ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (EMS)

Energy management is the process of monitoring, coordinating and controlling the

generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy. It is performed at centres called
„system control centres‟, by a computer system called Energy Management System (EMS).

Data acquisition and remote control is performed by the computer system called SCADA,
which forms the front end of EMS. The EMS communicates with generating, transmission
and distribution systems through SCADA systems.

Energy Management

Automatic generation control and economic dispatch minimize the production cost and
transmission cost. Commit the number of units to be operated to minimize the cost and
schedule hydro-thermal plants properly have come under energy management.

Fig: 7.1

Energy management system consists of energy management, AGC, security control, SCADA,
load management, as shown in fig: 7.1.

The functions of energy management systems are:

1. System load forecasting – Hourly energy, 1 to 7 days.

2. Unit commitment – 1 to 7 days.

3. Fuel scheduling to plants.

4. Hydro-thermal scheduling – up-to 7 days.

5. MW interchange evaluation – with neighbouring system.

6. Transmission loss minimization.

7. Security constrained dispatch.

8. Maintenance scheduling.

9. Production cost calculation.

Load Management – Carried out at Distribution Control Centre

Load Management

Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) installed at distribution substations, can provide status and
measurements for distribution substation. RTU can monitor switches, interrupters, control
voltage, customer meter reading, etc.

The functions of load management are:

1. Data acquisition.

2. Monitoring, sectionalizing switches and create circuit configuration.

3. Feeder switch control and preparing distribution map.

4. Preparation of switching orders.

5. Customer meter reading.

6. Load management – control customer load.

7. Fault location and circuit topology configuration.

8. Service restoration.

9. Power factor and voltage control.

10. Implementation time depending pricing.

11. Circuit continuity analysis.

12. To control customer load through appliance switching (Heater) and indirectly
through voltage control.

ENERGY CONTROL CENTRE or SYSTEM CONTROL CENTRE

When the power system increases in size – the number of substations,

transformer, switchgear and so on – their operation and interaction become more
complex. So it becomes essential to monitor this information simultaneously for the
total system which is called as energy control centre. A fundamental design feature of
energy centre is that, it increases system reliability and economic feasibility. In other
words, Energy Management (EM) is performed at control centre called system control
centre.

Fig.7.2 shows the schematic diagram showing the information flow between
various functions to be performed in an operation control centre computer system.
The system gets information about the power system from remote terminal units
(RTU) that encodes measurement transducer outputs and opened / closed status
information into digital signals that are transmitted to the operations centre over
communication circuits. The control centre can transmit control information such as
raise / lower commands to the speed changer and in turn to generators and open /
close commands to circuit breakers (CBs). The information coming into the control
centre is breaker / switch status indications and analog measurements.

The analog measurements of generator outputs must be used directly by the

Automatic Generation Control (AGC) program, whereas, all other data will be
 processed by the state estimator before being used by the other programs. Real time
operations are in two aspects.

(a) Three level control:

1. Turbine-governor to adjust generation to balance changing load-instantaneous

control.

2. AGC (called Load Frequency Control (LFC)) maintains frequency and net
power interchange –action repeated at 2-6 sec interval.

3. Economic Dispatch Control (EDC) distributes the load among the units such
that fuel cost is minimum – executed at 5-10 minutes intervals.

(b) Primary voltage control:

1. Excitation controls regulate bus voltage.

2. Transmission voltage control devices include SVC (Static VAR Controllers),

shunt capacitors, transformer taps, etc.

Automatic Generation Control (AGC)

The objectives of AGC are:

1. To hold frequency at or very close to a specified nominal value.

2. To maintain the correct value of interchange power between control values.

3. To maintain each unit‟s generation at the most economic value.

In order to run the state estimator, we must know how the transmission lines are connected to
the load and generator buses. This information is called as network topology. Since the
breakers and switches in any substation can cause the network topology to change, a program
must be provided that reads the telemetred breaker / switch status indicators and restructures
the model of the system. The network topology programs must have a complete description
of each substation and how the transmission lines are attached to the substation equipment.
Bus sections that are connected to the other bus sections through closed breakers or switches
are designed as belonging to the same electrical bus. Thus, the number of electrical buses and
the manner in which they are interconnected can be changed in the model to reflect breaker
and switch status changes on the power system itself.

The electrical model of the transmission system is sent to the state estimation program
together with the analog measurements. The output of the state estimator consists of all
voltage magnitudes and phase angles, transmission line MW and MVAR flows and bus loads
and generation calculated from the line flows. These quantities, together with the electrical
model, provide the basis for the economic dispatch program, contingency anaylsis program
and generator corrective action program.
 Since the complete electrical model of the transmission system is available, we can directly
calculate bus penalty factors, participation factors, optimal voltages, etc.

NOTE:

Contingency Analysis: Many of the problems that occur on a power system can cause
serious trouble within such a quick time period that the operator cannot take action fast
enough. This will cause cascading failures. Due to this aspect of system operation, modern
operations, computers are equipped with contingency analysis programs that model possible
system‟s troubles before they arise. These programs are based on a model of the power
system and are used for study of outage events and alarm the operators of any potential
overloads or out of the limit voltages. We are considering line outages and generator outages
separately.

Energy Control Centre Functions

The practice of all communication links between equipment and the control centre could
be interrupted and still, electric service is being maintained. The generating plant in the
system remains synchronized to the transmission network and maintains its existing power
output level even without signals received from control centre.

Monitoring

An energy control centre fulfils the function of coordinating their response of the system
elements in both normal operation and emergency conditions. The burden of repetitious
control in normal situations is delegated to the digital computer and selective monitoring is
performed by human operators. The digital computer is used to process the incoming stream
of data to detect abnormalities and then alarm the human operator via lights, buzzers and
CRT presentations. Many lower level or less serious cases of exceeding normal limits are
routinely handled by digital computer. A more serious abnormality detected by the digital
computer may cause suspension of normal control functions.

In emergencies such as loss of a major generator or excess power demands by a neighbouring

utility on the tie lines, many alarms could be detected and the system could enter an
emergency state.

Data Acquisition and Control

Data acquisition provides operators and computer control systems with status and
measurement information needed to supervise overall operations. Security control analyses
the consequences of faults to establish operating conditions.

Data acquisition and remote control is performed by computer system called supervisory
control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems. A SCADA system consists of a master
station and remote terminal unit (RTU). Master station communicates information to the
RTU for observing and controlling plants. RTU‟s are installed at generating station or
transmission substation or distribution substation. RTUs transmitting status of the device and
measurements to master station and receive control commands from the master station.

In a computer aided data acquisition scheme, the steady state reading can be acquired
simultaneously from various instrument locations and can be saved for future analysis. The
transients may be in the form of voltage or current fluctuations. In a real power system, the
transient may result in the failure of components and it is sometimes difficult to trace the
origin of disturbance. Using a Data Acquisition System, the transients can be reduced and
analysed.

A typical Energy Control Centre can perform the following functions:

1. Load forecasting: Load should be estimated in advance.

Forecast Lead time Application

Very short Few minutes to half Real time control, Real time security evaluation.
term an hour
Short term Half an hour to a few Allocation of spinning reserve, Unit commitment,
hours maintenance scheduling.
Medium Few days to a few Planning for seasonal peak-winter, summer.
term weeks.
Long term Few months to a few To plan the growth of the generation capacity.
years.

2. Power system planning:

 For generation.

 For transmission and distribution.

3. Unit commitment: The constrains are –spinning reserve, minimum up time,

minimum down time, hydro constrains and fuel constrains.

4. Maintenance scheduling: The planned maintenance outages of the generation

equipment over a given future period.

5. Security monitoring: The on-line process using real-time data for analyzing the
effects of outages contingencies on the steady state performance of the system.

6. State estimation: It is the process of estimating the state. When based on system
monitoring data, it produces best estimates of the power system state.

7. Economic dispatch: It is to distribute the load among the generating units so as to

minimize the total cost of the system.

8. LFC (Load Frequency Control) : In interconnected systems with 2 or more

independently controlled areas, in addition to control of frequency, generation within
each area has to be controlled to maintain scheduled power interchange.
 Energy Control Centre Levels

The organization of the power system control is always structured hierarchically,

because of the structure of the power system itself. The hierarchical structure is
indicated here.

Level System Monitoring and Control

First level Generating stations and sub- Local control centre (Remote
stations. terminal unit)
Second level Sub-transmission and transmission Area load dispatch centre
network.
Third level Transmission system State load dispatch centre
Fourth level(top Interconnected power systems Regional control centre (System
level) control centre)

SCADA(SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION)

It consists of a master station and RTU‟s linked by communication channel.The hardware

components are classified into:

1. Process computer and associated hardware at the Energy Control Centre.

2. RTU‟s and the associated hardware at the remote stations.
3. Communication equipment that links the RTU‟s and process computers at the master
station.
SYSTEM HARDWARE CONFIGURATION :

The supervisory control and data acquisition system allows a few operators to monitor the
generation and HV transmission system.Consistent with principles of high reliability and fail
safe features,electric utilities have almost universally applied a redundant set of dual digital
computers for functions of remote data acquisition control,energy management and system
security.Both computers have their own core memory and drive an extensive number of
input-output devices such as printers,teletypes, magnetic tape drive,disks and so on.

Usually one computer, the on-line units,is monitoring and controlling the power system.The
backup computer maybe executing off-line batch programs such as load forecasting or hydro-
thermal allocation. The on–line computer periodically updates a disk memory shared between
two computers.

Upon a fail over or switch-in status command, stored information of common disk is inserted
in the memory of the on-line computer.

The information used by the online computer has a maximum age of update cycle(typically
30 sec).the fig gives block diagram of typical digital computer control and monitoring for
power system.
All of the peripheral equipment is interfaced with the computer through input-output
microprocessors that have been programmed to communicate,as well as preprocess the
analog information,check for limits,convert to another system of units and so on.

The microprocessors can transfer data in and out of computer memory withoutinterrupting
the central processing unit.As a result of these precautions,for all critical hardware
functions,there is often a guaranteed 99.8% or more availability.software also allows for
multilevel hardware failures and initialization of application programs,if failures
occur.critical operations and functions are maintained during either preventive or corrective
maintainence.

Besides hardware, new digital code to control the system may be compiled and tested in the
backup computer then switched to on-line status.The digital computers are usually employed
in a fixed cycle operating mode, with priority interrupts wherein the computer periodically
performs a list of operations.The most critical functions have the fastest scan cycle.Typically
, the following categories are scanned every 2 seconds.
 All status points such as switchgear position,substation loads and voltages,transformer
tap positions and capacitor banks.
 Tie-line flows and interchanges schedules.
 Generator loads,voltages, operating limits and boiler capacity.
 Telemetry verification to detect failures and errors in the remote bilateral
communication links between the digital computer and the remote equipment.
The turbine-generators are often commanded to new power levels every 4 seconds,sharing
the load adjustments based on each unit‟s response capability in MW/min.The absolute
power output of each unit‟s capability is typically adjusted every 5 min by the computer
executing an economic dispatch program to determine the base power settings.

Most low-priority programs may be executed on demand by the operator for study purposes
or to initialize the power system. An operator may also alter the digital computer code in the
execution if a parameter changes in the system.The computer software compiler and data
handlers are designed to be versatile and readily accept operator inputs.

TYPES OF SCADA SYSTEMS AND AREA OF APPLICATIONS:

Type 1: small distribution systems(substation control center),small hydro station,HVDC

links.

Type2: medium sized power systems (plant control center),power station HVDC link,

distribution systems.

Type 3: regional control center, distribution systems in large urban areas,several hydro power
stations with cascade control.
Type 4: national and regional control center, distribution systems in large urban areas,several
hydro power stations with cascade control.

AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL FOR A POWER SYSTEM:

Automatic generation control and economic load dispatch are two process or principle areas
of generation control on large interconnected power systems.Automatic Generation
Control(AGC) is as online cmp[uter control that maintains the overall system frequency and
the net tie-line load exchange between the power companies in the interconnection as in fig.

Economic load dispatch is also an on-line compute control, whose function is to supply the
existing system load demands from all the currently operating generators in the most
economical manner in terms of minimal fuel cost.The “boundaries” of an area are the points
on the tie-lines where a utility‟s ownership,maintainence and loss accounting ends and those
of its neighbor begins.There are very few isolated power systems that are not connected to
neighbours by means of tie-lines.

The power systems employ tie-lines for the following reasons:

 Tie –lines allow a local or “pool” exchange and sale of power between the power
companies on a predetermined schedule.
 Tie-lines allow areas experiencing disturbances to draw on other areas for help.
 Tie-lines provide a long distance transmission line for the sale and transfer of power.
Interconnections are made so that operating areas can share generation and load.This sharing
is normally on a scheduled basis as forced by the AGC.

Such unscheduled interchanges persist until the distributed area can either itself fully respond
to its local requirement, or until normal schedules are reset so that contribution is taken out
of the unscheduled class and put into the scheduled class.

AREA CONTROL ERROR :

To maintain a net interchange of power with its neighbours an AGC uses real power flow
measurements of all tie-lines emanating from the area and subtracts the scheduled
interchange to calculate an error value.The net power interchange, together with a
gain,b(MW/Hz),the frequency bias, as a multiplier on the frequency is called area control
error.
 ACE = ∑ PK + PS + 10b(f act –f 0) in MW

Where,

PK = MW tie flow defined as positive out of the area.

PS= scheduled MW interchange.

f0= scheduled base frequency.

The interchange power PS is generally scheduled for periods of the day and is changed as
“blocks” of MWhr are bought or sold to neighbouringutilities.A positive ACE or positive net
exchange of power represents a flow out of the area.

MASTER STATION:

Master unit is provided with a digital computer with associated interfacing devices and
hardware to receive information from RTU, process data and display salient information to
the operator as in fig.

The hardware at master station includes:

1. Process computer
2. CRT display
3. Printer
4. Data logger
5. Computer graphics
6. Control console
7. Keyboard
8. Alarm panel
9. Instrument panel
10. Modem
11. Multiplexer
REMOTE TERMINAL UNIT :

The RTU‟s are installed at the selected power stations and substations.

The hardware components of RTU may include the following:

1. Transducers
2. A/D converters and D/A converters.
3. Serial interface
 4. Modems
5. Multiplexers
6. Front end computer
7. Control relays

The block diagram of RTU is in fig.

The analog quantities like voltage,MW,MVAR and frequency measured at stations are
converted into DC voltage or current signals, through transducers and fed to the A/D
converters which converts the analog signals into digital form suitable for transmission.The
digital signal is fed to the front end computer and modems through serial interface.MODEM
sends the information to the master unit through multiplexer.MODEM will also receive
commands from the master units to control the station equipments through the control
relays.In addition to measure quantities, status of various devices is informed to master
station.

The master station scans the RTU sequentially and gathers information on the system
operating condition i.e, voltage, current, line flows, generation,output etc., as well as
equipment status.Computer, using real time data can check operating limits of various
quantities and give an alarm to operator if overloading or any other abnormal condition is
detected.The system real time information is presented to the operator through CRT(cathode
ray tube), computer graphic terminals, alarm panel, alarm printers etc, so that the affected
operator can supervise minute byminute,system operating conditions and take control action
to prevent the system disturbances whenever emergency conditions and system status at
specified interval is printed by data loggers.

FUNCTIONS OF SCADA(SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION)

1. Data acquisition :It provides telemetered measurements and status information

to the operators.
2. Information display(limit violation, unplanned events).
3. Supervisory control(CBs (circuit breakers): on/off; generator:stop/start,
raise/lower command)
a. Electrical breaker control.
b. Voltage regulation
c. Tap changer control
d. loss reduction
e. Capacitor control
f. Miscellaneous device control
g. load management
h. fault isolation
 i. service restoration.
4. Information storage and results display
Reports such as energy accounting, reserve calculation, interchange evaluation.

5. Sequence of events acquisition

6. Remote terminal unit processing
7. General maintainence
8. Runtime status verification
9. Economic modelling
10. Remote start/stop
11. Load matching based on economics
12. Load shedding : provides both automatic and operator-initiated tripping of
load in response to system emergencies
LOGGING:

 Data is stored in compressed format

 Logging/archiving can be frequency or event driven
 Logs all operator entry,alarms for selected information
 Logging of user actions together with user ID
 VCR facility for playback of stored data
GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF ARCHIVING UNIT

 Invert or add zero symbols to existing library

 Interface new peripherals(printers,plottersetc)
 Define operators and select their system access rights
 Download new configuration into RTU
 Modify logbook and list appearance
SUBSTATION CONTROL FUNCTIONS OF SCADA

 Alarm functions
 Control and indication
 Control of position of devices
 Data collections
 Protective functions
 Control and monitoring functions
OTHER FUNCTIONS OF SCADA AND EMS are

 Network topology determination

 State estimation
 Security analysis and control
The relationship of state estimation,network topology and security control are as in fig.
POWER SYSTEM SECURITY

A Power system in the manual operating condition may face a contingency condition,
such as a generating unit may go out of order, an important line may be tripped off, and the
demand may undergo a large from the forecasted value and so on. Although many such
contingencies can occur, only those having a high probability of occurrence are to be
considered and such contingencies are known as credible contingencies. A system operator
would like to analyze the effect of such credible contingencies to obtain secure operation.
Thus, the analysis of credible contingencies goes to enhance the security of operation.

A power system is said to be secured if there is neither any occurrence of overloading of any
equipment nor transient instability due to a set of credible contingencies.
Example of contingencies

Single credible contingency: Disconnection of generating unit, disconnection of transmission

line, disconnection of transformer.

Critical single credible contingency has severe impact on power system.

Non-credible contingency: Three phase electrical faults, multiple generating unit failures,
double line failure, abnormal conditions caused by severe weather
conditions/lightning/storm/equipment malfunction.

 System Response to contingency events

 May withstand single contingency
 May withstand a few multiple contingencies
 Severe violations in bus voltage, line flow and frequency,
 Loss of synchronism
 Voltage collapse
 Cascading outages and system blackout.
 System separation into islands
System security
It is defined as the degree of risk in the ability to survive imminent disturbances (
contingencies ) without interruption of customer service.

It depends on the operating condition and the contingent probability of a disturbance.

To be a secure, the power system must
 Be stable following a contingency event and settle to operating conditions such that
no physical constrains are violated (frequency, voltage magnitudes and all equipment
loadings within the limits).
 Be maintained power system always in secure state.
 Be returned to normal operating state following a contingency.
Power System Stability
The continuance of intact operation of the power system following a disturbance.
Power System Reliability
The probability of satisfactory operation over the long run.
It is the ability to supply adequate electric service on a nearly continuous basis, with
few interruptions over an extended period.
System Black-out
Process of cascading failures continues, the entire system or large parts of it may
completely collapse.
Example of black-outs :
1. July 2, 1996 – WSCC [Western North American Interconnected System]
2. August 10, 1996 – WSSC
3. November 1998 – Brazil
4. July 29, 1999 – Taiwan
5. August 14, 2003 – North East U.S and Ontario
Security Criteria (For Planning)
a) Rotor angle stability.
b) Voltage stability (under both steady and contingency conditions).
c) Steady state oscillatory stability i.e., dynamic stability (all real parts of Eigen
values should be negative).
We must provide adequate generation capacity to meet load demand and capacity
reserve, utilize resources and services provided to maintain satisfactory operating
range, schedule fuel/water maintenance work, and assess situation that would affect
power system security.
Operational Studies
 System load forecast for the day and week ahead on hours basis, 1 -7 days –
for scheduling adequate generation to meet security standards.
 Unit commitments – for each hour of a period of 1 – 7 days.
 Scheduling hour by hour generations and interchange.
 Hydro-thermal scheduling including irrigation and navigation constraints.
  Optimal power flow analysis on an hourly basis.
 Power flow and stability studies to assess system security.
SECURITY ANALYSIS AND CONTROL
Security monitoring is the on-line identification of the actual operating conditions of a
power system. It requires system-wide instrumentation to gather the system data as well as a
means for the on-line determination of network topology involving an open or closed position
of circuit breakers. A state estimation has been developed to get the best estimate of the
complex bus voltage at any instant from the redundant set of telemetered data and breaker
status. The status estimation provides the database for security analysis as shown in fig.
The estimated values are then checked against the overload limits. If no limit is
violated, the output of the estimator may be used for contingency evaluation. Hence overload
limits are reached, suitable remedial measure help the operator to choose between
rescheduling, line switching and load shedding.
Telemetry System (Security Monitoring System)
The functioning of a security monitoring system is as shown in fig.
Effective operation of power system required that critical quantity be measured and
the values of measurements be transmitted to a central location. Such system of
measurements and data transmission are called telemetry systems.
Telemetered data and information regarding breaker position received from the
system are processed first by the state estimator. The output of the state estimator is then fed
into the security analyzer. Other information like contingencies t be evaluated and associated
constraints is also fed into the security analyzer. The security analyzer evaluates the impact
of the above contingencies with the help of fast load flow techniques. Thus, the real-time
data are processed in the control centres and are scanned by the security analyzer to ascertain
whether the operating condition is secured.
The security monitoring functions are given below:

Function Function performed

1. Data acquisition To process message form RTUs.

To check analog measurements against
limits.
To check status values against normal value.
To send alarm conditions to alarm processor.

2. Alarm processor To send alarm messages.

To transmit messages according to priority.

3. Status processor To Determine status of each substation for

proper connection.
 4. Reserve monitor To check generator MW output on all units
against unit limits.

5. State estimator To determine system state variables.

To detect the presence of bad measured
values.
To identify the location of bad
measurements.

Power system must be designed to stabilize and to operate at acceptable voltage,

frequency without loss of load. Security control executing the program by using study
sequence. They are:
 Determine the system state based on current and postulated conditions.
 Create the occurrence of contingency events and determine the system state.
 For the sever contingency events, determine preventive and corrective action.
Real-time and study security analysis sequences are shown
State estimators are executed depends on the demand or status change due to circuit
breaker operation like opening of the line, etc.
From Fig, the estimator receives information from SCADA system and the network
topology and stores the state of the system (V and δ) in a central location called database.
Power system application like power flow, optimal power flow, contingency analysis and
short circuit analysis are executed using the state of the system were computed by state
estimation.
Security Control Functions
Security Control requires the following functions,
 Network Topology Processor: to determine model of the network.
 State estimator: To determine best estimate of the state of the system using real time
status and measurements.
 Power flow: To calculate V, δ, power flows for the steady state condition.
 Contingency analysis: to determine the events which are harmful to the system by
determining the states.
 Optimal power flow; To optimize a specified objective a specified by using controller
action.
  Security enhancement: To alleviate an existing overload in the system by using
corrective control actions.
 Preventive action: Before the occurrence of contingency event, preventive action has
to be taken.
 Bus load forecasting: To forecast the load by using real time measurements.
 Transmission loss factors: to calculate the impact on transmission losses by using
incremental transmission loss(ITL)
 Short circuit analysis: To determine the fault current for different types of faults like
LG, LL, LLG, 3φ.
SYSTEM SECURITY
System security involves practices designed to keep the system operating when
components fail. Systems security can be broken down into three major functions that are
carried out in an energy control centre:
1. System monitoring
2. Contingency analysis
3. Security-constrained optimal power flow
1. System monitoring: It provides the operators of the power system with pertinent
upto data information on the conditions of the power system. Effective operation of the
system is required that critical quantities are measured and the values of measurements are
transmitted to a central location. Such systems of measurement and data transmission
called telemetry systems, have evolved to schemes that can monitor voltages, currents,
power flows and status of circuit breakers and switches in every substation in a power
system transmission network.
2. Contingency analysis: the results of this type of analysis allow systems to be
operated defensively. Many of the problems that occur on a power system can cause
serious trouble which is often the case with cascading failures. In this analysis, certain
programs are used that model possible system troubles before they arise. These programs
are based on a model of the power system and are used to study outage and alarm the
operators about any potential overloads or out-of-limit voltages.
3. Optimal power flow: In this function, a contingency analysis is combined with an
optimal power flow which seeks to make changes to the optimal dispatch of generation, as
well as other adjustments, so that when a security analysis is run, no contingencies result
in violations.
Factors Affecting Power System Security
As a consequence of many widespread black-outs in interconnected power systems,
the priorities for operation of the modern systems have evolved to the following:
 Operate the system in such a way that power is delivered reliably.
  Within the constraints placed on the system operation by reliability
consideration, the system will be operated most economically.
 Characteristics of the Physical System (Generation, Transmission and
Distribution Systems and Protection Systems)
Any piece of equipment in the system can fail either due to internal causes or due to
external causes such as lightning stroke, object hitting transmission towers, or human errors
in setting relays. Thus, most power systems are designed to have sufficient redundancy to
withstand all major failure events.
 Business structures of owning and operating entities.
 The Regulatory frame work.
Method of Enhancing Security
 Impractical to achieve immunity to black-out.
 Need t strike balance between economy and security.
 Good design and operating practices could significantly minimize the
occurrence and impact of widespread outages.
 Reliability criteria.
 Online security assessment.
 Robust stability controls.
 Real-time system monitoring and control.
 Coordinated emergency controls.
 Wide spread use of distributed generation.
Comparison between Power System Reliability and Security
Reliability is probabilistic index defined as the long term average number of days on
which daily peak load exceeds the available generating capacity.
Security depends upon the reserve capacity available in a given situation and contingency
probability of disturbances.
It refers to robustness of the system in comparison to disturbances.
STATE ESTIMATION
State estimation plays an important role in monitoring and control of modern power
system.
State estimation is the process of assigning a value to an unknown system state variable
based on measurements from that system according to some criteria i.e., minimizing the sum
of the squares of the differences between the estimated and true values of a function.
Aim of State Estimation
To obtain the best possible values i.e., “best estimate” of the bus voltage magnitudes and
angles by processing the available network data. The complex bus voltages (V∠δ) serve as
the state variables of the power system.
State estimation is the process to clean up the erroneous data.
Need for State estimation
To “smooth out” small random errors in meter readings, detect and identify gross
measurement errors and “fill in” meter readings that have failed due to communication
failures.
Errors
In real time control, the measurements like flows, real and reactive bus injections (P & Q),
bus voltage magnitudes are collected through SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data
Acquisition system). The telemetered data contains error, that may be redundant
measurements. The errors arise from
 Inaccurate transducer calibration.
 The effect of analog to digital conversion.
 Noise in communication channels.
 Unbalanced phases, etc.
These errors are random in nature and the bus voltage magnitudes cannot be predicted.
So, state estimation is to clean up the erroneous data.
If the number of measurements are more, or the redundancy in the measurement set to
determine the condition of the network, a systematic cross checking should be able to
eliminate errors. Then the output data are used in the system control centre to implement
security constrained dispatch and control.
State Vector
The system state is represented by a vector [X] which includes the voltage magnitudes of
all the buses (slack, P-V, P-Q buses) and the voltage angles of all the buses except the
reference bus (P-V, P-Q buses except slack).
Let nb the number pf buses.
 Dimension of state vector is ns.
ns = 2 nb - 1

Measurements Schemes
Measurement vector [Z] consists of all the measurement made.
Let [ Z ] be the measurement vector which has the dimension nn.
Let nm be the number of measurements.
Each quantity being measured is a non-linear function of the state variables.
[ Z I ] = Fi[X], i=1,2,…………,nm
There are five standard measurement schemes. They are:
1. Measurement of P at all the buses except the reference bus and Q at all the buses.
nm = 2 nb – 1 = ns
2. Measurement of P, Q and V at all the buses.
nm = 3 nb
3. Measurement of P and Q at both ends of each element of the transmission network.
nm = 4 nl
where nl = Number of elements.
4. Measurement of P and Q at both ends of each element of the transmission network
plus measurement of voltage magnitudes at all the buses.
nm = 4 nl + nb
 5. Measurement of P, Q, V at all buses plus measurement of P and Q at both ends of
each element of the transmission network
nm = 3 nb + 4 nl
Sometimes, any non-standard scheme of measurements are also possible, so, number of
measurements should be greater than number of state variables.
nm > ns
Three cases:
Case (i) If nm = ns
Number of equations = Number of state variables

∴ Solution is unique.
There is no redundancy in the measured data, the effect of measurement reliability or
measurement noise cannot be taken into account. This scheme is not adopted normally.
Case (ii)
If nm < ns,
Number of equations < Number of state variables

∴ Solution is infinite.
This scheme is not possible to estimate the system state.
Case (iii)
If nm > ns,
Number of equations > Number of state variables

∴ No Solution which will exactly satisfy all the measured values.

Redundant Meter Readings
In this scheme, we have to find a solution of system state, which will be as close as possible
to the measured values.

Static State Estimation

In power system, the condition of the system may be defined by its complex bus voltages.
The static state of the power system is defined as the system state that exists after the
action of automatic controllers such as turbine governor control (speed governing
mechanism) and automatic excitation control are completed.
The dynamic state of the power system is the state that exists during the action of the
automatic controllers.
 Real time control of power system control is concerned with the static state of the system,
i.e., the state of the system that exists for every load and network condition in the varying
load pattern and network configuration, after the action of the automatic controllers is
completed.
Static state estimation is the art of estimating the most likely system state given a set of
imperfect measurements made on the power system.
Estimation of system state is the process based on statistical criterion that estimates the
true value of the state variables by optimising (minimizing or maximizing ) a selected
function.
Most commonly encountered criteria in statistical state estimation can be done by
 Weighted least square criterion.
 Maximum likehood criterion.
 Minimum variance criterion
Weighted least square Criterion
The objective is to minimize the sum of the squares of the weighted deviations of the
estimated measurements [F[X]] from the actual measurements [Z].

Maximum likelihood Criterion

The objective is to maximize the probability that the estimate of the state variables [X], is
the true value of the state variable vector {X}.

Minimum Variance Criterion

The objective is to minimize the sum of the squares of the deviations of the estimated
components of the state variable vector from the corresponding components of the true state
variable vector.
COMPARISON BETWEEN LOAD FLOW STUDY AND STATE ESTIMATION

Load Flow State Estimation

 Number of iterations obtained in the  Less number of iterations.

convergence for the given tolerance
is more.

 Number of iterations required for the  Number of iterations required for the
convergence is independent of the convergence is dependent of the state
state system. of the system.

 Fast decoupled load flow depend on  It does not depend on X/R ration of
X/R ration of the transmission line. the transmission line.

 Convergence is obtained  Convergence is obtained

monotorically. monotorically.
VARIOUS CONTROLS FOR SECURE OPERATION
To ensure secure operation of a power system
i. Corrective action require to improve load bus voltages and frequency. (Excitation
control, Load frequency control).
ii. Corrective action required to eliminate the overloads (Emergency control).
iii. Load scheduling (Economic load dispatch, unit commitment)
iv. Load forecasting

Security constrained Economic Dispatch

It refers to the case when the system is dispatched such that it is in normal, secure state
relative to some pre-specified contingency list.
In other words, for any contingency belonging to the list, the scheduling of power flows
in the network must ensure operation. A power system is said to be in a secure state if
continuity of supply is maintained even if a contingency occurs.

Economic Load Dispatch (Load Scheduling)

The purpose of economic dispatch is to reduce fuel costs for the power system by
economic load scheduling (i.e.,) to find the generation so that the total fuel cost is minimum,
and the total demand and the loss at any instant must be met by the total generation.
Excess generation capability is needed because forced outages may remove some of the
existing generators from the power system, or loss of transmission capacity may make some
of the generation inaccessible to the load.

Load Frequency Control

Load frequency control is to maintain the network frequency constant so that the power
stations run satisfactorily in parallel and the various motors operating in the system run at
desired speed. In order to maintain the frequency constant, it is necessary to achieve a
balance between the generation and the connected load.
Automatic load frequency control systems are now available for maintaining the frequency
within the tolerable limits. Conventional load frequency control is based upon the tie-line
bias control where each area tends to reduce the area control error to zero (i.e., system
frequency = desired value). With the development of modern control theory, several
concepts of load frequency control have been investigated for tie-line bias control.

Load Forecasting
The problem of load forecasting is that of estimating the future load demand of a given
power system. Depending upon the time period, it may be classified as very short term, short
term, medium term and long term technique. Very short term and short term load forecasting
are generally required by the system operators for the purpose of economic generation
scheduling and load dispatching. Medium term forecast helps in allocation of spinning
reserves. The long term load forecasting is essential for power system planning. The
construction of large generating plants takes many years. Therefore, the planner must
determine the generating needs well in advance. This influences the selection and sequence
of generation.

Unit Commitment
The unit commitment problem is to minimize system total operating costs while
simultaneously providing sufficient spinning reserve capacity to satisfy a given security level.
In unit commitment problems, we consider the following terms.
 A short term load forecast.
 System reserve requirements
 System security
 Startup costs for all units.
 Minimum level fuel costs for all units.
 Incremental fuel costs of units.
 Maintenance costs

Emergency Control
Security problem will change with operational conditions. It depends not only upon the
reserve capacity in a given situation, but also upon the contingency of disturbances. In the
normal state, the system is secure, i.e., both equality and inequality constraints are satisfied.
If any contingency occurs, the system enters into alert state. Now, the security level falls
below threshold level and the system becomes insecure. If any overloads of generators or
transmission lines occur, the inequality constraints will alter and the system enters into an
emergency state. Now, disconnection of faulty section, rerouting of power, startup of reserve
generation, load shedding is done, then the power system is returned to the normal or alert
state. These control actions may be done form the central energy control centre.

State Estimation
For digital computer in short circuit computations, it is necessary to develop a systematic,
general computational procedure. State estimation techniques may be used for load
forecasting, economic dispatch and load frequency control. The main task of load frequency
control is to ensure that load disturbances do not cause an imbalance of real power.
The real-time system derives information from state estimates and upon detection of any
violation, security control calculations are needed for immediate implementation. Thus,
computing speed and reliability are of primary importance.

STATE TRANSTION DIAGRAM SHOWING VARIOUS STATE TRANSITION AND

CONTROL STRATEGIES OR VARIOUS OPERATING STATES
A power system may be operated in several different states. These are classified into five
generating states. They are :
 1. Normal state (Secure state)
2. Alert state
3. Emergency state
4. Extremis state
5. Restorative state
The five operating state and their transition

1. Normal State
A system is said to be in normal state if both load and operating constraints are
satisfied. It is one in which the total deemed on the system is met by satisfying all the
operating constraints (i.e., equality(E) and inequality(I) constraints).

2. Secure State
The normal state of the system is said to be secure state if all postulated contingency
states are found to be normal. A normal state of the system is said to be insecure if
one or more of the postulated contingency state consists of the constraint limits
violated. In this state, frequency and the bus voltage magnitude are within the normal
operating range. Current flows on all transmission lines are within the given ratings.
Transformers and generators are operated within their ratings and there is no load
shedding anywhere in the system. Reserve margin is sufficiently high to make the
system well secure.

3. Alert state
The normal state of the system is said to be alert state if one or more of the postulated
contingency states, consist of the constraint limits violated. When the system security
level falls below a certain level or the probability of disturbance increases, the system
may be in alert state. All equalities (E) and inequalities (I) are satisfied, but on the
event of a disturbance, the system may not have all the inequality constraints satisfied.
If a severe disturbance occurs, the system will push into emergency state. To bring
back the system to secure state, preventive control action is carried out.

4. Emergency state
The system is said to be in emergency state if one or more operating constraints are
violated, but the load constraint is satisfied. In this state, the equality constraints are
unchanged. The system will return to the normal (secure) or alert state by means of
corrective action, i.e., disconnection of faulted section or load shedding.
The generator still tracts the load and the system is still synchronized. But one or
several components are overloaded. As the components eventually fail, the system
will start disintegrate.

5. Extremis State
When the system is in emergency state, if no proper corrective action is taken in time,
then it goes to either serious emergency state or extremis state. In this, neither the
 load nor the opening constraint is satisfied; this results in islanding. Also the
generating units are strained beyond their capacity. So, emergency control action is
done to bring back the system state either to the emergency state or normal state.

6. Restorative state
From this state, the system may be brought back either to alert state or secure state.
The latter is a slow process. Hence, in certain cases, first the system is brought back
to alert state and then to the secure state. This is using restorative control action.