains options available for command COPY.
REN OLD.INP NEW.INP Renames OLD.INP as NEW.INP.
DEL OLD.INP Deletes OLD.INP.
DIR *.INP Lists all files in the directory with extension INP.
DIR *.I?? Lists all files in the directory with three letter extension starting with I.
START NOTEPAD OUTPUT Invokes Windows program NOTEPAD with file OUTPUT.
START PLOTFILE.BMP Starts a standard Windows program to process the bitmap file.