Chapter 2:

Circuit Analysis using

Laplace Transform
 2.1 Introduction

• Laplace Transform (LT) is a mathematical tool.

• Used to solve circuit problems with a given set of

initial conditions. i.e. transform of time domain
circuit problem into frequency domain i.e.
converting time domain integro-differential
equations into simple algebraic equations, and
then converting back into time domain.

2
 
F ( s)  L[ f (t )]   f (t ) e dt
 st

0
Laplace transform operation

Laplace transform of function f(t)

complex variable s = (+j)

*Integral (0, ) : One sided Laplace Transform

3
Example2.1
Find the LT of
i) f(t)=u(t), ii) f(t)=e-ktu(t)

4
 2.2 Properties of LT

• Basic:
– Multiplication by scalar kf (t )  kF (s)

1 s
– Scaling f (kt )  F   , k  0
k k

– Addition & subtraction

f1 (t )  f 2 (t )  F1 (s)  F2 (s)
5
 Theorem 1: Linearity
• If
L[f1(t)]=F1(s) & L[f2(t)]=F2(s)
then
L[f1(t)+f2(t)] = F1(s) + F2(s)

where  and  are scalar quantities.

6
Example 2.2
• If L[u(t)]=1/s and L[e-ktu(t)]=1/(s+k),
find L[5u(t)+10e-ktu(t)].

7
 Theorem 2: Time Shift
(1st Shifting Theorem)

L[f(t-to)u(t-to)] = F(s)e-sto, to  0

8
Example 2.3
Find L[u(t-to)]

9
 Theorem 3: Frequency Shift
(2nd Shifting Theorem)

• The Laplace transform of f(t) multiplied

by et , where  is a constant, is equal
to the Laplace transform F(s), with s
replaced by s- ; that is:
t
L e f (t )   F (s) |ss   F (s   )

10
Example 2.4
Find L[e-ktu(t)]

11
 Theorem 4:
Time Differentiation

 df (t ) 
L   sF ( s )  f (0)
 dt 
 d 2 f (t )  2
L 2   s F ( s)  sf (0)  f '(0)
 dt 
:
 d n f (t )  n
L n   s F ( s )  s n 1
f (0)  s n 2
f '(0)   sf ( n 2) (0)  f ( n 1) (0)
 dt 

12
Example 2.5
Find L[d(e-kt)/dt] and L[d2(e-kt)/dt2]

13
 Theorem 5:
Time Integration

t  1
L   f ( )d   F ( s)
0  s

14
Example 2.6
t 
Find L   u ( )d 
0 

15
 Theorem 6:
Initial Value Theorem

lim f (t )  lim sF (s), if limit exists

t 0 s 

16
Example 2.7
Proof the initial value theorem for
f(t)=u(t):

17
 Theorem 7:
Final Value Theorem

lim f (t )  lim sF ( s), if limit exists

t  s 0

18
Example 2.8
Proof the final value theorem for
f(t)=e-ktu(t):

19
 Theorem 8:
Frequency Differentiation
dF ( s)
L tf (t )  
ds

20
Example 2.9
Find L[tu(t)]

21
Properties of Laplace Transform

22
Properties of Laplace Transform

23
2.3 Laplace Transform Pair

24
25
2.4 Inverse Laplace Transformation (ILT) (1)

f  t   L [ F  s ]
1

• Some time domain functions which involve difficult

operations are both difficult to obtain and time
consuming.

• One way to solve it is to change it into frequency

domain, do the operation in frequency domain and
finally perform inverse Laplace transform (ILT) to
obtain back the function.

• Finding ILT >>>>> make use of the transform

properties as well as the transform pairs.
26
2.4 Inverse Laplace Transformation (ILT) (2)
• Some functions are more difficult to obtain its
ILT especially when it is in the form of
rational functions.

• In order to do so, we need to represent the

expression for Laplace inversion in a more
presentable way to ease the transformation.

• Partial fraction method is used (for rational

function).

27
 A( s )
• Let a rational function F(s) be F ( s) 
B( s )
where A(s) and B(s) are polynomials of s. It is assumed
that the order of B(s) is greater than that of A(s).

The polynomial B(s) may then be written as

n 1
B(s)  s  bn1s
n
 ...  b1s  b0
where b0, b1, … ,bn-1 are real coefficients.

28
Example 2.10
Order of B(s)>A(s) for the rational function F(s)
s 1 A(s)
i) F ( s)  2 B(s)
order of B(s)>A(s)
s 5
2
s 1 2
s  (5  4)
ii) F ( s )   F (s) 
s 5
2
s 5
2

s 5
2
4
order of B(s)=A(s)  2  2
s 5 s 5
4 A(s)
order of B(s)>A(s)
 1 2 B(s)
s 5 29
 s 1
3
s  (5s  5s )  1
3
iii) F (s)  2  F (s) 
s 5 s2  5
s ( s  5) 5s  1
2

order of B(s)<A(s)  2  2
s 5 s 5
5s  1 A(s)
order of B(s)>A(s)  s 2
s  5 B(s)
* The order of B(s)>A(s) applies only for rational function

30
• The roots of A(s) and B(s) are called zeros and
poles of the function F(s), respectively.
• The roots of polynomial B(s) can be:
• Simple As 
F ( s) 
• Repeated s  1  s   2 s   n 
• Complex
A s
F ( s) 
 s  1  ...  s   n  s   
m

A s
F ( s) 
 s    j   s    j 

31
(i) F(s) has simple poles
• When the poles are simple
As 
F ( s) 
s  1  s   2 s   n 
then it can be represented by
A1 A2 An
F ( s)   
s  1 s   2 s  n
An   s   n  F (s) s  ; n  1, 2,
n

32
 (ii) F(s) has repeated poles

• F(s) has n simple and m repeated poles, such

as
A1 An Ar1 Ar 2 Arm
F ( s)       
s  1 s   n (s   ) s    s
m m 1

then
An   s   n  F (s) s 
n
m 1
1 d       
m
Arm  s  F s
(m  1)! ds m1   s  

33
 (iii) F(s) has complex poles
*
AC AC
F (s)  
s    j s    j

AC   s    j   F  s 
s   j 

AC* is a complex conjugate of AC

*Either coefficient can be found first. The other will
be the conjugate of the first one being found.
34
Example 2.11
Find the inverse Laplace Transform for

Solution

35
Solution

36
 2.5 Circuit Analysis using LT
• All the linear networks can be represented by
linear constant coefficient differential
equations, and the use of LT provides an
easy method to obtain the solution.
• The terminal characteristics of each element
can be described in s-domain by
transforming its time domain equations.

37
 (i) s-domain resistor model
• The time domain terminal characteristic is
v(t) = i(t)R
• s-domain equation will be
V(s) = I(s)R
• s-transformed resistor model:

time-domain s-domain
38
 (ii) s-domain inductor model 1
• The v-i relationship of inductor is given by
Using Theorem 4
di (t )
v (t )  L
dt
• The s-domain equation: V(s) = sLI(s)-Li(0)
Initial condition
• s-transformed inductor model (voltage)

time-domain s-domain
39
 (ii) s-domain inductor model 2
Initial condition
• Rearrange the s-domain equation:
V ( s) i(0)
I ( s)  
sL s
• s-transformed inductor model (current)

time-domain s-domain
40
 (iii) s-domain capacitor model 1
• The v-i relationship of capacitor is given by
Using Theorem 4
dv(t )
i (t )  C
dt Initial condition
• The s-domain equation:
I(s) = sCV(s)-Cv(0)
• s-transformed capacitor model (current)

t-domain s-domain 41
 (iii) s-domain capacitor model 2
Initial condition
• Rearrange the s-domain equation:
I ( s) v(0)
V ( s)  
sC s
• s-transformed capacitor model (voltage)

s-domain
t-domain
42
Example 2.12
Draw the s-domain transformed circuit for a
series RLC circuit.

For resistor

For inductor

For capacitor

43
 Transformed equation for voltage,
V(s) for series RLC

• V(s)=I(s)R + sLI(s)-Li(0) + I(s)/sC+v(0)/s

• There may be situation when the initial conditions

are zero, this, we called it simply as ZERO INITIAL
CONDITIONS.

• Thus,

V(s)=I(s)R + sLI(s)+ I(s)/sC

44
2.6 Applications of LT in Circuit Problems

• RC-circuit

Obtain the expression of current i(t) for the RC-circuit,

considering the capacitor as initially uncharged and
source voltage V dc.
45
• s-domain transformed circuit

V  1 
 I ( s)  R  
s  sC 
V
I ( s) 
 1 
Dc voltage Rs  
Initially uncharged, vC(0-)=0  RC 

1
V  t
i (t )  L [ I ( s)]  e
1 RC
R
46
• RL-circuit

Find the expression of current i(t) for t>0, if inductor

current at t = 0- is IO. Voltage is dc.

47
• s-domain transformed circuit

i(0-)=I0

V s  L Io V L Io
I ( s)     I1 ( s)  I 2 ( s)
R  sL s ( s  R L) s  R L

V L Io
I1 ( s)  I 2 ( s) 
s ( s  R L) sR L
Use partial fraction expansion 48
 A B
I1 ( s)  
s sR L
V L
A  sI1 ( s) s 0  V R
s  R L s 0

V L
B  ( s  R L) I1 (s) s  R L   V R
s s  R L

V 1 1 
I1 ( s)    
Rs sR L
49
 V 1 1  Io
I ( s)  I1 ( s)  I 2 ( s)    
Rs sR L sR L

V  
R
t  
R
t
i (t )  L [ I1 ( s)  I 2 ( s )]  1  e L   I o e L
1

R 
V V 
R
 t
    Io  e L
R R 

50
Example 2.13
Determine the output voltage of the network
shown at t = 0+

51
• Assume that just before the switches S1 & S2 are
toggled (that is at t=0-), the circuit has achieved its
steady state conditions.
• So, the capacitor acts like an open circuit and the
voltage across capacitor would be vC(0-) = 1V
• And, the inductor acts like a short circuit and the
current across inductor would be iL(0-) = 1A

*We may denote t=0 - as t<0 as well 52

• When the switches are toggled at t=0, switch
S1 closes while switch S2 opens.
• We can model the voltage source as 4u(t).
• The circuit is as shown at the top.
• We need to determine the output voltage
after the switches are toggled, i.e. at t = 0+
*We may denote t=0 + as t>0 as well
53
• The s-transformed circuit is as shown.
• We will use mesh equations to solve.

54
55
56
Example 2.14
Find the current i(t).
Assume zero initial conditions.

57
 s-transformed circuit

• To find I(s), use current divider rule:

58
59
 2.9 Pole-Zero Plot
A( s )
F ( s) 
B( s )
a m s m  an 1s m1  ...  a1s  a0 (s  z1 )(s  z2 ) (s  zm )
n 1

bn s  bn1s  ...  b1s  b0
n
(s  p1 )(s  p2 ) (s  pn )

60
Zeros: The roots of polynomial A(s), i.e. s =-z1,-z2,…,-zm
of F(s) such that at these values of s, F(s)=0

Poles: The roots of polynomial B(s), i.e. s = -p1, -p2,…,-pn

of F(s) such that at these values of s, F(s)=.

• Poles and zeros can be plotted in complex s-plane,

we called the plot pole-zero plot/diagram

61
Example 2.15
• Plot the poles and zeros of function F(s)
( s  2)
F ( s) 
s( s  5)

Poles at s=0 and -5

Zero at s=-2 Complex s-plane, s=+j

62
• The highest order of denominator of transfer function
H(s) decides the order of the system, i.e, if n=1 it is
first order, n=2 second order systems and so on (that
is too by assuming the denominator order is higher
than the nominator)

2nd order
( s  2)
H ( s) 
s( s  5)

1
H ( s) 
s5
1st order
63
 (i) 1st order network

• This network contains only a single storage element,

for example RL circuit. The natural response of a
network to an initial condition is always of the form:

 t
y(t )  Y0e

64
 (ii) 2nd order network
• This network contains two storage elements, for
example RLC circuit.
• The denominator polynomial of the transfer function of
the second order network can be of the form

s  2 0 s   0
2 2

where  is the damping ratio, 0 is the undamped natural

frequency

65
• The natural response of a second order network is
controlled by the poles of transfer function.
• Poles are at
s1, 2   0   0   1 2

and thus the natural response depends on .

66
 A( s) c1 c2
i) H ( s)   
( s  s1 )( s  s2 ) s  s1 s  s2
 s1t  s2t
h(t )  c1e  c2e
A( s) c1 c1*
ii) H ( s)   
( s  s1 )( s  s2 ) s  s1 s  s2
where s1,2  Re( s1,2 )  j Im( s1,2 ), c1 | c1 | arg (c1 )
h(t )  2 | c1 | cos  Im( s1 )t  arg(c1 ) e Re( s1 )t

A( s) c2 c1
iii) H (s)   
( s  s1 ) 2
( s  s1 ) s  s1
2

h(t )   c1  c2t  e  s1t

67
 2.10 Damping System
• If  > 1, the system in overdamped, and will reach
steady state slowly with no oscillation.

• If  < 1, the system is underdamped, so it will oscillate

around the steady state, with decreasing amplitude.

• If  = 1, the system is critically damped, meaning there

will be no oscillation and the system will reach steady
state quickly.

68
 Example 2.16
• Draw the output response across the capacitor of a
series RLC circuit for =0.25,0.5,0.75,1 respectively.
Consider natural frequency o=2000rad/sec.

69
 Compare 2nd order
network response

V0 ( s )
1  2

H ( s)   LC H ( s)  2 0

Vi ( s ) R
s2  s 
1 s  2 0 s   0
2

L LC
1 L
LC  and R  2
 2
0 C
70
 • Output response V0(s) can be computed by taking
inverse Laplace transform
 2
1
V0 ( s)  2 0

s  20 s  0 s
2

v0 (t )  L [V0 ( s)]
1

  1 
1  
   1   2
e  wo t

cos wo 1   t  
2
  ;0    1



 1  1  wot  e ;  1
 wo t

  
where   tan 
1

 1  2 
 
71
Underdamped

Critically damped

72
2.11 Frequency Response Plot

• Let the input to a linear time invariant system be

sinusoidal with amplitude Xo and frequency o

x(t )  X o sin ot

then, the steady-state output of the system, y(t), will
be a sinusoid with the same frequency o, but with
different amplitude and phase

y(t )  Yo sin(ot   )
73
• Let the transfer function of a Single Input Single
Output system be H(s); the output Y(s) and the input
X(s) are related through

Y ( s)  H ( s) X ( s)
• For sinusoidal steady-state analysis, we replace s by
j
Y ( j) H ( j) X ( j)

74
 X ( j )  X ( j ) X ( j )
Y ( j )  Y ( j ) Y ( j )
H ( j )  H ( j ) H ( j )
Y ( j ) Y ( j)  H ( j) H ( j) X ( j) X ( j)

 H ( j ) X ( j ) H ( j )  X ( j )

Y ( j )  H ( j ) X ( j)
Y ( j)  H ( j)  X ( j)
75
• For previous input and output sinusoid:
Input Output

x(t )  X o sin ot y (t )  Yo sin(ot   )

o s sin   o cos 
X (s)  X o 2 Y ( s )  Yo
s  o2 s 2  o2
o j sin   o cos 
X ( j )  X o Y ( j )  Yo
( j ) 2  o2 ( j ) 2  o2

Y ( jo ) H ( jo ) X ( jo )

jo sin   o cos  o
Yo  H ( j ) X o
( jo )  o
2 2
( jo ) 2  o2
Yo  | H ( j ) | H ( j ) X o 0
| H ( j ) | X o H ( j )
76
• Thus, for the input and output signals described:

Yo  H ( jo ) X o
  H ( jo )

• By knowing the transfer function H(s), the frequency

response of the system can be obtained

77
• There are 3 commonly used representations
of sinusoidal transfer functions. They are:

– Bode diagram

– Nyquist plot or Polar plot

– Log-magnitude-versus-phase plot (Nichols plot)

78
 Bode Diagram

• A Bode diagram consists of two graphs:

– a plot the magnitude of a sinusoidal transfer function

– a plot of the phase angle; both plotted against the

frequency on a logarithmic scale.

• The standard representation of the logarithmic

magnitude of H(j) is 20log|H(j)| dB, where
the base of the logarithm is 10.

79
• Let us consider a sample transfer function of a
system to present Bode diagram

K
H ( s) 
s( s  a)( s  2 s  0 )
2 2

• Basic factors that occur in the transfer function are:

– Gain
– Integral and derivative factors
– First-order factors
– Quadratic factors

80
 (i) Gain K

• Log magnitude = 20logK (dB)

• Phase angle = 0
• K>0, dB is positive, K<0, dB is negative

81
 (ii) Integral and derivative factors, (j)1
• For 1/j
1
• Magnitude: 20log  20log  dB
j
• Phase: -90o

• For j
• Magnitude: 20 log j  20 log  dB
• Phase: +90o

Note: For every 10 fold increment/decrement in , the

magnitude increases/decreases by 20dB.
[20log(10)= 20log20]

In Bode plot, the slope for every 10 fold

increment/decrement it is denoted by 20dB/decade.
82
Note: Zero dB occurs at =1. 83
(iii) First order factors, (1+jT)1
• For 1/(1+jT)
1
• Magnitude: 20 log  20 log 1   2T 2 dB
1  jT
• For <<1/T, 20 log 1   2T 2  20 log1  0 dB

• For >>1/T, 20 log 1   T  20 log T

2 2
dB
• For =1/T, it is almost 0 dB. (Exact is -3 dB).
• For =10/T, it is -20dB/decade

 tan  1 T • =0, phase = 0

• Phase:
• =1/T, phase = -45o
• =10/T, phase = -84.3o
• =20/T, phase = -87.1o
• For 1+jT
• Magnitude: 20 log 1  jT  20 log 1   2T 2 dB

• For <<1/T, 20 log 1   2T 2  20 log1  0 dB

• For >>1/T, 20 log 1   2T 2  20 log T dB

• For =1/T, it is almost 0 dB. (Exact is +3 dB).

• For =10/T, it is +20dB/decade

1
• Phase: tan T • =0, phase = 0
• =1/T, phase = +45o
• =10/T, phase = +84.3o
• =20/T, phase = +87.1o
For 1/(1+jT)

For 1+jT

86
 (iv) First quadratic factors,
[1+2(j/n)+(j/n)2]1
• For 1/[1+2(j/n)+(j/n)2]
2
• Magnitude: 20 log 1   / n   2  / n 
  2 2

 

• For <<n, magnitude 0 dB. Resonant peak

• For >>n, 40 log  / n 
• For =n, 20 log 2
• For =10n, it is -40dB/decade

1  2  / n  
• Phase:    tan  
1   / n  
2

Depend on damping ratio,

87
• For 1+2(j/n)+(j/n)2

2 2
• Magnitude: 20 log 1   / n    2  / n  
2

 
• For <<n, magnitude 0 dB.
• For >>n, 40 log  / n  Resonant peak
• For =n, 20 log 2
• For =10n, it is +40dB/decade

1  2  / n  
• Phase:   tan  
1   / n  
2

Depend on damping ratio,

88
• If  >1, this quadratic factor can be expressed as a
product of two first-order factors with real poles.

• If 0<<1, this quadratic factor is the product of two

complex-conjugate factors.

• Asymptotic approximations are not accurate for a

factor with low values of .

• Thus, for <0.5, the resonant peak is insignificant.

89
• For 1/[1+2(j/n)+(j/n)2]

90
 Example 2.17
• Sketch the Bode plot for the following transfer
function
1
H ( s) 
s2

91
Solution

Consists of sum of a gain and a first order factor

92
93
• Resultant:

94