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Improvement of soft soils

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International Seminar of ISSMGE “Ground improvement For Accelerated Development” - Ghana 2009

Improvement of soft clays

Professor Mounir Bouassida

Vice President of ISSMGE for Africa (2005-2009)
Leader of Research Team “Geotechnical Engineering”
National Engineering School of Tunis. BP 37 Le Belvédère, 1002 Tunis. Tunisia.
Mounir.bouassida@enit.rnu.tn ; mnrbouassida@gmail.com

Abstract. Properties and characteristics of soft clays are first presented. Because several
problems are faced when projects construction is intended on soft clays several improvement
techniques can be adopted. Preloading with or without vertical drains, vacuum consolidation
and reinforcement by columns are currently used to enhance properties of soft clays. Also,
rigid inclusions and geotextiles may be used. The principles and basic criteria for the design
of all these techniques are explained. Comparison between advantages of improvement
techniques is carried out by illustration of typical case histories.

1. Introduction
Soft clays belong to the well known category of problematic soils. Such soils are
mainly encountered under layered deposits in coastal areas. The lack of bearing capacity, high
compressibility and very long time of consolidation are three typical properties of soft clays.
Several problems as related to soft clays exist from field investigation to their modelling
behaviour. Coring undisturbed samples in soft clays is a challenge because of disturbance
during drilling. Such a task is sometimes unfeasible because of very weak consistency
(Nippon Koeï et al, 2001). Although suitable core samples can be obtained by using advanced
field equipments Shogaki and Kaneko (1994), disturbance is possible during the preparation
of specimens to perform laboratory tests. To minimize disturbance effect on soft clays
properties in-situ tests is a possible solution. As an example the field vane test is usually
performed in upper soft clay layers (less than 10 m depth) to determine the profile of
undrained cohesion.
The recourse to correlation may be another way to estimate mechanical characteristics of soft
clays from identification parameters, such as compression index from liquid limit Terzaghi
and Peck (1967). However, the risk of overestimating (or underestimating) the parameters is
potential since a correlation is primarily valid for a given type of soil in a given location
(Tanaka, 1994). Therefore, making recourse at correlations, if necessary, should be handled
with care. It is then concluded, as it was pointed out for the field vane test, a methodology
might be formulated to avoid overestimated soft clay characteristics (Bouassida, 2006).
This paper aims at the presentation of current techniques for improvement of soft clays and
the comparison between advantages of these techniques. Bergado et al (1996) have addressed
this subject in suitable manner; especially inherent advantages of soft clay improvement have
been showed by well documented case histories.
Preloading technique is first addressed, and then preloading associated with vertical drains is
considered. Reinforcement by columns is presented in detail with focus on its advantages.
Rigid inclusions also represent another technique which offers more alternatives for
reinforcement of soft clays.
Depending on the improvement techniques, adding to the incorporation of reinforcing
(improving) elements, Characteristics of soft clays can be greatly improved as a result of the
primary consolidation which is occasioned by the installation of reinforcing inclusions.

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International Seminar of ISSMGE “Ground improvement For Accelerated Development” - Ghana 2009

2. Preloading
The preloading usually consists in temporary deposit of filled material, to act as surcharge, on
surface of soft soil. In this latter, being a saturated medium, excess pore pressure are
generated and primary consolidation takes place. Therefore preloading appears a cost
effective soil improvement technique; in parallel the duration of primary consolidation will be
so long. The principle of preloading, illustrated in figure 1, postulates the consolidation
settlement of initial soil is reduced before the construction of real project (with applied load
P0 ) when preloading is applied with allowable stress P1  P0 . It follows, under preload P1 ,
larger settlement su is expected than settlement occasioned under real load P0 such that the
difference ( s f (t0 )  su ) will be an allowable settlement during the exploitation of real project.
In practice the waiting time, as duration of preloading, is limited (few months), consequently
only partial primary consolidation is observed in soft soil. Obviously the gain in undrained
cohesion will not be very significant.

Figure 1. Principle of preloading

Predicting the gain of undrained cohesion can be done after consolidated undrained shear box
or triaxial tests. The variation of undrained cohesion cu due to that of consolidation stress
 c is defined by:

cu
tg cu  (1)
 c

tg cu is the parameter of variation of undrained cohesion with depth (or consolidation stress).
Assuming the preloading causes a given degree of primary consolidation U (%) , after Eq (1)
an increase of undrained cohesion (from initial stage 0) is expected such that undrained
cohesion in stage 1 will be:

C u1  C u0  U (C uf  C u0 ) (2)

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International Seminar of ISSMGE “Ground improvement For Accelerated Development” - Ghana 2009

Cu0 ; Cuf denote respectively initial and final values of undrained cohesion of initial soil.

Staged preloading, then, offers a partial increase of undrained cohesion of soft clays as main
result of partial primary consolidation. From this point of view preloading does not reveal
efficient technique to attain the expected improvement in reasonable duration because of very
low permeability of soft clays which make very long the duration of primary consolidation.
Indeed the consolidation mostly happens in vertical direction; consequently drainage path is
of the order of thickness of soft soil layer. To enhance drainage property of soft soils the idea
to incorporate vertical drains with high permeability then came. Obviously the stabilized soft
soil needs to be loaded for starting the primary consolidation process. That is the framework
of preloading associated with vertical drains detailed in the following.

3. Preloading associated with vertical drains

Figure 2 enables comparison, for the same preloading surcharge, between half vertical cross
section of soft clay and the second half zone is improved by vertical drains. These latter are
made up of enhanced drainage capacity material like clean sand or geotextiles. The presence
of vertical drains, mostly installed in regular pattern with spacing less than 3 m, favours the
horizontal water flow as consequence of excess pore pressure generated by preloading. Being
aware, on one hand, that horizontal permeability is greater than the vertical one, and, on other
hand, the horizontal drainage distance is roughly half of spacing between drains (of 1m order)
it is well understood the very efficient accelerated consolidation of soft clays when improved
by vertical drains.
Two types of vertical drains are currently used: sand drains and geodrains or prefabricated
drains. The three dimensional view of geodrain sketched in figure 3 shows: the polypropylene
core which is the draining part covered by the geotextile filter. This latter prevents the
clogging of geodrain by fines of soft soil transported during water migration. Steps of
installation of geodrains are illustrated in figure 4.

Without drains With sand drains

Drainage blanket Embankment

H Soft cv
clay

Stratum d1 d1 d0

Figure 2. Principle of improved soil by vertical drains

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International Seminar of ISSMGE “Ground improvement For Accelerated Development” - Ghana 2009

polypropylene
core

geotextile filter

b a

Figure 3. Three dimension view of geodrain (Indraratna, 2007)

Feed
device
Mandrel
Drain
Advancing
direction

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Equipment Mandrel is pushed Withdrawl of Positioning in new
positioning into soft soil mandrel point of treatment

Figure 4. Installation of vertical drains (Magnan, 1983)

Figure 5 illustrates a sand drain installation by displacement method with covered tip. Several
types of sand drain installation exist (Magnan, 1983). The filter condition is a requirement for
selection of the drained material as a function of grading curve of initial soil (to be improved).
As example, Terzaghi had suggested for cohesive material in earth dams a minimum of 15 %
clay content to avoid the clogging of filter material with D15 ≈ 0,1 mm. While for coarse sand
condition (3) should be respected.

( D15 ) filter
=9 (3)
( D85 ) soil

Initially, the design of vertical drains networks was based on Barron’s theory which assumes
only horizontal water flow from initial soil towards the vertical drain (figure 6). According to
axisymmetric condition the equation of horizontal consolidation writes:

u  2u 1 u
  (4)
t r 2 r r

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International Seminar of ISSMGE “Ground improvement For Accelerated Development” - Ghana 2009

Figure 5. Steps of installation of geodrains, Magnan (1983).

Detailed solution of Eq (4) is given in so many references: Magnan (1983), Bergado et al

(1996), etc. As solution the degree of horizontal consolidation U h is determined from chart in
Figure 7 and by using the time factor Th and ratio n  D / d w ( d w  equivalent diameter of
geodrain). The time factor is expressed by:
ch t
Th  (4)
D2

dw

Drain
Ideal drain

Smear zone

Undisturbed zone

ds

Figure 6. Axisymmetric model for central drain and surrounding initial soil

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International Seminar of ISSMGE “Ground improvement For Accelerated Development” - Ghana 2009

Degré de consolidation radiale Uz et Ur (%) 0

20
n = 20

n = 30
40
n=5 n = 40
n=6
Ecoulement vertical n = 50
60 n=7
Ecoulement radial
n=8 n = 100

n=9
80
n = 10

100
1E-3 0,01 0,1 1
Facteur temps Tr

Figure 7. Horizontal degree of consolidation versus time factor and diameter ratio.

ch is the coefficient of horizontal consolidation of soft soil. Coefficient ch can be measured

from oedometric test on soft soil specimen improved by central vertical drain (Magnan,
1983). If not, it can be estimated from the coefficient of vertical consolidation cv as:
cv  ch  5cv . Also it can be considered the ratio between vertical and horizontal permeability
equals the ratio between coefficients cv and ch , Indraratna & Redana (2000).
It is worth mentioned the vertical consolidation in soft clay can be taken into account in
parallel with horizontal consolidation as formulated in Carillo’s theory. After this latter the
global degree of consolidation U of improved soft clay is expressed by:

1  U  (1  U h )(1  U v ) (5)

Spacing between vertical drains is the key parameter to be designed. Practiced values of
spacing between drains are within 1 m to 3 m distance. Indeed, beyond 3 m of spacing vertical
drains will not be in adequate drainage conditions as assumed by the unit cell model presented
in Figure 6.
The length of vertical drains does not appear as main parameter for predicting the time of
horizontal consolidation, but it has a significant influence when improvement of thick
deposits of soft clay is intended. In such situation the length of vertical drain complies with
depth along which the major acceleration of consolidation settlement is decided.
More elaborated theories were also developed to incorporate smear and well resistance effects
for designing prefabricated vertical drains (PVD) by many authors: Hansbo (1979), etc.
Indraratna & Redana (2000) have examined the behaviour of vertical drains after installation
by taking into account smear and well resistance effects. These latter improved the accuracy
of predictions after numerical modelling of equivalent discharge capacity of geodrains.

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International Seminar of ISSMGE “Ground improvement For Accelerated Development” - Ghana 2009

Vacuum preloading method, initially introduced by Kjellman (1952), has become since the
nineties a new technique to improve strength characteristics of soft soils. This method
achieves a rapid consolidation by vacuum pressure which acts as added surcharge load.
Advantages of vacuum preloading in comparison with conventional preloading are discussed
in Rujikiatkamjorn and Indraratna (2007). Designing vacuum consolidation with preloading is
detailed in Indraratna (2007).

4. Reinforcement by columns
Due to their lack of bearing capacity soft clays can be reinforced by vertical columns having
both drained and stiffer material to reduce deformability and to increase shear strength of
reinforced soil. Various installation techniques are practiced for columnar reinforced system:
sand compacted piles, stone columns, lime or cement soil columns (deep mixing). Table 1
shows advantages of reinforcement by columns compared to those of preloading associated to
vertical drains.

Improvement Increase of Accelerated Settlement Other advantage

techniques bearing capacity Consolidation reduction
Preloading No No No Partial
consolidation
Preloading No Yes No Rapid
associated with installation
VD
Vacuum No Yes No Rapid
consolidation installation
Reinforcement by Yes Yes Yes Prevent
columns liquefaction
Table 1. Comparison between several soil improvement techniques

The rigidity of material column is characterized by its Young modulus ranging from 10 to 50
times the Young modulus of initial soil, from which results the reduction of settlement. Shear
strength of column material is characterized either by high friction angle as for stone and
gravel material (   40 ) or by a too much enhanced cohesion as for soil cement stabilized
soil (by twenty to hundreds times the cohesion of soft clays), Broms (2000).

4.1 Vibro compacted stone columns

Stone columns represent a well known technique which installation consists in incorporated
drained material (gravel) by lateral expansion occasioned by eccentric vibrator. Steps of
installation by the dry feed method are illustrated in figure 8 which shows the improved area
ratio depends on the consistency of reinforced layers. After columns installation the surface of
reinforced soil is usually covered by a mattress of reinforcement material to allow uniform
settlement distribution such that differential settlement will be significantly minimized and,
by consequence, overall stability of projected construction is more guaranteed.
Columns installation in soft clays by using displacement methods is accompanied by lateral
expansion which represents a loading under which primary consolidation process takes place.
Debats et al (2000) well pointed out the importance in delaying final working load in order to
take benefit of consolidation of soft clay after columns installation. Results from several in
situ tests, carried out between columns, well confirmed the increase of deformability and
strength characteristics of soft clays after columns installation.

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International Seminar of ISSMGE “Ground improvement For Accelerated Development” - Ghana 2009

Phase 1 : Drilling Phase 2: Installation/ Phase 3 : Result

The vibrator is pushed to Compaction. Column is built Column diameter varies with
decided treatment depth by added stone along lateral initial soil deformability.
under vibrations and weight Installation ends by levelling
effects. tube to vibrator. and surface compaction.

Figure 8 – Installation of stone columns, dry way (www.keller.com).

Improved soil characteristics due to stone columns installation in soft clays was analyzed
recently with numerical investigations by Plaxis software: Debats et al (2003); Guetif et al
(2007) and Bouassida et al, (2008). From numerical results the estimated degree of
improvement of the Young modulus of soft clay is about 30% and the radius of the zone of
influence of the improved soft clay is nearly three times column radius. Therefore, the
reduction of settlement of reinforced soil is not solely due to the reinforcing role played by the
stone material. The improvement of Young modulus of soft clay also has a significant
influence on settlement reduction which should be considered in the design to avoid
overestimated column material quantity.

4.2 Deep mixing technique

Early in the seventies this technique was intensively practiced in Sweden and Japan as new
alternative to improve highly soft clays after incorporation of low weight percentage of lime,
cement, or combination of the two, which is mixed in depth by specific equipment. After
prescribed curing time, a reinforced soil mass with much enhanced mechanical characteristics
is obtained (Broms, 2000). Figure 9 describes stages of installation of the so called deep
mixing technique which enables continuous treatment of soil mass by contiguous vertical
columns. Compared to pile foundation the deep mixing technique offers both rapid
installation and cost effective solution.
Soft clays are stabilized due to pouzzolanic reactions detailed in Bergado et al (1996) and
Broms (2000). The stabilization of soft clays with binders applies for wide variety of
constructions civil, hydraulic, maritime and environmental engineering.

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International Seminar of ISSMGE “Ground improvement For Accelerated Development” - Ghana 2009

Figure 9. Installation of columns using the deep mixing technique.

Meanwhile in case the gain of strength, prefixed by the treatment, is not guaranteed by lime it
will be necessary to use cement or combination of lime and cement. Depending on the type of
initial soil and its grain size distribution figure 10 shows the type of stabilizing agent to
consider for treatment.
Curing time: Shear strength of treated soil progressively increases with time due to
pouzzolanic reactions occurring between lime and silicates and aluminates existing in clay.
Enhanced shear strength also occurs, after two hours, when sensitive soft clays are mixed with
lime stabilization.
Assuming the shear strength of stabilized soil is purely cohesive the relative shear strength is
estimated from chart presented in figure 11 as a function of the type of clay and curing time
(Bergado et al, 1996).

Figure 10. Grain size distribution as a function of stabilizing agent (Bergado et al, 1996)

Hilt & Davidson (1960) have suggested a correlation for determining the optimum percentage
of stabilizing agent which depends on the type of clay and its percentage of particles
(dimension lower than 2 microns):

%clay
Optimum percentage of lime =  1.25 (5)
35

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International Seminar of ISSMGE “Ground improvement For Accelerated Development” - Ghana 2009

Figure 11. Prediction of undrained cohesion of stabilized soil vs type of soil and curing time

The efficiency of soft clay stabilization with lime has been verified after loading test carried
out on isolated column. Broms (1982) had reported the bearing capacity of isolated column
ranges from 50 kN to 500 kN as a function of the incorporated percentage of lime.
Acceleration of consolidation: Such advantage also depends on the type of soft clay and
stabilizing agent (lime or lime cement). Hydraulic conductivity is increased by hundred to
thousand times which greatly reduces the time of primary consolidation in surrounding soft
clay. After Broms (1982), one column of 0.5 m diameter of stabilized soft soil with lime is
equivalent to:
- two to three geodrains of 10 cm diameter.
- Three sand drains of 0.5 m diameter.
Contrarily to sand drains the clogging risk is not potential for stabilized soil column.

4.3 Design columnar reinforced soil

The design of reinforced soil by columns includes the verifications of bearing capacity,
settlement, and acceleration of consolidation and liquefaction risk. The improvement area
ratio, defined by total cross section of reinforcing columns to that of loaded foundation, is the
key parameter for the design. Detailed methods for designing reinforced soils by columns are
given in Bouassida (2008). In case columns are made up of drained material the acceleration
of consolidation is estimated as presented above for vertical drains.

4.4 Other improvement techniques

In the field of columnar reinforced soils many techniques exist as sand compacted piles
(Aboshi and Suematsu, 1985), controlled modulus column (Liausu and Pezot, 2004) and
continuous flight auger (Brown and Thompson, 2007) also offer other alternatives to reinforce
soft soils by columns. Detailed description of these techniques is affordable in available
references.

5. Conclusions

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International Seminar of ISSMGE “Ground improvement For Accelerated Development” - Ghana 2009

This paper has reported the main properties of soft clays and challenges faced by geotechnical
engineers when identification and characterization of such problematic soil are intended. The
main theme addressed herein was the variety of improvement techniques enabling to enhance
physical parameters and mechanical characteristics of soft clays. Among these techniques
which are becoming with current use worldwide it comes out the following conclusions.
- Preloading as simple ancient technique is not capable to provide short time of
consolidation for high compressible soft clays.
- Associating vertical drains with preloading reveals efficient to accelerate full primary
consolidation of soft clays. Although sand drains warrant reasonable time of
consolidation it is noticed geodrains offers more rapid installation and relatively more
accelerated consolidation.
- Compared to vertical drains reinforcement by columns is perceived as more
advantageous because of the increase of bearing capacity and reduction of settlement
for the stabilized soil.
- Other recent soil improvement techniques like vacuum consolidation and rigid
inclusions offer other opportunities to design foundations on improved soils in suitable
manner, especially with cost effective criteria.

References

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Improvement in lowland and other Environments. ASCE Press. New York.
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