1.

INTRODUCTION

In hydraulic engineering practice, it is frequently necessary to estimate the head loss

incurred by a fluid as it flows along a pipeline. For example, it may be necessary to
calculate what additional head would be required to double the rate of flow along an
existing pipeline.

Loss of head is incurred by fluid mixing which occurs at fittings such as bends or
valves, and by frictional resistance at the pipe wall. Where there are numerous fittings and
the pipe is short, the major part of the head loss will be due to the local mixing near the
fittings. For a long pipeline, on the other hand, skin friction at the pipe wall will
predominate.

As water flows through a pipeline, energy is lost due to friction along pipe walls and
flow separation at fittings. This energy loss is termed head loss. The head loss due to pipe
friction is commonly estimated using the Darcy-Weisbach equation. The required friction
factor is obtained from the Moody Diagram as a function of Reynolds number and the
roughness of the pipe.

1
2. OBJECTIVE

One of the most common problems in fluid mechanics is the estimation of pressure loss.
The objective of this experiment is ;

i. To investigate the head loss between straight line flow and u line flow

ii. To enable pressure loss measurements to be made on several small bore pipe circuit
components such as pipe bends valves and sudden changes in area of flow

iii. The goal of this laboratory is to study head losses due in fluid flows through pipes.

iv. To investigate the effect of Reynolds number on head loss.

2
3. THEORY

Pipe flows belong to a broader class of flows, called internal flows, where the fluid is
completely bounded by solid surfaces. In contrast, in external flows, such as flow over a
flat plate or an airplane wing, only part of the flow is bounded by a solid surface. The term
pipe flow is generally used to describe flow through round pipes, ducts, nozzles, sudden
expansions and contractions, valves and other fittings. In this experiment we will limit our
study to flow through round pipes and pipe fittings, such as elbows and valves.

When liquid flows through a pipe, there is a loss of pressure in the fluid, because
energy is required to overcome the viscous or frictional forces exerted by the walls of the
pipe on the moving fluid. In addition to the energy lost due to frictional forces, the flow
also loses energy (or pressure) as it goes through fittings, such as valves, elbows,
contractions and expansions. This loss in pressure is mainly due to the fact that flow
separates locally as it moves through such fittings. The pressure loss in pipe flows is
commonly referred to as head loss. The frictional losses are referred to as major losses (HL
Major) while losses through fittings, etc, are called minor losses (HL Minor). Together they
make up the total head losses (HL TOTAL) for pipe flows. Hence:

HL TOTAL = HL Major + HL Minor (1)

Head losses in pipe flows can be calculated by using a special form of the energy
equation discussed in the next section.

3
3.1 Energy Equation for Pipe Flows

Consider steady, incompressible flow through a piping system. The energy

equation between points 1 and 2 for this flow can be written as:

L V^2
HL Major = 𝑓 (2)
𝐷 2𝑔

In the above equation, the terms in the parenthesis represent the mechanical energy
per unit mass at a particular cross-section in the pipe. Hence, the difference between
the mechanical energy at two locations, i.e. the total head loss, is a result of the
conversion of mechanical energy to thermal energy due to frictional effects.

The significant parameters in equation 2 are described below:

 Flow in a pipe is considered laminar if Reynolds number, Re < 2000, where Re

= ρVavgD/µ
 V is the average velocity at a cross section.
 HL TOTAL, as discussed earlier, is the total head loss between cross-sections 1 and
2. Details of calculating the head loss are discussed in the next section.

3.2 Calculation of Head Loss

Major Loss
The major head loss in pipe flows is given by;

Le V^2
HL,major = 𝑓 (3)
𝐷 2𝑔

Where 𝑓 is define by ;
64
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒

4
In addition , to get Vavg ;

𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴

Where ,
𝑚3
Q = flowrate ( )
𝑠

A = Area of pipe (𝑚2 )

Refer to equation 3, L and D are the length and diameter of the pipe, respectively, V
is the average fluid velocity through the pipe and f is the friction factor for the
section of the pipe. In general, the friction factor is a function of the Reynolds
number and the non-dimensional surface roughness, e/D. The friction factor is
determined experimentally and is usually published in graphical form as a function
of Reynolds number and surface roughness.

When the Reynolds number is below 2300 and the flow can be assumed to be
laminar. And if the Reynolds number is above from 4000, it can be assumed as
turbulent.

Minor Loss
Another common way to express minor head loss is in terms of frictional (major)
head loss through an equivalent length, Le, of a straight pipe. In this form, the
minor head loss is written as:

V^2
HL,minor = 𝑘𝐿 (4)
2𝑔

Loss coefficients, K and equivalent lengths can be found in a variety of handbooks;

representative data for limited fittings is available in most undergraduate Fluid
Mechanics texts.

5
 Total Head Loss
Total head loss can be expressed as :

HL,total = HL,major + HL,minor

4. APPARATUS USES IN THE EXPERIMENT

The tools required to implement this project as below :

1. Hydraulic bench
2. Water pump
3. PVC pipe
4. Elbow or bend pipe
5. Expansions and contraction pipe
6. Valve
7. Manometer tube
8. PVC glue
9. Cable tie
10. Steel or wooden plate

6
5. PROCEDURE

1. Set up the apparatus and equipment as shown in the Figure 6.1.1

2. Switch ‘ON’ the water pump and make sure the water flow smoothly through the
pipe.
3. To test the water flow through the straight pipe, open the ball valve 2 and 3 and close
the ball valve 1 and 4.
4. Take the reading of the pressure different at the transparent hose (manometer system)
at the P1 and P2. Record the data.
5. Take the reading of the volume and time of the water that flow out from the system
using the stopwatch for 15 seconds. Record the data.
6. To test the water flow through the bends pipe, open the ball valve 1 and 4 and close
the ball valve 2 and 3.
7. Repeat the steps 4 and 5 to take the measure the pressure different and the mass flow
for the bend pipe. Record the data.

7
6.0 RESULT

6.1) Apparatus Design

Straight line flow

U-line flow

8
6.2) Result and Calculation

a) Experimental Result

HL

Table 1.0

b) Theoretical Result

Table 2.0

 All flow rate reading is taken in 30s

 Diameter of pipe = 0.015 m
 Density of water, 𝜌: 1000kg/𝑚3
 Kinematic Viscosity of water, 𝜇 : 1.138×10−3
𝜌𝑉𝑑
 Reynolds Number, Re =
𝜇
𝑄
 Vᵃᵛᵉ =
𝐴
64
 Darcy Friction for Laminar Flow, f = 𝑅𝑒

 KL Ball Valve = 0.05

 KL T-Junction = 1.0
 KL elbow (Bend & Branched) = 0.3

9
6.2.1 To find the average velocity of each pipe

a) Straight Line Flow

𝜋𝑑 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 =
4

𝜋(0.015)2
=
4

= 1.767 × 10−4 𝑚2

𝑄
𝑉 =
𝐴
0.0033
= 1.767×10−4

𝑚
= 18.67
𝑠

b) U-Line Flow

𝑄
𝑉=
𝐴
0.00257
=
1.767 × 10−4
𝑚
= 14.54
𝑠

10
6.2.2 To find total Reynolds number and Darcy Friction factor for each pipe

a) Straight Line Flow

𝜌𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

1000 (18.67)(0.82)
𝑅𝑒 =
1.138 × 10−3
𝑅𝑒 = 13452899.82

64
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒
64
𝑓=
13452899.82
𝑓 = 4.757 × 10−6

b) U-Line Flow

𝜌𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

1000(14.54)(1.48)
𝑅𝑒 =
1.138 × 10−3
𝑅𝑒 = 18909666.08

64
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒
64
𝑓=
18909666.08
𝑓 = 3.385 × 10−6

11
6.2.3 To find total Head Loss for each pipe

a) Straight Flow

(0.82) (18.67)2
𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 4.757 × 10−6 × ×
(0.015) 2(9.81)

= 0.0044 𝑚

𝐾𝐿=6.8
18.67
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = [2(0.05)] ×
2(9.81)
= 1.998 𝑚

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 + 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

= 0.0044 + 1.998 = 2 𝑚

b) U-Line Flow

(1.48) (14.54)2
𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 3.385 × 10−6 × ×
0.015 2(9.81)
= 3.588 × 10−3 𝑚

(14.54)2
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = [2(0.3) + 2(1.0) + 2(0.05)] ×
2(9.81)
= 29.09 𝑚

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 + 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

= 29.09 + (3.588 × 10−3 )

= 29.1 𝑚

12
6.3) Graph of the U-line and straight in terms of Head Loss in pipe

35

30

25

20
u-pipe
15 straight pipe
10

0
U-pipe Straigth

13
7. DISCUSSION

a) Discuss about the graph have been plotted

From the results, we can conclude that the head loss in the U- line flow is much greater
than the straight pipe line. This is because, the length of the pipe is different and it
influences the head loss of each type of pipe.

b) The Differences of Flow Rates in Pipes, Will it affect the Head Loss
Measurement?

Note that pressure drop (ie: head loss) is a function of the velocity squared, so
doubling the flow rate doubles velocity which quadruples pressure drop. However, the
friction factor f, also changes depending on Reynolds number, which may or may not
change significantly as flow rate changes. But as a general rule of thumb, pressure
drop changes as a function of the square of flow rate, assuming the change in density is
relatively small. So this holds well for water, but less well for compressible gasses.

c) Factor that effect the experiment result and how to improving the apparatus

Factor that effect the experiment is, firstly flow rate, when the flow rate increases, the
velocity of the liquid increases at the same rate. The friction or resistance to flow (due
to viscosity) also increases. The head loss is related to the square of the velocity so the
increase in loss is very quick. Other than that, roughness of the inside pipe wall
increases so does the thickness of the slow or non-moving boundary layer of
liquid. The resulting reduction in flow area increases the velocity of the liquid and
increases the head loss due to friction. Last but not least, the elbows, tees, valves, and
other fittings are necessary to a piping system for a pump. It must be remembered that
fittings disrupt the smooth flow of the liquid being pumped. When the disruption
occurs, head loss due to friction occurs. At a given flow rate the losses for the fittings
will be calculated using a factor that must be multiplied by a velocity head figure, or
as the head loss equivalent to a straight length of pipe.

14
d) Forms of Flow Resistance (Head Loss due to Friction)

The higher the viscosity of the liquid is, the higher the resistance to flow, therefore,
the higher the friction loss. A layer is formed by this non-moving liquid and reduces
the inside diameter of the pipe. This increases the velocity of the liquid passing
through it. The head loss from friction is related to the velocity energy (V 2/2g) of the
liquid squared. The liquid is not moving at the pipe wall but has a much higher
velocity at the center of the pipe. The condition of the inside of a pipe also has a great
effect on the head loss of the flow of liquid. The rougher it is, the thicker the layer of
non-moving or slow moving liquid near the pipe wall. This reduces the inside
diameter of the pipe, increasing the velocity of the liquid. With the increase in
velocity comes an increase in friction losses.

e) Compare and discuss the result of theoretical and experimental experiment

From the experiment, we can see that the theoretical result against experimental result
is bigger different. Head loss in experimental result is below 1meter but in theoretical,
for both u-pipe and straight pipe results is more than 1meter. The bigger different in
this experiment may occur because of parallel error during conducting the experiment.
It maybe because have bubble inside the pipe line when experiment run, and when
take the reading the position of eyes and body is not in the correct way. Both can
affect the results.

15
8. CONCLUSION

As a conclusion, the experiments that have been carried out were successful, even
though the data collected are a difference compared to the theoretical. We can conclude
that the head loss in u-pipe is greater than straight pipe. That is because of u-pipe had
many components such as elbow bends, valve and T-junction compare to straight pipe that
can make head loss in each component and make the result more higher than straight pipe.
The difference between the theoretical and the actual may mainly due to human and
servicing factors such as parallax error. This error occur during observer captured the
value of the water level. Besides that, it also may because there is bubble inside the pipe
line. This is because the bubble was not properly flushed during bleeding. There is no
other relative motion between the fluid particles. There is only stress that will be a normal
stress which is equal to the pressure. There are a lot of possibilities for the experiment will
having an error. Therefore, the recommendation to overcome the error is ensure that the
position of the observer’s eye must be 90° perpendicular to the reading. Other than that,
ensure that the bubble was fully removed from the pipe line.

9. REFERENCE

1. Yunus A. Cengel and John M.CImbala, Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals and

Applications, 3rd edition, McGraw Hill, 2014
2. Fundamental Mechanics of Fluid 2nd Edition. I.G Curre. McGraw Hill International
Edition.

16
APPENDIX

Gantt chart

Activity/ Week 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Divided into
small group
consist 4-5
students
Propose open
ended laboratory
project
List up the
apparatus design

Fabricate an
apparatus

Do an experiment

Construct
lab/experiment
instruction
Midterm break
Produce
experiment full
report
Project
presentation

17