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A Review on Reading Theories and its Implication to the Teaching of Reading

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 A Review on Reading Theories
and its Implication to the Teaching of Reading1

Parlindungan Pardede
parlpard2010@gmail.com
Universitas Kristen Indonesia

Abstract
Opinions and suggestions for the improvement of teaching reading to learners
of English as a foreign language, whether based on the results of research and
experience, are available in language teaching literature. This paper is a
summary of various theories, findings and opinions concerning the teaching
of reading. An understanding of these topics, especially the theory of top-
down, bottom-up, and meta-cognitive, could be used as the basis for
improving the techniques of teaching reading. By doing so, the reading
proficiency of learners of English as a foreign language could be significantly
enhanced
Keywords: top-down, bottom-up, schemata, meta-cognitive, pre-reading,
during-reading, after-reading

Introduction
Among the four language skills, reading is possibly the most extensively and
intensively studied by experts in the field of language teaching. The results of the
researches conducted for many decades on nature of reading—how people learn to
process textual information—have contributed contrasting theories about what works
best in the teaching of reading. As a result, language educators can choose among a
wide variety of teaching methods and techniques for students learning to read in their
second language (SL) or foreign language (FL).
For students who are learning a SL/FL reading is the most crucial skill to master
due to several reasons. First, students can usually perform at a higher level in reading
than in any other skills. They can quite accurately understand written materials that
they could not discuss orally or in writing with equivalent accuracy or thoroughness.
Such condition will undoubtedly enhance their motivation to learn. Second, reading
necessitates very minimum requirements. Different from speaking which requires

1
Presented in English Department Bimanthly Forum of EED FKIP-UKI, June 27, 2008

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opportunities to interact with sparring partner, or from writing which needs a lot
of guidance and time to practice, reading necessitates only a text and motivation.
Third, reading is a service skill. After learning how to read effectively, students will be
able to learn effectively by reading.
Realizing how crucial reading is for our students, we can see the great importance
of developing their reading ability. To achieve it, we should improve our reading lessons
by implementing the best method and techniques provided by theories. This article aims
to describe principal theories of reading and examine some tips and guidelines for
implementing a theory of reading which will help us develop our learner’s abilities.

Theories of Reading
So far, there are three main theories which explain the nature of learning to read. First,
the traditional theory, or bottom up processing, which focused on the printed form of a
text. Second, the cognitive view, or top-down processing enhanced the role of
background knowledge in addition to what appeared on the printed page. Third, the
metacognitive view, which is based on the control and manipulation that a reader can
have on the act of comprehending a text, and thus, emphasizes the involvement of the
reader’s thinking about what he is doing while reading.

1. The traditional bottom-up view

The traditional bottom-up approach to reading was influenced by behaviorist
psychology of the 1950s, which claimed learning was based upon “habit formation,
brought about by the repeated association of a stimulus with a response” and
language learning was characterized as a “response system that humans acquire
through automatic conditioning processes,” where “some patterns of language are
reinforced (rewarded) and others are not,” and “only those patterns reinforced by the
community of language users will persist” (Omaggio 1993: 45-46). Behaviorism became
the basis of the audio-lingual method, which sought to form second language “habits”
through drilling, repetition, and error correction.
Today, the main method associated with the bottom-up approach to reading is
known asphonics, which requires the learner to match letters with sounds in a defined
sequence. According to this view, reading is a linear process by which readers decode a
text word by word, linking the words into phrases and then sentences (Gray and

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Rogers, cited in Kucer, 1987). According to Samuels and Kamil (1988: 25), the emphasis
on behaviorism treated reading as a word-recognition response to the stimuli of the
printed words, where “little attempt was made to explain what went on within the
recesses of the mind that allowed the human to make sense of the printed page”. In other
words, textual comprehension involves adding the meanings of words to get the
meanings of clauses (Anderson 1994). These lower level skills are connected to the
visual stimulus, or print, and are consequently concerned with recognizing and recalling.
Like the audio-lingual teaching method, phonics emphasizes on repetition and
on drills using the sounds that make up words. Information is received and processed
beginning with the smallest sound units, and proceeded to letter blends, words,
phrases, and sentences. Thus, novice readers acquire a set of hierarchically ordered
sub-skills that sequentially build toward comprehension ability. Having mastered these
skills, readers are viewed as experts who comprehend what they read.
The bottom-up model describes information flow as a series of stages that
transforms the input and passes it to the next stage without any feedback or possibility
of later stages of the process influencing earlier stages (Stanovich, 1980). In other
words, language is viewed as a code and the reader’s main task is to identify graphemes
and convert them into phonemes. Consequently, readers are regarded as passive
recipients of information in the text. Meaning resides in the text and the reader has to
reproduce it.
The ESL and EFL textbooks influenced by this perspective include exercises that
focus on literal comprehension and give little or no importance to the reader’s
knowledge or experience with the subject matter, and the only interaction is with
the basic building blocks of sounds and words. Most activities are based on recognition
and recall of lexical and grammatical forms with an emphasis on the perceptual and
decoding dimension.
This model of reading has almost always been under attack as being
insufficient and defective for the main reason that it relies on the formal features of the
language, mainly words and structure. Although it is possible to accept this rejection for
the fact that there is over-reliance on structure in this view, it must be confessed that
knowledge of linguistic features is also necessary for comprehension to take place. To
counteract over-reliance on form in the traditional view of reading, the cognitive view
was introduced.

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2. The Cognitive View (top-down processing)
In the 1960s a paradigm shift occurred in the cognitive sciences. Behaviorism
became somewhat discredited as the new cognitive theory represented the mind’s
innate capacity for learning, which gave new explanatory power to how humans
acquired their first language; this also had a tremendous impact on the field of ESL/EFL
as psycholinguists explained “how such internal representations of the foreign language
develop within the learner’s mind” (Omaggio, 1993: 57).
Ausubel (cited in Omaggio, 1993: 58), made an important distinction between
meaningful learning and rote learning. An example of rote learning is simply
memorizing lists of isolated words or rules in a new language, where the information
becomes temporary and subject to loss. Meaningful learning, on the other hand, occurs
when new information is presented in a relevant context and is related to what the
learner already knows, so that it can be easily integrated into one’s existing cognitive
structure. A learning that is not meaningful will not become permanent. This emphasis
on meaning eventually informed the top-down approach to L2 learning, and in the 1960s
and 1970s there was an explosion of teaching methods and activities that strongly
considered the experience and knowledge of the learner.
These new cognitive and top-down processing approaches revolutionized the
conception of the way students learn to read (Smith, 1994). In this view, reading is not
just extracting meaning from a text but a process of connecting information in the text
with the knowledge the reader brings to the act of reading. In this sense, reading is
a dialogue between the reader and the text which involves an active cognitive process
in which the reader’s background knowledge plays a key role in the creation of meaning
(Tierney and Pearson, 1994). Reading is not a passive mechanical activity but
purposeful and rational, dependent on the prior knowledge and expectations of the
reader. It is not merely a matter of decoding print to sound but also a matter of making
sense of written language (Smith, 1994: 2). In short, reading is a psycholinguistic
guessing game, a process in which readers sample the text, make hypotheses, confirm or
reject them, make new hypotheses, and so forth.

Schema Theory
Another theory closely related to top-down processing called schema theory
also had a major impact on reading instruction. It describes in detail how the

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background knowledge of the learner interacts with the reading task and illustrates how
a student’s knowledge and previous experience with the world is crucial to deciphering
a text. The ability to use this schemata, or background knowledge, plays a fundamental
role in one’s trial to comprehend a text.
Schema theory is based on the notion that past experiences lead to the creation of
mental frameworks that help a reader make sense of new experiences. Smith (1994: 14)
calls schemes the “extensive representations of more general patterns or regularities
that occur in our experience”. For instance one’s generic scheme of an airplane will
allow him to make sense of airplane he has not previously flew with. This means that
past experiences will be related to new experiences, which may include the
knowledge of “objects, situations, and events as well as knowledge of procedures for
retrieving, organizing and interpreting information” (Kucer, 1987: 31). Anderson (1994:
469) presents research showing that recall of information in a text is affected by the
reader’s schemata and explains that “a reader comprehends a message when he is able
to bring to mind a schema that gives account of the objects and events described in the
message”. Comprehension is the process of “activating or constructing a schema that
provides a coherent explanation of objects and events mentioned in a discourse”
(Anderson, 1994: 473). For Anderson and Pearson (1988: 38), comprehension is the
interaction between old and new information. They emphasize: “To say that one has
comprehended a text is to say that she has found a mental ‘home’ for the information in
the text, or else that she has modified an existing mental home in order to accommodate
that new information”. Therefore, a learner’s schemata will restructure itself to
accommodate new information as that information is added to the system (Omaggio,
1993).

Content and formal schemata

Schema theorists differentiate formal schemata (knowledge about the structure
of a text)from content schemata (knowledge about the subject matter of a text), and a
reader’s prior knowledge of both schemata enables him to predict events and meaning
as well as to infer meaning from a wider context. Formal schemata refers to the way that
texts differ from one another; for example, a reading text could be a fictional work, a
letter to the editor, or a scientific essay, and each genre will have a different structural
organization. Knowledge of these genre structures can aid reading comprehension, as

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it gives readers a basis for predicting what a text will be like (Smith 1994). For example,
if a reader knows that the typical format of a research article consists of sections
subtitled Introduction, Theoretical Basis, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion,
that knowledge will facilitate their interaction with the article and boost
comprehension. On the other hand, if he is not familiar with this formal schema, teaching
it to him could lead to improved reading ability with lasting and beneficial effects.
Content schemata refers to the message of the text. One’s familiarity with the content
will make more productive and efficient. As Anderson (1994: 469) explains, “a reader
comprehends a message when he is able to bring to mind a schema that gives account of
the objects and events described in the message”.

Activating and building schemata

Since the reader plays a fundamental role in the construction of meaning, his age,
gender, experience, and culture are important considerations for teachers who want
to select readings that will motivate their students. Anderson (1994) notes that when
readers cannot locate a schema that fits a text, they may find it incomprehensible. In
some cases readers may not have a schema that is significant to the text, or they may
need help to activate the pertinent schema to be able to comprehend the text. In such
cases it may not be possible for the reader to understand the text, and the teacher must
be ready to engage in “building new background knowledge as well as activating
existing background knowledge” (Carrell, 1988: 248). In parallel with this, Bransford
(1994) points out that difficulties in comprehension may be caused by the lack of
background knowledge presumed by the text, and he sees the responsibility of
instructors as being twofold: to activate preexisting schemata and to help students to
integrate isolated “parcels” of knowledge into a schema or to build a new one.
If the texts to be read contain a cultural context that is different from the
student’s, the issues of formal and content schemata become even more important.
McDonough (1995), explains that, to a higher extent, this is the reason why ESL and
EFL students find it difficult to read in a second language with texts that contain cultural
assumptions of the target culture. They may lack the culture-specific background
knowledge necessary to process the text in a top-down manner. His reports on several
studies demonstrate how people outside a given culture may misunderstand events
with unfamiliar cultural connotations. (Students from different cultural backgrounds

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taking standardized tests which assume common schemata for will also face the same
problem.)

Applying schema theory to L2 reading

Based on the aforementioned ideas, it is obvious that in order to teach reading
effectively, the teacher’s role to activate and build schemata is paramount. To achieve it,
he should in advance select texts that are relevant to the students’ needs, preferences,
individual differences, and cultures in order to provide meaningful texts so the students
understand the message, which entails activating existing schemata and helping build
new schemata. Then, after selecting the text, he needs to do the following three stages
of activities to activate and build the students’ schemata. (1) Pre-reading activities, in
which the teacher have students think, write, and discuss everything they know about
the topic, employing techniques such as prediction, semantic mapping, and reconciled
reading. The objective is to make sure that students have the relevant schema for
understanding the text. (2) During-reading activities, in which the teacher guide and
monitor the interaction between the reader and the text. One important skill teachers
can impart at this stage is note-taking, which allows students to compile new vocabulary
and important information and details, and to summarize information and record
their reactions and opinions. (3)Post-reading activities which facilitate the chance
to evaluate students’ adequacy of interpretation, while bearing in mind that accuracy is
relative and that “readership” must be respected as long as the writer’s intentions are
addressed (Tierney and Pearson, 1994). Post-reading activities focus on a wide range of
questions that allow for different interpretations.
While schema activation and building can occur in all three stages, the pre-reading
stage deserves special attention since it is here, during the students’ initial contact with
the text, where their schemata will be activated.

Pre-reading activities
Pre-reading activities is aimed to activate existing schemata, build new schemata,
and provide information to the teacher about what the students know. In their report on
the positive effect various pre-reading activities had on reading comprehension,
Chen and Graves (1995, 664), define them as “devices for bridging the gap between the
text’s content and the reader’s schemata”. Various activities and materials can help the

7
teacher introduce key vocabulary and reinforce concept association to activate both
formal and content schemata. Formal schemata will be activated by employing devices
such as advance organizers and overviews to draw attention to the structure of a text.
The content schemata will be activated by using various pre-reading activities to help
learners brainstorm and predict how the information fits in with their previous
knowledge.
One of the most important pre-reading activities proposed by schematic theorists’
is prediction. According to Goodman (1988: 16), prediction is important because “the
brain is always anticipating and predicting as it seeks order and significance in sensory
inputs”. Smith (1994, 19–20) defines prediction as “the prior elimination of unlikely
alternatives”. According to him, predictions are questions the readers ask the world and
comprehension is receiving the answers. He emphasizes that it is prediction that
makes skilled readers effective when reading texts that contain familiar subject
matter. “Prediction brings potential meaning to texts, reducing ambiguity and
eliminating in advance irrelevant alternatives. Thus, we are able to generate
comprehensible experience from inert pages of print” (Smith 1994, 18).
Another pre-reading activity is previewing, where students look at titles,
headings, and pictures, and read the first few paragraphs and the last paragraph; these
activities can then help students understand what the text is about by activating
their formal and contents schemata and making them familiar with the topic before
they begin reading in earnest. Semantic mapping is another pre-reading activity that
Carrell, Pharis, and Liberto (1989: 651) describe as a useful way to pre-teach
vocabulary and to “provide the teacher with an assessment of the students’ prior
knowledge or schema availability on the topic”. This activity asks students to
brainstorm about the reading topic as the information is displayed on a graphic
“map.” As students make associations, the map becomes a thorough summary of the
concepts and vocabulary that they will encounter in the reading. It can also help build
schemata and vocabulary that students do not yet possess. Again, it is important to
know something about the students so the selected texts contain the type of material
that is likely to be familiar and interesting to them.
Reutzel (1985) proposes another type of pre-reading activity called
reconciled reading lesson, which reverses the sequence presented by many textbooks
where the text is followed by questions. Instead, the teacher develops pre-reading

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questions from the questions that appear at the end of the reading. Smith (1994)
criticizes comprehension exercises presented at the end of a reading because they are
like memory tests. He argues that using prior knowledge efficiently contributes to
fluent readers, and he believes that there is a reciprocal relationship between visual
and non-visual (prior knowledge) information; the more the readers have of the latter,
the less they need of the former. Although not all the post-reading questions can be
easily turned into pre-reading ones, this strategy can be invaluable to activate schemata.

3. The metacognitive view

According to Block (1992), there is now no more debate on “whether reading is a
bottom-up, language-based process or a top-down, knowledge-based process.” It is also no
more problematic to accept the influence of background knowledge on readers.
Research has gone even further to define the control executed by readers on their
trial to understand a text. This control is what Block has referred to as meta-cognition.
In the context of reading, meta-cognition involves thinking about what one is doing
while reading. Strategic readers do not only sample the text, make hypotheses, confirm
or reject them, and make new hypotheses while reading. They also involve many
activities along the process of reading, whose stages can be divided into three, i.e.
before reading, while reading, and after reading. The activities the readers involve
before reading are to identify the purpose of the reading, identify the form or type of the
text. In the second stage (while reading), they think about the general character and
features of the form or type of the text—such as trying to locate a topic sentence and
follow supporting details toward a conclusion, project the author’s purpose for writing
the text, choose, scan, or read in detail, make continuous predictions about what will
occur next based on information obtained earlier, prior knowledge, and conclusions
obtained within the previous stages. Finally, in the last stage, they attempt to form a
summary, conclude, or make inference of what was read.

Guidelines for Effective Teaching of Reading

After discussing the ideas and concepts presented in the three reading theories, let’s see
how they are implemented in the tips for helping learners develop their reading
competence proposed by Vaezi (2006). The tips are arranged in three sections which are

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parallel with the three consecutive reading stages: before reading, during reading, and
after reading (Wallace, 1992).

Pre-Reading Tips
Before the actual reading act on a text starts, some points should be considered for
making the reading process more comprehensible. First, teachers should ensure that the
words and grammatical structures in the texts to read are familiar to the learners.
Suppose the texts have unfamiliar words, they could be introduced in pre-reading
activities focusing on language awareness, such as finding synonyms, antonyms,
derivatives, or associated words. Second, teachers need to make certain that the topics of
chosen texts are in accordance with the learners’ age range, interests, sex, and cultural
background. If they are not, necessary background information should be provided to the
reader to facilitate comprehension. Assigning the class members to brainstorm ideas
about the meaning of a title or an illustration and discuss what they know are
recommended to conduct this activity.
The followings are some activities teacher can use during the pre-reading stage.
These activities do not necessitate a long time to conduct. But, they are very effective to
overcome the common urge to start reading a text closely right away from the beginning.
1. Teacher-directed pre-reading, which is directed to explain some key vocabulary,
ideas in the text, and the text type. In this approach, the teacher the information the
students will need, including key concepts, important vocabulary, and appropriate
conceptual framework are directly explained. The reason for introducing the text
types is that texts may take on different forms and hold certain pieces of information
in different places. The students’ familiarity of the text types they are reading will
develop their understanding of the layout of the material. Such familiarity will, in
turn, enable them to focus more deeply on the parts that are more densely compacted
with information. Paying attention to the author’s name and the year of publication,
if applicable, may even help the reader in assuming the text meaning.
2. Interactive activities, in which the teacher leads a discussion by drawing out the
information students already have and interjects additional information considered
to be necessary to an understanding of the text to be read. The teacher can also
overtly link the students’ prior knowledge and important information in the text.

10
3. Reflective activities, which is directed to guide the students to realize the purpose
and objective for reading a certain piece of written material. This can be done at the
initial stages, but this strategy can be left to the students when they have become
better readers. For example, the students may be guided to ask themselves, “Why
should I read this text? What benefits can I get after finished reading this? Their
awareness of the purpose and goal to read, later—in during-reading activities—will
enable them to determine the correct skill(s) to employ: skimming, scanning, reading
for details, or critical reading.

During-reading tips
The activities carried out in during-reading stage include taking notes, reacting,
predicting, selecting significant information, questioning the writer’s position,
evaluating, and placing a text within one’s own experience. Due to the fact that most
attention is often paid to dictionaries, the text, and the teacher in English reading classes,
these processes can be the most complex to develop in a classroom setting,. To encourage
active reading, the teacher is recommended to let the students to practice the followings
are tips.
1. Making predictions: Students should be guided to master the skill to predict what is
going to happen next in the text because it is necessary to enable them to integrate
and combine what has come with what is to come.
2. Making selections: Proficient readers are more selective in what to read.
3. Integrating prior knowledge: To facilitate comprehension, the schemata activated in
the pre-reading section are required to be called upon.
4. Skipping insignificant parts: The more proficient a person reads, the more he will
concentrate on important pieces of information and skip unimportant pieces.
5. Re-reading: Students should be made aware of the importance of re-reading to
increase their comprehension.
6. Making use of context or guessing: encouraging students to define and understand
every single unknown word in a text is necessary. They should also be taught to use
the context to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words.
7. Breaking words into their component parts: To read more efficiently, students should
analyze unknown words by breaking them into their affixes or roots. Such analysis

11
 can help them guess the meaning of a word so that they do not need to consult a
dictionary and keep the process of comprehension continuing.
8. Reading in chunks: To read faster, students should practice reading groups of words
together. Such an act will also improve comprehension.
9. Pausing: Good readers do not read with the same speed from the beginning to the
end. At certain sections, he will pause to absorb and internalize the material being
read and sort out information.
10. Paraphrasing: Some parts of texts might need to be paraphrased sub-vocally to verify
what it means.
11. Monitoring: Good readers always check their understanding to evaluate whether the
text or the reading of it, is meeting their goals.

After-reading tips
Post-reading activities are essentially determined by the reading purpose and the
information type extracted from the text. According to Barnett (1988), post-reading
exercises first monitor students’ comprehension and then lead them to a deeper analysis
of the text. In the real world, the reading is not directed to summarize a text content or to
memorize the author’s viewpoint. The true goal of reading is to see into the author’s mind
or to engage new information with what one already knows. To let the students check the
information they did not comprehend or miscomprehended, holding a group discussion
is recommended.
Vaezi (2006) accentuated that post-reading can stage generally take the form of
these activities: (1) discussing the text: written/oral, (2) summarizing: written/oral, (3)
making questions: written/oral, (3) answering questions: written/oral, (4) filling in
forms and charts (5) writing reading logs (6) completing a text, (7) listening to or reading
other related materials, and (7) role-playing.

Conclusion
Researches, opinions, and suggestions regarding the teaching of reading exist in
extensive amount, and this summary of reading theories is by no means exhaustive.
However, with a basic understanding of the theoretical basis of top-down and bottom-up
processing, teachers can better take advantage of the most useful methodologies
associated with the different approaches. It should be underlined that relying too much

12
on either top-down or bottom-up processing may cause problems for beginning ESL/EFL
readers. Thus, to develop reading abilities, both approaches should be considered, as the
meta-cognitive approach suggests. Based on my own experience in teaching reading to
Indonesian students, it was obvious that the students who managed to read English text
effectively are those who approach texts in a painful, slow, and frustrating word-by-word
manner. By improving their decoding skills, they are freed to concentrate on global
meanings. So, both the psycho and the linguistic aspects must be emphasized in EFL
reading classes.

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