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Personality & Human Behaviour

Subject: PERSONALITY & HUMAN BEHAVIOUR Credits: 4

SYLLABUS

Personality: Meaning, Nature of Personality, Classification, Sources of Influences upon Personality,

Approaches, Psychoanalytical Theory - Sigmund Freud - Structures and Functional Levels Of Mind,
Psychosexual Development - Nature Of Anxiety, Jung’s Analytical Theory - The Structure and the Dynamics of
Personality - Characteristics

Adler’s Individual Psychology - Inferiority - Superiority - Style of Life - Creative Self , Fictional Goals And
Social Interest Principles, Eric Fromm - Social Analytical Theory - Karen Horney , Social And Cultural Theory
Sullivan ,Interpersonal Theory, The Structure And The Dynamics Of Personality , Development Of Personality,
Erickson’s – Social Development Theory

Levin’s Field Theory, The Structure And The Dynamics Of Personality, Development Of Personality,
Characteristics Research And Methods, Kelly’s Cognitive Theory - Personal Construct Theory - Assumption Of
Human Nature, Rogee`s Phenomena Logical Theory - Murray

Abraham Maslow - Self-Actualization -Hierarchy Of Needs , Development Of Personality, Allport - Trait

Theory ,Meaning Of Functional Autonomy – Characteristics - Human Nature, Cattell`s Factor Theory - The
Structure Of Traits, The Development Of Personality And Characteristics

Suggested Readings:

1. Duane P. Schultz, Theories of Personality, Cengage Learning

2. P. Subba Rao, Organisational Behaviour, Himalaya Pub. House
3. Stephen P. Robbins, Organisational Behaviour, Pearson Education Australia
 PERSONALITY

STRUCTURE
Learning Objectives
Meaning
Characteristic of personality
Dimensions of personality
Sources of influences upon personality
Approach
Psychoanalytical theory
Structure and functional levels of Mind
Psychosexual development
Nature of Anxiety
Jung‘s Analytical theory—the structure and the dynamics of
personality characteristics
Review Questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
It is expected that after reading this unit, you will be able to:
Understand and discuss the concept of personality;
Understand different definitions of personality;
Understand the characteristic features of personality;
Understand and discuss in your own words different dimensions of
personality;

MEANING
The word ― personality‖ has been derived from the Latin word ― persona‖
which means a mask worn through an actor while performing a character on
the stage. Therefore personality is taken to mean the characteristic pattern or
style of behaviour of the person revealed from his external appearance. The
external properties of a person contain his dress, speech, bodily actions,
postures, habits and expressions. Therefore a person endowed with good
external properties is measured to possess a good personality and vice versa.
But you know this is not the reality. Mere external properties can not create a
personality. And if we go through this concept how and where would we rate
the personality of persons like Mahatma Gandhi, Lal Bahadur Shastri. George
Bernard Shaw and several others whose external appearance was not highly
endowed. These persons are certainly not favored through nature in external
properties. So, it was realized that personality incorporated something more
than external properties and the concept of external appearance in personality
was relegated to background.
The word personality now stood for an all inclusive concept. It is the sum
total of an individual‘s properties as a separate and unique human being. The
external properties are directly observed, while the internal are only inferred
from the behavior of a person. The concept of personality is a derived concept.
The derivation is possible in three methods:
The first is subjective, popular derivation based on subjective
impressions formed through the individual‘s behavior and is expressed
through evaluative expressions like charming, dominating, weak or
bold personality.
The second derivation of personality is based on an objective
description of the overt responses of the individual.
The third derivation is organism according to which personality is the
inner pattern of a person‘s characteristics.

In the first unit of this block, we intend to discuss several definitions of

personality, characteristics features of personality and dimension of
personality. We shall highlight definitions of personality from several angles
like, popular definitions, political definition, psychological definition, and so
on. We shall discuss how personality is organized, why we call it a dynamic
system. While discussing dimensions of personality, we shall highlight trait
dimension and motivation dimension. Allport‘s definition of personality best
represents third concept.

Definitions Of Personality

Allport (1961) personality is the ― dynamic organization within the

individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique
adjustment to his environment‖ It means that personality ― resides‖ within the
individual and these systems are woven into an organization. Personality is not
static but dynamic, the organizational pattern determines the kind and degree
of adjustment of the individual to his environment, and this adjustment-pattern
is unique to the individual. With the Latin meaning of the term personality
taking backseat and acceptance of personality as an all inclusive concept
scientists from different disciplines of knowledge approached personality from
different angles. Their efforts can be summarized under the following
headings.
Popular Definitions of Personality
This comprises those definitions of personality which place emphasis on
social values. For instance, a person who is attractive and good looking, is
liberal, easily mixes up in social situations and exhibits socially desirable
characteristics, is measured in popular parlance as having the best personality.
Though, this definition does not fit every individual. Going through this
definition would result in some people having no personality at all. Besides,
you know very well that in real life we often encounter people who have all
the charms, they exhibit all the socially desirable traits but their tendencies are
antisocial, for instance, noted criminal Sobhraj. He has an exterior pleasing
personality but basically has a criminal behavioral tendency. He killed several
innocent people.

Political Definition of Personality

According to political definition a person has personality only when he is
charismatic, attractive and represents the masses. He should be able to present
himself in an impressive manner at a public debate. His personal life should be
marred with scandals. Even this definition is not acceptable for if we accept
this definition then majority of political leaders should not have any
personality.

Biophysical Definition of Personality

This category of definitions regards personality as organic internal element
of a person. It regards personality as consisting of traits which lend themselves
to objective measurement. For instance, Sheldon classified people on the basis
of physique. He described three types of personality namely: endomorphic,
mesomorphic and ectomorphic, with endo morphic being fat and fleshy,
mesomorphic being athletic in build with a lot of muscles and ecto morphic
being thin and bony in build. .

Ominibus Definition
This category comprises all those concepts which lay emphasis on the
description of personality. Morton Prince (1924)‘s definition best represents
this approach. According to him ―personality is the sum total of all biological,
innate dispositions, impulses, tendencies, appetites and instincts of the
individual and the acquired dispositions and tendencies acquired through
experiences. Although all encompassing, it is criticizes on the basis of this
being highly subjective and intricate.
Integrative Definition
Essence of this definition lies in finding order and consistency in the
behaviour of an individual crossways different situations. Therefore
personality is a pattern or organisation. For instance, Cagan and Haveman
describe personality as the total pattern of characteristic methods of thinking;
feeling and behaving that constitute the individual‘s distinctive method of
relating to the environment.

Psychological Definition
This definition comprises all those which describe personality on the basis
of variables like adjustment, temperament, uniqueness, and dynamic
organization. Under this category we can place quite a number of definitions
but for our purposes we will consider only a few.
Personality is the dynamic organization with in the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his
environment. (Allport, 1938).
Personality is the more or less stable and enduring organisation of a
person‘s character, temperament, intellect, and physique that determine
his unique adjustment to his environment...
Personality usually refers to the distinctive patterns of behaviour
(including thoughts and emotions) that characterize each individual‘s
adaptations to the situations of his life or her life.
Personality is usually defined as individual‘s unique and relatively
stable patterns of behaviour, thoughts and emotions. (Baron, 1993).

CHARACTERISTIC OF PERSONALITY
Now if you cautiously analyze all these definitions of personality, you will
find the following.

Psychophysical systems

Personality is a system that has both psychological and physical

characteristics. This system is composed of interacting elements and the main
elements of the system are traits, emotions, intellect, temperament, character
and motives. All these elements are psychological but they are based in the
neurology and endocrinology of the body.
Dynamic organization

It signifies that different elements of psychological system are independent

but function in an interlocking manner and are subject to change. Though this
change can take place over a period of time in a gradual manner. The above
examples may seem to you quite radical, but changes in the personality of all
individuals do come as they enter new roles, responsibilities and
circumstances.

Consistency

Since personality is a stable organisation it also has the element of

consistency. Through consistency we mean that an individual behaves in the
same method in different situations and behavioral consistency is found when
same situation is repeated crossways time. Psychologists provide four types of
consistency.
Type ― A‖ consistency: In this type the situation and behaviour remain
same. For instance, a football player is asked to play match against
team X and after 10 days he asked to play against the team.
Type ― B‖ consistency: When the same behaviour is repeated in two
different situations. For instance, a person appears for an interview
before one selection board then he appears for interview for the same
job before another board in the final round.
Type ― C‖ consistency: When an individual is asked to behave
differently in the same situation. For instance, when an actor is asked
to imitate different actors.
Type ― D‖ consistency: When a person behaves differently in different
situations.

A person is able to behave in different situations according to the demand

of the situation because he is influenced through scrupulous type of traits. For
instance, a person is supposed treat his students differently as compared to his
colleagues. His behaviour with his parents would be different form that with
his friends.

Unique adjustment to environment

Every person is characterized with a dynamic organisation of

psychological traits that creates his adjustment. The cause for this is that
experiences of every person are unique so their reaction to the environment is
also unique. You may notice that even identical twins who come out of the
same embryo, though have the same genetic create up, react differently to the
same situation because their frame of references is unique.

Development of personality structure

Personality development is the natural quality of a rising organism. The

path is from simple to increasingly intricate factors and situations an
individual has to pass through. According to Heniz Werner, at birth the mental
organisation of the infant expands slowly. Through interactions with the
environment, the parts of the child‘s mental structure become progressively
crystallized and differentiated from each other. The analytical stage is
followed through synthesis or integration when the differentiated parts become
functionally organized. From a diffused mass through progressive
differentiation to an integrated whole is, then the course of development of
personality structure.

Consciousness

Personality is conscious in that it develops out of our interaction with the

environment. This interaction results in formation of concept of self. Self-
concept means who we are and what we stand for. All the responses of a
human being are oriented toward protection of the self concept.

Potentiality for change

Potential for change is another characteristic of personality. The earlier

psychoanalytical view did hold personality as a rigid structure. Though,
modern humanistic theories have demonstrated not only the human has the
capability for reorganization but also the circumstances do foster change.
Integration or organisation is the quality of the human personality that is it
occurs to human beings naturally and normally. It is the normal development
outcome of personality structure. Disorganization, that is, the isolation of the
functions of the individual parts from the total system, is a pathological
condition (Goldstein) of a psychological disorder.

DIMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY
Let me ask you a question. How several people you have come crossways
since you grew up? A reasonable answer would be thousands. Now another
question is how several of these people were similar in conditions of
personality? Again a reasonable answer is that none of them was similar or
identical in conditions of personality. They might have exhibited similar
characteristics say for instance, extroversion but they might not have exhibited
extroversion in identical quantity or manner. Therefore you can conclude from
your own observation that no two people in the world are identical in
conditions of personality. This principle applies to identical twins as well.
Now the problem is how to explain these differences in the personality of the
people. Psychologists on the basis of researches have recognized some
dimensions of personality to explain differences in personality.
Now the question is what are these dimensions? Actually these dimensions
are category scales which help us understand behaviour of individuals in
conditions of its main traits, motivational power, temperament, and character.
Chiefly these dimensions are of four types: traits, motivation, temperament
and character.

Traits

Traits are relatively permanent characteristics of personality which compel

an individual to behave uniformly crossways different situations. People can
be compared through measuring these traits. We call these traits relatively
permanent because they change over time. For instance, an introvert person
may not remain that introvert after 10 years. Some of the significant traits are
(a) Introversion-extraversion; (b) Neuroticismstability (c) Psychoticism

Introversion-extroversion
It is a bipolar trait. People with predominance of introversion are self-
centered. Such people are idealistic, imaginative, shy and secluded.
Predominance of thoughtfulness steers them in the world of brooding, fantasy
and daydreaming. These people take considerable time in reaching decision
and are worried in relation to the future. Such people are theoretical and often
are philosophers, poets, scientist and professors.
Extroverts are more inclined to social activities. They are gregarious and
social through nature. Such people are realistic, practical, talkative, and active.
They show more interest in leadership. Though, very few people are totally
extrovert or introvert. Majority of the people fall in flanked by that is, they
exhibit some degree of introversion and some degree of extroversion in their
behaviour and hence are described Ambiverts. Now the question is why are
some people introvert and some extrovert? Are there any physiological
correlates of it? Researches reveal that introvert and extroverts differ in
cortical excitation level. Extroverts have lower cortical excitation threshold,
so, small amount of stimulation is enough to activate them. This fact creates
them sensation seeking. On the other hand cortical excitation level of
introverts is quite high as a result they remain unaffected through stimulation
from external environment.

Neuroticism stability dimension

This too is a bipolar dimension. People high on neuroticism exhibit
scrupulous traits and behavioral tendencies. They show lack of emotional
control and will power with an added characteristic of slowness in thought
process and activity. Even small things perturb them. People with high
neuroticism are high on suggestibility and low on sociability. Though, such
people are also characterized through increased emotional impulsiveness.
Contrary to neuroticism, people high on stability are cool and do not get
easily disturbed or perturbed through conflicting issues. They are able to keep
themselves under control even in most hard circumstances. They can detach
themselves and think over the problem in a balanced manner so as to arrive at
a right decision. This quality of them creates them realistic and problem
solution oriented. As for the physiological correlates of neuroticism and
stability, it is whispered that autonomic nervous system of people with high
neuroticism is more reactive. These people are vulnerable to reaction to
environmental incentive. Researches reveal that people with high cortical
excitation threshold and increased autonomic reactivity show more acute and
explicit symptoms of disorders like phobia, anxiety disorder, and obsessive-
compulsive disorder.

Psychoticism dimension
People with this trait show lack of concentration power and weak memory.
They are also characterized with insensitivity. They are more worried for
themselves than for others. Element of cruelty and sensation seeking marks
their behaviour and they are unable to protect themselves from danger and
dangerous situations.

Internal and external locus of control

Locus of control refers to internal or external control over reinforcement
resulting from operating response upon the environment. In fact it is the
development of a generalized expectancy within the individual as to how he
receives reinforcement. People with internal locus of control think that ability
coupled with hard work, foresightedness and feeling of responsibility can
change their fate and bring reinforcement. While people high on external locus
of control think that reinforcement is not in their control that is, they can not
influence the outcome of happenings. Whatever happens is ascribed to luck
and coincidence.

Field dependence–independence
This relates to differences in information processing. Field dependent
person is directly influenced through the stimuli and events in his environment
because he accepts all these information in a non-selective manner while field
independent person selects information coming from the environment on the
basis of internal cues coming from within.

SOURCES OF INFLUENCES UPON PERSONALITY

Hereditary Factors

Heredity comprises all those factors that we inherit from our parents. Such
factors are innate, that is, they are present in the individual before the time of
birth or at the time of birth and determine the path of development of our
personality. Hereditary factors that contribute to personality development do
so as a result of interactions with the specific social environments in which
people live. In other words, personality is the sum total of what a person is.
That is, it consists of behaviours, thoughts and feelings that endure throughout
life. Heredity is just like the blue print of our personality which defines the
broad limits of personality within which our personality will take shape.
Hereditary factors contain the following: (i) Physique and physical health (ii)
Endocrine system (iii) Nervous system

Physique and Physical Health

Through physical structure we mean height, color, constitution,
composition of body etc. Usually, a person with good physical structure and
constitution enjoys good health. Traits of physical structure are largely
received in inheritance. For instance, you would have observed that children
of parents having good height are often taller while children of parents with
shorter height are often less tall. Similar is the case with color, children of fair
color parents are often fair and children of parents with dark complexion are
often dark. Though, this rule is not followed in every case. Very often we see
children having physical characteristics or traits that do not appear similar to
that of their parents but with their ancestors. This means that heredity goes
beyond our immediate parents. A child in fact is likely to receive biological
characteristics of ancestors in the previous seven generations.
Mendel (an Austrian Saint) through his experiments on pie nuts proved
that children inherit the average of the physical traits of their parents. For
instance, If the father is tall and mother is of short height, the children in all
probability gain average height of both parents. You necessity be wondering
why I am telling you all this in relation to the physical features. Actually our
physical create up affect our mental or psychological traits and ultimately our
behaviour. Very often we notice that individuals with good physical structure
and beauty are centre of attraction of others. Their parents, neighbors,
teachers, and peers develop favorable attitude toward them. As a result such
children develop traits of self-confidence, responsibility, sociability, and
punctuality and sometimes feeling of superiority as well, while children not
gifted with good physical structure and physical beauty are looked down upon
through others. Consequently they develop feelings of inferiority, emotional
instability. They become shy and introvert.
The effects are more pronounced when the individual is actually afflicted
with physical deformity. When scores on emotional stability test of a group of
crippled girls were compared with that of normal girls, it was found that the
crippled girls had significantly low mean scores on emotional stability. That
means they were less emotionally stable. You necessity have observed in your
in surroundings that such individuals often have tendency to seek other‘s
approval. Have you ever thought why do they behave like this? They try to
endear us through seeking our approval only to compensate their physical
lack.

Endocrine System
Our glandular system affects our personality and behaviour a great deal. It
is well recognized that the several glands in our system regulate varied types
of activities that are going on within our bodily system . Though the question
arises as to how are these glands which regulate our system affect our
personality. You know at times we are very active but there are also times
when we are depressed without any apparent cause. Actually the cause for this
lies in constant chemical changes taking place in our body. These changes are
a result of functioning of glands.
Glands are of two types — endocrine glands and exocrine glands. Of
these, the more significant one is the endocrine glands. While secretions of
exocrine glands go out of our body, the endocrinal secretions are released
directly to our blood stream. Following are some of main endocrine glands: (i)
Pituitary gland (ii) Adrenal gland (iii) Thyroid gland (iv) Pancreas and (v) Sex
gland.
Pituitary gland is situated in the brain below the hypothalamus.
Anterior part of the pituitary secretes a hormone described
somatotropin or growth hormone. Excessive secretion of this hormone
in early childhood creates a person giant. If you read newspaper, you
would have read in relation to Pakistani national being the tallest (8
feet 1 inch) person of the world. It is because of over secretion of
growth hormone. Hypo secretion of this leads to dwarfism. Posterior
pituitary secrets pituitrin responsible for maintaining blood pressure,
alertness in smooth muscles and helps kidneys function normally.
Hormones released through anterior pituitary other than somatotropin
are described tropic hormones. These hormones help regulate and
control the functioning of adrenal gland, thyroid gland and sex glands.
Any abnormal functioning of these glands is corrected through this part
of pituitary therefore ensuring sustained normal development of
personality. So, pituitary is described the master gland.
Adrenal gland is situated above the kidneys,. It has two parts. Outer
part is described adrenal cortex while inner part is described adrenal
medulla inactivity leading to tiredness and insomania. Excessive lack
of it may even cause unconsciousness. Adrenal medulla secretes
adrenaline and noradrenaline. Of the two, adrenaline is more
significant which controls emotional state of the individual. It helps
prepare our body to meet emergency situation so that we can adjust
ourselves with the environment. For this cause it is also described
emergency hormone as well. Adrenaline when pumped into the blood
stream, (i) increases activity level of the individual,(ii) heart beat and
respiration are increased, (iii) the digestive system gets suspended, (iv)
blood sugar increases and (v) the body is ready to fight emergency
situation. For instance, when we find a stray dog running towards us
we just run absent from it with our full strength. In such emergency
situations it is the adrenal gland that secretes adrenaline which prepares
our body to meet this unexpected situation. Our heart works faster and
pumps more blood, respiration increases to supply greater amount of
oxygen to lungs. Similarly, digestion gets suspended to save energy
and release it for emergency action.
Thyroid gland is situated in the throat and produces thyroxin that
regulates metabolic activity of the whole body. Its functioning affects
physical growth a great deal. Hyposecretion of thyroxin in early
childhood results in dwarfism while its lack in adulthood leads to a
specific physical condition recognized as myxedema. Hyposecretion
lowers metabolic activity which in turn slows down heart beat,
respiration, and body temperature. Over secretion of thyroxin creates a
person overenthusiastic and overactive. Blood circulation increases and
there is gradual reduction in body weight. The individual show signs of
irritability and appears anxiety ridden.
Parathyroid very small in size it weighs only 1 gm. Its hormone is
described parathormone. Parathormone regulates quantity of calcium
and phosphate in blood. Blood calcium maintains excitability level of
nerve tissue. Higher quantities of calcium in blood keep the balance in
nerve excitability. Less than normal secretion brings in relation to the
 lethargy in body and the nerve tissues are not able to function properly.
Destruction of parathyroid sometimes leads to death of animals.
Pancreas: This gland is situated just below the stomach. As an
endocrine gland it secretes two types of hormones from two different
types of cells. Beta cells are responsible for the production of insulin
while alpha cells produce a hormone described glucagon. Of the two
types of hormones insulin is more significant which controls the
quantity of blood sugar in blood. Insulin initiates oxidation of sugar in
blood so that body gets adequate energy. Hyposecretion of insulin
results in higher quantities of sugar because oxidation is not taking
place. This increased sugar is released through urine, a disease
recognized as diabetes. While hypersecretion of insulin results in
lowered quantities of sugar because of too much of oxidation, a
condition recognized as hypoglycemia. Victims of hypoglycemia
appear anxiety ridden, they experience illusions and hallucinations and
in cases the patient may even enter state of unconsciousness.
Sex gland female sex glands are described ovaries while male sex
glands are described testicles. Testicles produce androgens which are
of two types namely testosterone and andosterone. These are
responsible for development of primary and secondary sex
characteristics among males. On reaching puberty a spurt in the
secretion of these hormones is seen. Hormones secreted from ovaries
are described estrogens and progesterone. Increased levels of estrogens
in blood result in development of secondary sexual characteristics
among girls like shrilling of voice, growth of hair at certain parts of the
body, development of breasts etc. Progesterone prepares uterus to
ensure proper development of fetus.

Discussion of several glands and the hormones secreted through them

creates it amply clear that they affect the development of physical as well as
mental traits. Although all these glands are independent of each other yet they
function in an interlocking manner such that disturbance in the functioning of
one gland is partly corrected through other gland.

Nervous System
Why is it that some people are more intelligent, have more impressive
personality? Does it have anything to do with the nervous system? Does
nervous system play any role in the formation of personality? Often when we
meet some intelligent persons we say he has more gray matter. But what do
psychologists say in this regard? Psychologists usually consider that a person
with more intricate and urbanized nervous system has greater level of
intellectual capabilities, and is measured more able to adjust with different
situations. Such individuals are viewed favorably through others and are
praised for their personality traits. Development of nervous system determines
a person‘s actual accomplishment in the society and his social status in the
society. For instance, any maldevelopment in hippocampus leads to deficits in
short term memory in that the person is unable to process information from
short term to long term memory.
Have you seen Amir Khan‘s movie ― Gazini‖ where the hero is unable to
retain information. Just imagine what would be your personality if cerebellum
is under urbanized or gets damaged. Let me tell you, our cerebellum
coordinates our motor activities. When we walk it controls our gate. Now
imagine what will happen if cerebellum gets damaged. Our walk will be
disorganized and we may become subject of ridicule and fun. Such
experiences do affect our thinking and psychological makeup. Now we come
back to gray matter, actually all our higher mental process are controlled and
regulated through cortex encased in the bony skull and if the bony skull is
removed it appears gray colored. Now the established fact is that greater the
number of convulsions in cortex the more urbanized it is and the more weighty
it would be.
So, people with urbanized nervous system are more intelligent. Such
individuals are fast in developing traits like responsibility, punctuality,
emotional stability, self-confidence and ego-strength. On the other hand,
individuals with less urbanized nervous system have less skill to adjust.
Because of their limited intellectual capabilities they often fall prey to several
character disorders and their personality development is adversely affected.

Environmental Factors

Personality is not born out of only hereditary factors. Heredity gives only
the blue print in conditions of chromosomes and genes. But the actual action
on that gene is dependent on the availability of environment conducive for
that. For instance, a person may have mathematical skill but this skill cannot
be refined unless that person is provided the opportunity to exercise his skill
for moths. Similarly, an individual gifted with talent for music may not
become a musician until he gets training and exposure to music. Therefore ,
heredity only gives the raw material what is to be urbanized out of that
material solely depends upon environment in which the person is brought up.
Environmental factors are broadly summarized under three headings:
Social factors,
Cultural factors, and
Economic factors.

Social Factors
Human beings are social animals. We are born and brought up in society.
So, social circumstances, social institutions – family, school, marriage,
religion, peer groups and neighborhood as well as several other social groups
will all affect the development of personality.

Parents
Parents are the first persons who enter into interaction with the child.
Different parents treat their child differently. Some are very permissive and
indulgent in that they just ignore the mistakes and try to do everything for the
child not letting him fend for himself. Children of such parents become
callous, demanding and exploitative in interpersonal relations besides they
lack in self-confidence. Whereas parents who are strictly disciplinarian create
their children submissive, shy and emotionally unstable.

Home environment
The kind of environment in a family exists affects our personality a great
deal. Families which enjoy strong emotional tie among siblings and parents,
are supportive and encouraging to their children. Children from such families
are self-confident, proactive and emotionally stable.

Birth order
Adler was the first psychologist to propagate that ordinal position of a
child among his siblings i.e. birth order also affects the method personality is
shaped. Adler on the basis of his study told that first born children are often
reclusive and introvert while the youngest or last born have feelings of
inferiority, lack of confidence and self-reliance. Single or only child have the
trait of dependency and self-centeredness. They are exploitative and
demanding also. Middle order children have self-confidence, ego-strength and
need for achievement.

School
After family school is the second agent which profoundly affects shaping
of personality. School affects personality in two methods – first, it affects
development of personality traits. Second it leads to self-confidence.
Teacher‘s personality, classroom environment, discipline system and
academic achievement all influence the child. Children learn social traits of
cooperation, adjustment and sharing. They develop realistic self-concept.
Academic achievements and co-curricular activities at school result in high
ego strength.
Neighborhood
The kind of neighborhood one lives in has a decided impact upon ones
personality. Since birds of the same feather flock together, neighborhood
families are not different in their social class, etc., and give a smooth transition
from home to culture. They share approximately similar values and rearing
patterns but expose the child to different family styles, and the child learns
how to deal with the diversity. The characteristics of neighborhoods are that
they are more objective than the parents, treat the child as a person and so they
are both less approving and less critical, and with different emphasis in child-
behaviour. You might have noticed that often criminals come from social
milieu where moral standards and values receive back seat and living
circumstances are abysmally low. Children from such environments lack in
discipline, responsibility, sensibility, and self-respect.

Social acceptance
Social acceptance means getting approval and praise from important
others. You know all of us crave for social acceptance from our parents,
teachers and friends. So in order to gain acceptance from them deliberately
mould our behaviour and attitude. People who receive greater social
acceptance have qualities of leadership, self-confidence and feelings of
superiority while those who receive less social acceptance often are introvert,
low self-esteem and lack of social adjustment.

Cultural Factors
Culture is a broad term and comprises in it all the customs, traditions,
folks, fashions, fads and mores. We all are part of one or other culture. So,
cultural effect on personality is bound to take place. Cultural effect is most
prominently seen in the method we welcome and greet people. In India when
we meet someone greet with folded hands and say namaskar while when a
Japanese meets someone he bows before and when an American meets
someone he either shakes hand or kisses the other person. This apparent
difference in welcoming another person is simply because of learning in a
culture. Let me cite you an instance of how culture affects development of
personality traits. In a classical study through Gadiner (1969) children from
America, Thailand, Taiwan, and Germany were compared on hostility trait.
Results showed Thai children scored the highest on hostility with American
children scoring the least. In another study of drawings through Mexican and
Anglo-American children it was found that drawings through Mexican
children exhibited masculine traits more than that of Anglo-American
children, and this may be because in Mexican culture higher value is placed on
the development of masculinity.

Child rearing practices

Different cultures have different child rearing practices. In cultures where
physical punishment is heavily relied upon for bringing up children, traits of
hostility, aggressiveness and introversion develop more regularly. But in
cultures where parents create less use of physical punishment and interact with
children more regularly traits of curiosity, extroversion and creativity find
more expression among children.
Do you know that sex differences in personality are determined through
culture ? Arapesh, a tribe living in New Guinea does not create much
difference flanked by males and females and places more emphasis on
femininity, consequently male and female both have traits of cooperativeness,
gentleness and submissiveness. Males in this tribe are self-confident and peace
loving. Mundugumor another tribe of New Guinea places emphasis on
masculinity so both male and female is aggressive and violent. Members of
this tribe look down upon those who fail to develop these traits. Members of
this tribe develop traits of aggressiveness and quarrelsomeness. Tchmbuli tribe
is totally different in the males in it perform tasks usually performed through
females in our culture. Females in this culture take ruling position. So males
are polite, cooperative, and shy by nature while females are aggressive and
dominating. I think above examples create it amply clear that personality is the
mirror of a scrupulous culture in which the person is brought about. culture.

Economic Factors
In an motivating study children from low income group and rich families
were asked to estimate the size of different circles of light with the size of
coins of different denominations. It was found that children from poor families
overestimated while those from rich families underestimated. Therefore it
showed that economic factor affects our attitude and perception and
consequently our personality. Besides you might have seen that often children
from low income groups have low self- confidence, feelings of inferiority and
shyness. Economic condition determines access to opportunities to develop
personality.

APPROACH
In modern times Sigmund Freud is the first psychologist to put forth the
Psychoanalytic theory of personality. Freud urbanized this theory of
personality out of his observations of patients over a period of forty years. He
had deterministic and pessimistic view of human nature. Psychoanalytic
approach can be divided into three parts:
Structure of personality: It has two dimensions – topographical and
dynamic. Topographical is further subdivided into: a) conscious, b)
subconscious; and c) unconscious. Conscious comprises in it all those
experiences and activities which have to do with present. Subconscious
comprises all those experiences, desires, thoughts, feelings which are
not accessible at the level of conscious but can be easily accessed
through deliberate effort. For instance, if someone asks you the name
of the city you lived in throughout childhood. You will readily recall it.
Unconscious represents our sexual, immoral, antisocial and hateful
desires which we can‘t afford to express in our daily life. So such
desire are repressed and relegated to unconscious.
Dynamic model or dimension represents those characteristics of
personality which are instrumental in resolution of mental conflicts
arising from basic instincts. It has agents or instruments at its disposal
to accomplish this task and these are: a) Id, b) ego and c) superego. Id
is biological in nature and represents those instincts which are innate,
unorganized, sexual, and unlawful. It operates on pleasure principle.
Ego, though develops out of Id, is reality oriented. Ego remains at the
driving seat of personality and functions at all three levels i.e.
conscious, subconscious and unconscious. Super Ego is the moral
aspect of personality and operates on idealistic principle. It represents
the dos and don‘ts of behaviour. It grows out of process of
socialization.
Dynamics of personality: It contains: a) instincts, b) anxiety, and c)
mental mechanisms. Instincts refer to innate bodily energy or
excitation and guide all our behaviour. They are of two types, life
instinct or Eros and death instincts or Thanatos. Anxiety is an
affective, unpleasant state which warns ego of impending danger so
that individual can adapt himself to the environment. Freud mentioned
three types of anxiety – realistic anxiety, neurotic anxiety and moral
anxiety. Mental mechanisms are activated to protect ego the core of
personality. Mental mechanisms are self-deceptive and operate at the
level of unconscious. These distort the perception of reality thereby
reducing the degree of anxiety.
Development of personality: Freud delineated five stages of
personality development. These stages are: a) Oral stage, b) Anal
stage, c) Phallic stage, d) Latency stage, and e) Genital stage.

Trait Approach

Trait approach tries to explain personality on the basis of certain

characteristics. These traits are used to explain the why of behaviour and
consistency in behaviour. Allport and cattell are the two main proponents of
trait approach. Allport mentioned two types of traits namely; common traits
and personal traits. Common traits are those found in majority of persons of a
culture while personal traits are specific to a person and not found in other
members of a culture. Allport further divided personal traits into three
categories – a) cardinal dispositions, it has overwhelming influence on the
behaviour of person and is manifested in all the activities a person does. For
instance, peace and non-violence were cardinal traits of Mahatma Gandhi. His
whole life is woven approximately these traits, b) central disposition, these are
of much importance but do not parallel cardinal traits. For instance, some
people are very social and fun loving. Central traits may number five to ten in
a person, c) secondary traits, though prominent in a person‘s behaviour they
do not help much in explaining the basic nature of a person. For instance, hair
style, eating habits or dressing style of a person.
Another significant trait theory is given through Cattell. He mentioned two
types of traits namely; source traits and surface traits. Source traits underlie
the personality and are not reflected in day to day interaction of a person. They
are observable only when we try to organize surface traits. For instance,
unselfishness, humor, and gregariousness taken together point to friendliness
(a source trait) in the personality of a person. Surface traits are observable
characteristics of a person. For instance, cheerfulness, integrity may easily be
discerned in the behaviour of a person.

Constitutional Approach

This approach tries to explain personality in conditions of physical

constitution of a person and the related temperament. Sheldon and Krestchmer
are the two pioneers of this approach. Sheldon on the basis of physical
structure classified people in three personality types: a) endomorphic, such
persons are fatty, round and short heighten. They are happy-go-lucky and
social through nature, b) mesomorphy, they have a well built body, their
muscles are strong and shapely. They are assertive, tough minded, and risk
taking through nature, c) ectomorphy, persons of this type are long, slender
and thin. they solitude loving, do not approach people as they are shy and
reluctant.
Kretschmer classified people into four types: a) pyknic, these are short
heighted fat people and enjoy mixing with people, are found of eating and
drinking, b) asthenic type, such persons are tall and thin with underdeveloped
muscles. Through nature they are irritable, shirk absent from responsibility.
These people are often lost in daydreaming, c) athletic type, they have well
urbanized muscles and good physique. They are neither short nor very tall.
These people manifest a balanced temperament and adjust well with
environment, d) dysplastic type, this category contain those people who
manifest a mix of the characteristics found in above three types.

Life-span Approach

This approach explains personality in conditions of changes in behaviour

that take place throughout life i.e. from birth to death. Personality is explained
in conditions of solutions to problems arising throughout the turning points or
crisis periods at each of the eight stages in which life has been divided.
Erickson mentioned eight psychosocial stages of personality; infancy, early
childhood, play age, school stage, adolescence, early adulthood, middle
adulthood, and maturity. Erickson laid emphasis on holism, environmentalism,
and changeability in human nature. He stressed the development of Ego in his
theory.

Humanistic Approach

This theory revolves round the subjective experiences of a person. It states

that each person has a unique frame of reference which develops out of his
experiences with the environment. This frame of reference develops as the
person tries to create sense out of things and events in his environment.
Further that this frame of reference determines how a person perceives the
world approximately him. Therefore perceptual attitude is central to the
development of personality, for this cause this approach is also recognized as
phenomenological. According to this point of view human beings are positive
through nature and individuals strive for growth, in order to self actualize
themselves. Maslow and Rogers are prominent humanistic psychologists.
Maslow gave the growth theory of personality.

PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORY
Psychoanalytic theory refers to the definition of personality organization
and the dynamics of personality development that underlie and guide the
psychoanalytic and psychodynamic psychotherapy, described psychoanalysis,
a clinical method for treating psychopathology. First laid out through Sigmund
Freud in the late 19th century, psychoanalytic theory has undergone several
refinements since his work. Psychoanalytic theory came to full prominence in
the last third of the twentieth century as part of the flow of critical discourse
concerning psychological treatments after the 1960s, long after Freud's death
in 1939, and its validity is now widely disputed or rejected. Freud had ceased
his analysis of the brain and his physiological studies and shifted his focus to
the study of the mind and the related psychological attributes making up the
mind, and on treatment using free association and the phenomena of
transference. His study accentuated the recognition of childhood events that
could potentially influence the mental functioning of adults. His examination
of the genetic and then the developmental characteristics gave the
psychoanalytic theory its characteristics. Starting with his publication of The
Interpretation of Dreams in 1899, his theories began to gain prominence.

Definition

Through the scope of a psychoanalytic lens, humans are described as

having sexual and aggressive drives. Psychoanalytic theorists consider that
human behavior is deterministic. It is governed through irrational forces, and
the unconscious, as well instinctual and biological drives. Due to this
deterministic nature, psychoanalytic theorists do not consider in free will.

The Beginnings

Freud first began his studies under and in collaboration with Dr. Josef
Breuer, especially when it came to the study on Anna O. The relationship
flanked by Freud and Breuer was a mix of admiration and competition, based
on the fact that they were working together on the Anna O. case and necessity
balance two different ideas as to her diagnosis and treatment. Today, Breuer
can be measured the grandfather of psychoanalysis. Anna O. was subject to
both physical and psychological disturbances, such as not being able to drink
out of fear. Breuer and Freud both found that hypnosis was a great help in
discovering more in relation to the Anna O. and her treatment. The research
and ideas behind the study on Anna O. was highly referenced in Freud's
lectures on the origin and development of psychoanalysis.
These observations led Freud to theorize that the problems faced through
hysterical patients could be associated to painful childhood experiences that
could not be recalled. The influence of these lost memories shaped the
feelings, thoughts and behaviors of patients. These studies contributed to the
development of the psychoanalytic theory.

Personality Structure

Sigmund Freud determined that the personality consists of three different

elements, the id, the ego and the superego. The id is the aspect of personality
that is driven through internal and basic drives and needs. These are typically
instinctual, such as hunger, thirst, and the drive for sex, or libido. The id acts
in accordance with the pleasure principle, in that it avoids pain and seeks
pleasure. Due to the instinctual quality of the id, it is impulsive and often
unaware of implications of actions. The ego is driven through reality principle.
The ego works to balance both the id and superego. In order to balance these,
it works to achieve the id's drive in the most realistic methods. It seeks to
rationalize the id's instinct and please the drives that will benefit the individual
in the long term. It helps separate what is real, and realistic of our drives as
well as being realistic in relation to the standards that the superego sets for the
individual. The superego is driven through morality principle. It acts in
connection with the morality of higher thought and action. Instead of
instinctively acting like the id, the superego works to act in socially acceptable
methods. It employs morality, judging our sense of wrong and right and using
guilt to encourage socially acceptable behavior.

The Unconscious

The unconscious is the portion of the mind of which a person is not aware
of. Freud said that it is the unconscious that exposes the true feelings,
emotions, and thoughts of the individual. There is diversity of psychoanalytic
techniques used to access and understand the unconscious, ranging from
methods like hypnosis, free association, dream analysis. Dreams allow us to
explore the unconscious; according to Freud, they are "the 'royal road' to the
unconscious". Dreams are composed of latent and manifest content. Whereas
latent content is the underlying meaning of a dream that may not be
remembered when a person wakes up, manifest content is the content from the
dream that a person remembers upon waking and can be analyzed through a
psychoanalytic psychologist. Exploring and understanding the manifest
content of dreams can inform the individual of complexes or disorders that
may be under the surface of their personality. Dreams can give access to the
unconscious that is not easily accessible. Freudian slips (also recognized as
parapraxes) occurs when the ego and superego do not work properly, exposing
the id and internal drives or wants. They are measured mistakes revealing the
unconscious. Examples range from calling someone through the wrong name,
misinterpreting a spoken or written word, or simply saying the wrong thing.

Protection Mechanisms

The ego balances the id, the superego and reality in order to maintain a
healthy state of consciousness. It therefore reacts to protect the individual from
any stressors and anxiety through distorting reality. This prevents threatening
unconscious thoughts and material from entering the consciousness. The
different types of protection mechanisms are : Repression, reaction formation,
denial, projection, displacement, sublimation, regression, and rationalization.
Psychology theories

Psychosexual development
Freud's take on the development of the personality (psyche). It is a stage
theory that believes progress occurs through stages as the libido is directed to
different body parts. The different stages, listed in order of progression, are:
Oral, Anal, Phallic (Oedipus intricate), Latency, Genital. The Genital stage is
achieved if a person has met all of his or her needs throughout the other stages
with enough accessible sexual energy. If the individual does not have his or
her needs met in a given stage, he or she will become fixated, or "stuck" in
that stage.

Neo-analytic theory
Freud's theory and work with psychosexual development lead to Neo-
Analytic/ Neo-Freudians who also whispered in the importance of the
unconscious, dream interpretations, protection mechanisms and the integral
influence childhood experiences but had objections to the theory as well. They
do not support the thought that development of the personality stops at age 6,
instead they whispered development spreads crossways the lifespan. They
extended Freud's work and encompassed more influence from the environment
and the importance of conscious thought beside with the unconscious. The
most significant theorists are Erik Erikson (Psychosocial Development), Anna
Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler and Karen Horney, and including the school of
object relations.

Critics of psychoanalytic theory

The Psychoanalytic approach has a diversity of advantages and limitations

that have spurred further research and expansion into the realm of personality
development.

Advantages

The theory emphasizes the importance of childhood experiences.

It initiated and addressed the importance of the unconscious, sexual
and aggressive drives that create-up the majority of all human beings'
personalities.
The approach also explains protection mechanisms and why every
individual reacts differently to similar situations.
Limits

Sigmund Freud failed to contain proof of the impact of the

environment on the individual throughout his theory.
The theory is lacking in empirical data and too focused on pathology.
This theory lacks consideration of culture and its influence on
personality.
These limitations have led to the resolution that much of modern
research does not support several of its notions.

Psychoanalysis and aesthetics

Psychoanalytic theory is a major influence in Continental philosophy and
in aesthetics in scrupulous. Freud is measured to be a philosopher in some
areas, and other philosophers, such as Jacques Lacan, Michel Foucault, and
Jacques Derrida have written extensively on how psychoanalysis informs
philosophical analysis.

Psychoanalysis and literature

When analyzing literary texts, the psychoanalytic theory could be utilized
to decipher or interpret the concealed meaning within a text, or to better
understand the author‘s intentions. Through the analysis of motives, Freud‘s
theory can be used to help clarify the meaning of the writing as well as the
actions of the characters within the text

Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian

neurologist who became recognized as the founding father of psychoanalysis.
Freud qualified as a doctor of medicine at the University of Vienna in
1881, and then accepted out research into cerebral palsy, aphasia and
microscopic neuroanatomy at the Vienna General Hospital. He was appointed
a university lecturer in neuropathology in 1885 and became a professor in
1902.
In creating psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology
through dialogue flanked by a patient and a psychoanalyst, Freud urbanized
therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association (in which patients
report their thoughts without reservation and in whichever order they
spontaneously occur) and exposed transference (the process in which patients
displace on to their analysts feelings derived from their childhood
attachments), establishing its central role in the analytic process. Freud‘s
redefinition of sexuality to contain its infantile forms led him to formulate the
Oedipus intricate as the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory. His analysis
of his own and his patients' dreams as wish-fulfillments provided him with
models for the clinical analysis of symptom formation and the mechanisms of
repression as well as for elaboration of his theory of the unconscious as an
agency disruptive of conscious states of mind. Freud postulated the
subsistence of libido, an energy with which mental processes and structures
are invested and which generates erotic attachments, and a death drive, the
source of repetition, hate, aggression and neurotic guilt. In his later work
Freud drew on psychoanalytic theory to develop a wide-ranging interpretation
and critique of religion and culture.
Psychoanalysis remains influential within psychotherapy, within some
areas of psychiatry, and crossways the humanities. As such it continues to
generate extensive debate and it is highly contested with regard to its
therapeutic efficacy, its scientific status and as to whether it advances or is
detrimental to the feminist cause. Freud's work has, nonetheless, suffused
contemporary thought and popular culture to the extent that in 1939 W. H.
Auden wrote, in a poem dedicated to him: "to us he is no more a person / now
but a whole climate of opinion / under whom we conduct our different lives".

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONAL LEVELS OF MIND

Modularity of mind is the notion that a mind may, at least in part, be
composed of innate neural structures or modules which have separate
established evolutionarily urbanized functions. Somewhat different definitions
of "module" have been proposed through different authorities.

Early investigations

Historically, questions concerning the functional architecture of the mind

have been divided into two different theories of the nature of the faculties. The
first can be characterized as a horizontal view because it refers to mental
processes as if they are interactions flanked by faculties such as memory,
imagination, judgment, and perception, which are not domain specific (e. g., a
judgment remains a judgment whether it refers to a perceptual experience or to
the conceptualization/comprehension process). The second can be
characterized as a vertical view because it claims that the mental faculties are
differentiated on the basis of domain specificity, are genetically determined,
are associated with separate neurological structures, and are computationally
autonomous.
The vertical vision goes back to the 19th century movement described
phrenology and its founder Franz Joseph Gall, who claimed that the individual
mental faculties could be associated precisely, in a sort of one to one
correspondence, with specific physical areas of the brain. Hence, someone's
level of intelligence, for instance, could be literally "read off" from the size of
a scrupulous bump on his posterior parietal lobe. This simplistic view of
modularity has been disproving over the course of the last century.
Fodor's Modularity of Mind

In the 1980s, though, Jerry Fodor revived the thought of the modularity of
mind, although without the notion of precise physical localizability. Drawing
from Noam Chomsky's thought of the language acquisition device and other
work in linguistics as well as from the philosophy of mind and the
implications of optical illusions, he became one of its most articulate
proponents with the 1983 publication of Modularity of Mind.
According to Fodor, a module falls somewhere flanked by the behaviorist
and cognitivist views of lower-level processes.
Behaviorists tried to replace the mind with reflexes which Fodor describes
as encapsulated (cognitively impenetrable or unaffected through other
cognitive domains) and non-inferential (straight pathways with no information
added). Low level processes are unlike reflexes in that they are inferential.
This can be demonstrated through poverty of the incentive arguments in which
the proximate incentive, that which is initially received through the brain (such
as the 2D image received through the retina), cannot account for the resulting
output (for instance, our 3D perception of the world), therefore necessitating
some form of computation.
In contrast, cognitivists saw lower level processes as continuous with
higher level processes, being inferential and cognitively penetrable (influenced
through other cognitive domains, such as beliefs). The latter has been shown
to be untrue in some cases, such as with several visual illusions (ex. Müller-
Lyer illusion), which can persist despite a person's awareness of their
subsistence. This is taken to indicate that other domains, including one's
beliefs, cannot influence such processes.
Fodor arrives at the conclusion that such processes are inferential like
higher order processes and encapsulated in the same sense as reflexes.
Although he argued for the modularity of "lower level" cognitive
processes in Modularity of Mind he also argued that higher level cognitive
processes are not modular since they have dissimilar properties. The Mind
Doesn't Work That Method, a reaction to Steven Pinker's How the Mind
Works, is devoted to this subject.
Fodor (1983) states that modular systems necessity—at least to "some
motivating extent"—fulfill certain properties:

1. Domain specificity, modules only operate on certain kinds of inputs—

they are specialized
2. Informational encapsulation, modules need not refer to other
psychological systems in order to operate
3. Obligatory firing, modules process in a mandatory manner
4. Fast speed, almost certainly due to the fact that they are encapsulated
(thereby needing only to consult a restricted database) and mandatory
 (time need not be wasted in determining whether or not to process
incoming input)
5. Shallow outputs, the output of modules is very simple
6. Limited accessibility
7. Characteristic ontogeny, there is a regularity of development
8. Fixed neural architecture.

Pylyshyn (1999) has argued that while these properties tend to occur with
modules, one stands out as being the real signature of a module; that is the
encapsulation of the processes inside the module from both cognitive
influence and from cognitive access. This is referred to as "information
encapsulation". One instance is that conscious awareness of the Müller-Lyer
illusion being an illusion does not correct the visual processing.

Evolutionary psychology and huge modularity

Other perspectives on modularity come from evolutionary psychology,

particularly from the work of Leda Cosmides and John Tooby. This
perspective suggests that modules are units of mental processing that evolved
in response to selection pressures. On this view, much modern human
psychological activity is rooted in adaptations that occurred earlier in human
evolution, when natural selection was forming the modern human species.
Evolutionary psychologists propose that the mind is made up of
genetically influenced and domain-specific mental algorithms or
computational modules, intended to solve specific evolutionary problems of
the past. Cosmides and Tooby also state in a brief "primer" on their website,
that "…the brain is a physical system. It functions like a computer," "…the
brain‘s function is to process information," "different neural circuits are
specialized for solving different adaptive problems," and "our modern skulls
house a stone age mind."
The definition of module has caused confusion and dispute. J. A. Fodor
initially defined module as "functionally specialized cognitive systems" that
have nine features but not necessarily all at the same time. In his views
modules can be found in peripheral processing such as low-level visual
processing but not in central processing. Later he narrowed the two essential
features to domain-specificity and information encapsulation. Frankenhuis and
Ploeger write that domain-specificity means that "a given cognitive
mechanism accepts, or is specialized to operate on, only a specific class of
information". Information encapsulation means that information processing in
the module cannot be affected through information in the rest of the brain. One
instance being awareness that certain optical illusion, caused through low level
processing, are false not preventing the illusions from persisting.
Evolutionary psychologists instead usually describe modules as
functionally specialized cognitive systems that are domain-specific and may
also contain innate knowledge in relation to the class of information
processed. Modules can be found also for central processing. This theory is
sometimes referred to as huge modularity.
A 2010 review through evolutionary psychologists Confer et al. suggested
that domain general theories, such as for "rationality," has many problems: 1.
Evolutionary theories using the thought of numerous domain-specific
adaptions have produced testable predictions that have been empirically
confirmed; the theory of domain-general rational thought has produced no
such predictions or confirmations. 2. The rapidity of responses such as
jealousy due to infidelity designates a domain-specific dedicated module
rather than a general, deliberate, rational calculation of consequences. 3.
Reactions may occur instinctively (constant with innate knowledge) even if a
person have not learned such knowledge. One instance being that in the
ancestral environment it is unlikely that males throughout development learn
that infidelity (usually secret) may cause paternal uncertainty (from observing
the phenotypes of children born several months later and making a statistical
conclusion from the phenotype dissimilarity to the cuckolded fathers). With
respect to general purpose problem solvers, Barkow, Cosmides, and Tooby
(1992) have suggested in The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and
The Generation of Culture that a purely general problem solving mechanism is
impossible to build due to the frame problem. Clune et al. (2013) have argued
that computer simulations of the evolution of neural nets suggest that
modularity evolves because, compared to non-modular networks, connection
costs are lower.
Many groups of critics, including psychologists working within
evolutionary frameworks, argue that the massively modular theory of mind
does little to explain adaptive psychological traits. Proponents of other models
of the mind argue that the computational theory of mind is no better at
explaining human behavior than a theory with mind entirely a product of the
environment. Even within evolutionary psychology there is discussion in
relation to the degree of modularity, either as a few generalist modules or as
several highly specific modules. Other critics suggest that there is little
empirical support in favor of the domain-specific theory beyond performance
on the Wason selection task, a task critics state is too limited in scope to test
all relevant characteristics of reasoning. Moreover, critics argue that Cosmides
and Tooby's conclusions contain many inferential errors and that the authors
use untested evolutionary assumptions to eliminate rival reasoning theories.
Wallace (2010) observes that the evolutionary psychologists' definition of
"mind" have been heavily influenced through cognitivism and/or information
processing definitions of the mind. Critics point out that these assumptions
underlying evolutionary psychologists' hypotheses are controversial and have
been contested through some psychologists, philosophers, and neuroscientists.
For instance, Jaak Panksepp, an affective neuroscientist, point to the "extra
ordinary degree of neocortical plasticity within the human brain, especially
throughout development" and states that "the developmental interactions
among ancient special-purpose circuits and more recent general-purpose brain
mechanisms can generate several of the "modularized" human abilities that
evolutionary psychology has entertained."
Philosopher David Buller agrees with the general argument that the human
mind has evolved over time but disagrees with the specific claims
evolutionary psychologists create. He has argued that the contention that the
mind consists of thousands of modules, including sexually dimorphic jealousy
and parental investment modules, are unsupported through the accessible
empirical proof . He has suggested that the "modules" result from the brain's
developmental plasticity and that they are adaptive responses to local
circumstances, not past evolutionary environments. Though, Buller has also
stated that even if huge modularity is false this does not necessarily have
broad implications for evolutionary psychology. Evolution may make innate
motives even without innate knowledge.
In contrast to modular mental structure, some theories posit domain-
general processing, in which mental activity is distributed crossways the brain
and cannot be decomposed, even abstractly, into independent units. A staunch
defender of this view is William Uttal, who argues in The New Phrenology
(2003) that there are serious philosophical, theoretical, and methodological
problems with the whole enterprise of trying to localize cognitive processes in
the brain. Part of this argument is that a successful taxonomy of mental
processes has yet to be urbanized.
Merlin Donald argues that over evolutionary time the mind has gained
adaptive advantage from being a general problem solver. The mind, as
described through Donald, comprises module-like "central" mechanisms, in
addition to more recently evolved "domain-general" mechanisms.
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
In Freudian psychology, psychosexual development is a central element of
the psychoanalytic sexual drive theory, that human beings, from birth, possess
an instinctual libido (sexual energy) that develops in five stages. Each stage –
the oral, the anal, the phallic, the latent, and the genital – is characterized
through the erogenous zone that is the source of the libidinal drive. Sigmund
Freud proposed that if the child experienced sexual frustration in relation to
any psychosexual developmental stage, s/he would experience anxiety that
would persist into adulthood as a neurosis, a functional mental disorder.

Background

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) observed that throughout the predictable

stages of early childhood development, the child's behavior is oriented towards
certain parts of his or her body, e.g. the mouth throughout breast-feeding, the
anus throughout toilet-training. He proposed that adult neurosis (functional
mental disorder) often is rooted in childhood sexuality, so, said neurotic adult
behaviors were manifestations of childhood sexual fantasy and desire. That is
because human beings are born "polymorphously perverse", infants can derive
sexual pleasure from any part of their bodies, and that socialization directs the
instinctual libidinal drives into adult heterosexuality. Given the predictable
timeline of childhood behavior, he proposed "libido development" as a model
of normal childhood sexual development, wherein the child progresses
through five psychosexual stages – the oral; the anal; the phallic; the latent;
and the genital – in which the source pleasure is in a different erogenous zone.

Freudian psychosexual development

Sexual infantilism
Sexual infantilism in pursuing and satisfying his or her libido (sexual
drive), the child might experience failure (parental and societal disapproval)
and therefore might associate anxiety with the given erogenous zone. To avoid
anxiety, the child becomes fixated, preoccupied with the psychologic themes
related to the erogenous zone in question, which persist into adulthood, and
underlie the personality and psychopathology of the man or woman, as
neurosis, hysteria, personality disorders, et cetera.

Oral stage
The first stage of psychosexual development is the oral stage, spanning
from birth until the age of two years, wherein the infant's mouth is the focus of
libidinal gratification derived from the pleasure of feeding at the mother's
breast, and from the oral exploration of his or her environment, i.e. the
tendency to place objects in the mouth. The id dominates, because neither the
ego nor the super ego is yet fully urbanized, and, since the infant has no
personality (identity), every action is based upon the pleasure principle.
Nonetheless, the infantile ego is forming throughout the oral stage; two factors
contribute to its formation: (i) in developing a body image, he or she is
discrete from the external world, e.g. the child understands pain when it is
applied to his or her body, therefore identifying the physical boundaries
flanked by body and environment; (ii) experiencing delayed gratification leads
to understanding that specific behaviors satisfy some needs, e.g. crying
gratifies certain needs.
Weaning is the key experience in the infant's oral stage of psychosexual
development, his or her first feeling of loss consequent to losing the physical
intimacy of feeding at mother's breast. Yet, weaning increases the infant's self-
awareness that he or she does not control the environment, and therefore
learns of delayed gratification, which leads to the formation of the capacities
for independence (awareness of the limits of the self) and trust (behaviors
leading to gratification). Yet, thwarting of the oral-stage — too much or too
little gratification of desire — might lead to an oral-stage fixation,
characterized through passivity, gullibility, immaturity, unrealistic optimism,
which is manifested in a manipulative personality consequent to ego
malformation. In the case of too much gratification, the child does not learn
that he or she does not control the environment, and that gratification is not
always immediate, thereby forming an immature personality. In the case of too
little gratification, the infant might become passive upon learning that
gratification is not forthcoming, despite having produced the gratifying
behavior.

Anal stage
The second stage of psychosexual development is the anal stage, spanning
from the age of eighteen months to three years, wherein the infant's erogenous
zone changes from the mouth (the upper digestive tract) to the anus (the lower
digestive tract), while the ego formation continues. Toilet training is the child's
key anal-stage experience, occurring at in relation to the age of two years, and
results in conflict flanked by the Id (demanding immediate gratification) and
the Ego (demanding delayed gratification) in eliminating bodily wastes, and
handling related activities (e.g. manipulating excrement, coping with parental
demands). The style of parenting influences the resolution of the Id–Ego
conflict, which can be either gradual and psychologically uneventful, or which
can be sudden and psychologically traumatic. The ideal resolution of the Id–
Ego conflict is in the child's adjusting to moderate parental demands that teach
the value and importance of physical cleanliness and environmental order,
therefore producing a self-controlled adult. Yet, if the parents create
immoderate demands of the child, through over-emphasizing toilet training, it
might lead to the development of a compulsive personality, a person too
concerned with neatness and order. If the child obeys the Id, and the parents
yield, he or she might develop a self-indulgent personality characterized
through personal slovenliness and environmental disorder. If the parents
respond to that, the child necessity comply, but might develop a weak sense of
self, because it was the parents' will, and not the child's ego, which controlled
the toilet training.

Phallic stage
The third stage of psychosexual development is the phallic stage, spanning
the ages of three to six years, wherein the child's genitalia are his or her
primary erogenous zone. It is in this third infantile development stage that
children become aware of their bodies, the bodies of other children, and the
bodies of their parents; they gratify physical curiosity through undressing and
exploring each other and their genitals, and so learn the physical (sexual)
differences flanked by "male" and "female" and the gender differences flanked
by "boy" and "girl". In the phallic stage, a boy's decisive psychosexual
experience is the Oedipus intricate, his son–father competition for possession
of mother. This psychological intricate derives from the 5th-century BC Greek
mythologic character Oedipus, who unwittingly killed his father, Laius, and
sexually possessed his mother, Jocasta. Analogously, in the phallic stage, a
girl's decisive psychosexual experience is the Electra intricate, her daughter–
mother competition for psychosexual possession of father. This psychological
intricate derives from the 5th-century BC Greek mythologic Electra, who
plotted matricidal revenge with Orestes, her brother, against Clytemnestra,
their mother, and Aegisthus, their stepfather, for their murder of Agamemnon,
their father, (cf. Electra, through Sophocles).
Initially, Freud equally applied the Oedipus intricate to the psychosexual
development of boys and girls, but later urbanized the female characteristics of
the theory as the feminine Oedipus attitude and the negative Oedipus intricate;
yet, it was his student–collaborator, Carl Jung, who coined the term Electra
intricate in 1913. Nonetheless, Freud rejected Jung's term as
psychoanalytically inaccurate: "that what we have said in relation to the
Oedipus intricate applies with complete strictness to the male child only, and
that we are right in rejecting the term 'Electra intricate', which seeks to
emphasize the analogy flanked by the attitude of the two sexes".

Oedipus
Despite mother being the parent who primarily gratifies the child's desires,
the child begins forming a discrete sexual identity — "boy", "girl" — that
alters the dynamics of the parent and child relationship; the parents become
the focus of infantile libidinal energy. The boy focuses his libido (sexual
desire) upon his mother, and focuses jealousy and emotional rivalry against his
father — because it is he who sleeps with mother. To facilitate uniting him
with his mother, the boy's id wants to kill father (as did Oedipus), but the ego,
pragmatically based upon the reality principle, knows that the father is the
stronger of the two males competing to possess the one female. Nevertheless,
the boy remains ambivalent in relation to his father's place in the family,
which is manifested as fear of castration through the physically greater father;
the fear is an irrational, subconscious manifestation of the infantile Id.

Electra
Whereas boys develop castration anxiety, girls develop penis envy that is
rooted in anatomic fact: without a penis, she cannot sexually possess mother,
as the infantile id demands. Resultantly, the girl redirects her desire for sexual
union upon father; therefore , she progresses towards heterosexual femininity
that culminates in bearing a child who replaces the absent penis. Moreover,
after the phallic stage, the girl's psychosexual development comprises
transferring her primary erogenous zone from the infantile clitoris to the adult
vagina. Freud therefore measured a girl's Oedipal conflict to be more
emotionally intense than that of a boy, resulting, potentially, in a submissive
woman of insecure personality.
Psychologic protection
In both sexes, protection mechanisms give transitory resolutions of the
conflict flanked by the drives of the Id and the drives of the Ego. The first
protection mechanism is repression, the blocking of memories, emotional
impulses, and ideas from the conscious mind; yet it does not resolve the Id–
Ego conflict. The second protection mechanism is Identification, through
which the child incorporates, to his or her ego, the personality characteristics
of the same-sex parent; in so adapting, the boy diminishes his castration
anxiety, because his likeness to father protects him from father's wrath as a
rival for mother; through so adapting, the girl facilitates identifying with
mother, who understands that, in being females, neither of them possesses a
penis, and therefore they are not antagonists.

Dénouement
Unresolved psychosexual competition for the opposite-sex parent might
produce a phallic-stage fixation leading a girl to become a woman who
continually strives to control men (viz. penis envy), either as an unusually
seductive woman (high self-esteem) or as an unusually submissive woman
(low self-esteem). In a boy, a phallic-stage fixation might lead him to become
an aggressive, over-ambitious, vain man. So, the satisfactory parental handling
and resolution of the Oedipus intricate and of the Electra intricate are most
significant in developing the infantile super-ego, because, through identifying
with a parent, the child internalizes morality, thereby, choosing to comply with
societal rules, rather than having to reflexively comply in fear of punishment.

Latency stage
The fourth stage of psychosexual development is the latency stage that
spans from the age of six years until puberty, wherein the child consolidates
the character habits he or she urbanized in the three, earlier stages of
psychologic and sexual development. Whether or not the child has
successfully resolved the Oedipal conflict, the instinctual drives of the id are
inaccessible to the Ego, because his or her protection mechanisms repressed
them throughout the phallic stage. Hence, because said drives are latent
(hidden) and gratification is delayed — unlike throughout the preceding oral,
anal, and phallic stages — the child necessity derive the pleasure of
gratification from secondary process-thinking that directs the libidinal drives
towards external activities, such as schooling, friendships, hobbies, etc. Any
neuroses established throughout the fourth, latent stage, of psychosexual
development might derive from the inadequate resolution either of the
Oedipus conflict or of the Ego's failure to direct his or her energies towards
socially acceptable activities.
Genital stage
The fifth stage of psychosexual development is the genital stage that spans
puberty and adult life, and therefore occupies most of the life of a man and of
a woman; its purpose is the psychologic detachment and independence from
the parents. The genital stage affords the person the skill to confront and
resolve his or her remaining psychosexual childhood conflicts. As in the
phallic stage, the genital stage is centered upon the genitalia, but the sexuality
is consensual and adult, rather than solitary and infantile. The psychological
difference flanked by the phallic and genital stages is that the ego is
established in the latter; the person's concern shifts from primary-drive
gratification (instinct) to applying secondary process-thinking to gratify desire
symbolically and intellectually through means of friendships, a love
relationship, family and adult responsibilities.

Criticisms

Scientific
A usual criticism of the scientific (experimental) validity of the Freudian
psychology theory of human psychosexual development is that Sigmund
Freud (1856–1939) was personally fixated upon human sexuality, so, he
favored defining human development with a normative theory of psychologic
and sexual development. Hence, the phallic stage proved controversial, for
being based upon clinical observations of the Oedipus intricate.
In Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-year-old Boy (1909), the case study of
the boy "Little Hans" (Herbert Graf, 1903–73) who was afflicted with
equinophobia, the relation flanked by Hans's fears - of horses and of father -
derived from external factors such as the birth of his sister, and internal factors
like the desire of the infantile id to replace father as companion to mother, as
well as guilt for enjoying the masturbation normal to a boy of his age.
Moreover, his admitting to wanting to procreate with mother was measured
proof of the boy's sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent; he was a
heterosexual male. Yet, the boy Hans was unable to relate fearing horses to
fearing his father. The psychoanalyst Freud noted that "Hans had to be told
several things that he could not say himself" and that "he had to be presented
with thoughts, which he had, so distant, shown no signs of possessing".
Several Freud critics consider the memories and fantasies of childhood
seduction Freud reported were not real memories but constructs that Freud
created and forced upon his patients. According to Frederick Crews, the
seduction theory that Freud abandoned in the late 1890s acted as a precedent
to the wave of false allegations of childhood sexual abuse in the 1980s and
1990s.
Feminist
Contemporaneously, Sigmund Freud's psychosexual development theory is
criticized as sexist, because it was informed with his introspection (self-
analysis). To integrate the female libido (sexual desire) to psychosexual
development, he proposed that girls develop "penis envy". In response, the
German Neo-Freudian psychoanalyst Karen Horney, counter-proposed that
girls instead develop "Power envy", rather than penis envy. She further
proposed the concept of "womb and vagina envy", the male's envy of the
female skill to bear children; yet, contemporary formulations further develop
said envy from the biologic (child-bearing) to the psychologic (nurturance),
envy of women's perceived right to be the kind parent.

Anthropologic
Contemporary criticism also questions the universality of the Freudian
theory of personality (Id, Ego, Super-ego) discussed in the essay On
Narcissism (1914), wherein he said that "it is impossible to suppose that a
unity, comparable to the ego can exist in the individual from the very start".
Contemporary cultural thoughts have questioned the normative presumptions
of the Freudian psychodynamic perspective that posits the son–father conflict
of the Oedipal intricate as universal and essential to human psychologic
development.
The anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski's studies of the Trobriand
islanders challenged the Freudian proposal that psychosexual development
(e.g. the Oedipus intricate) was universal. He reported that in the insular
matriarchal society of the Trobriand, boys are disciplined through their
maternal uncles, not their fathers; impartial, avuncular discipline. In Sex and
Repression in Savage Society (1927), Malinowski reported that boys dreamed
of feared uncles, not of beloved fathers, therefore , Power — not sexual
jealousy — is the source of Oedipal conflict in such non–Western societies. In
Human Behavior in Global Perspective: an Introduction to Cross-Cultural
Psychology (1999), Marshall H. Segall et al. propose that Freud based the
theory of psychosexual development upon a misinterpretation. Furthermore,
contemporary research confirms that although personality traits corresponding
to the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stage, the latent stage, and the
genital stage are observable, they remain undetermined as fixed stages of
childhood, and as adult personality traits derived from childhood.
NATURE OF ANXIETY
Anxiety is an unpleasant state of inner turmoil, often accompanied through
nervous behavior, such as pacing back and forth, somatic complaints and
rumination. It is the subjectively unpleasant feelings of dread over something
unlikely to happen, such as the feeling of imminent death. Anxiety is not the
same as fear, which is felt in relation to the something realistically
intimidating or dangerous and is an appropriate response to a perceived threat;
anxiety is a feeling of fear, worry, and uneasiness, usually generalized and
unfocused as an overreaction to a situation that is only subjectively seen as
menacing. It is often accompanied through restlessness, fatigue, problems in
concentration, and muscular tension. Anxiety is not measured to be a normal
reaction to a perceived stressor although several feel it occasionally.

Signs and symptoms of anxiety disorders

Anxiety is a mood. When it becomes a mental disorder, that is,

characterized through excessive, uncontrollable and often irrational worry in
relation to the everyday things that is disproportionate to the actual source of
worry, it is diagnosed as generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). GAD occurs
without an identifiable triggering incentive. It is described generalized because
the remorseless worries are not focused on any specific threat; they are, in
fact, often exaggerated and irrational. It is distinguished from fear, which is an
appropriate cognitive and emotional response to a perceived threat and is
related to the specific behaviors of fight-or-flight responses, suspicious
behavior or escape. Anxiety occurs in situations only perceived as
uncontrollable or unavoidable, but not realistically so. David Barlow defines
anxiety as "a future-oriented mood state in which one is ready or prepared to
effort to cope with upcoming negative events," and that it is a distinction
flanked by future and present dangers which divides anxiety and fear. In a
2011 review of the literature, fear and anxiety were said to be differentiated in
four domains: (1) duration of emotional experience, (2) temporal focus, (3)
specificity of the threat, and (4) motivated direction. Fear is defined as short
lived, present focused, geared towards a specific threat, and facilitating escape
from threat; while anxiety is defined as long acting, future focused, broadly
focused towards a diffuse threat, and promoting excessive caution while
approaching a potential threat and interferes with constructive coping. While
approximately everyone has experienced anxiety at some point in their lives,
most do not develop long-term problems with anxiety. If long term or severe
problems with anxiety develop, such problems are classified as an Anxiety
disorder. Symptoms of anxiety can range in number, intensity, and frequency,
depending on the person.
Subtypes of anxiety disorders are phobias, social anxiety, obsessive-
compulsive behavior, and Posttraumatic stress disorder. The physical effects
of anxiety may contain heart palpitations, tachycardia, muscle weakness and
tension, fatigue, nausea, chest pain, shortness of breath, headache, stomach
aches, or tension headaches. As the body prepares to deal with a threat, blood
pressure, heart rate, perspiration, blood flow to the major muscle groups are
increased, while immune and digestive functions are inhibited (the fight or
flight response). External signs of anxiety may contain pallor, sweating,
trembling, and pupillary dilation. For someone who suffers anxiety this can
lead to a panic attack. Sir Aubrey Lewis even suggests that "anxiety" could be
defined as agony, dread, terror, or even apprehension.
Although panic attacks are not experienced through every person who
suffers from anxiety, they are a common symptom. Panic attacks usually come
without warning and although the fear is usually irrational, the subjective
perception of danger is very real. A person experiencing a panic attack will
often feel as if he or she is in relation to die or lose consciousness. Flanked by
panic attacks, people with panic disorder tend to suffer from anticipated
anxiety- a fear of having a panic attack may lead to the development of
phobias. Such a phobia is described agoraphobia; this is a fear of having a
panic attack in a public place or new environment and experiencing judgment
from strangers or failing to attain help. Anxiety is the most common mental
illness in America as almost 40 million adults are affected through it. Not only
is anxiety common in adults, but it has also been found to be more common in
females rather than males.
The behavioral effects of anxiety may contain withdrawal from situations
which have provoked anxiety in the past. Anxiety can also be experienced in
methods which contain changes in sleeping patterns, nervous habits, and
increased motor tension like foot tapping.

Causes

An evolutionary psychology explanation is that increased anxiety serves

the purpose of increased vigilance concerning potential threats in the
environment as well as increased tendency to take proactive actions
concerning such possible threats. This may cause false positive reactions but
an individual suffering from anxiety may also avoid real threats. This may
explain why anxious people are less likely to die due to accidents.
The psychologist David H. Barlow of Boston University mannered a study
that showed three common characteristics of people suffering from chronic
anxiety, which he characterized as "a generalized biological vulnerability," "a
generalized psychological vulnerability," and "a specific psychological
vulnerability." While chemical issues in the brain that result in anxiety
(especially resulting from genetics) are well documented, this study highlights
an additional environmental factor that may result from being raised through
parents suffering from chronic anxiety.
Other contextual factors that are thought to contribute to anxiety contain
gender socialization and learning experiences. In scrupulous, learning mastery
(the degree to which people perceive their lives to be under their own control)
and instrumentality, which comprises such traits as self-confidence,
independence, and competitiveness fully mediate the relation flanked by
gender and anxiety. That is, though gender differences in anxiety exist, with
higher levels of anxiety in women compared to men, gender socialization and
learning mastery explain these gender differences. Research has demonstrated
the methods in which facial prominence in photographic images differs
flanked by men and women. More specifically, in official online photographs
of politicians approximately the world, women's faces are less prominent than
men's. Interestingly enough, the difference in these images actually tended to
be greater in cultures with greater institutional gender equality.
Research upon adolescents who as infants had been highly apprehensive,
vigilant, and fearful finds that their nucleus accumbens is more sensitive than
that in other people when deciding to create an action that determined whether
they received a reward. This suggests a link flanked by circuits responsible for
fear and also reward in anxious people. As researchers note, "a sense of
'responsibility,' or self agency, in a context of uncertainty (probabilistic
outcomes) drives the neural system underlying appetitive motivation (i.e.,
nucleus accumbens) more strongly in temperamentally inhibited than
noninhibited adolescents." Anxiety is also connected and perpetuated through
the person's own pessimistic outcome expectancy and how they cope with
feedback negativity.
Neural circuitry involving the amygdala and hippocampus is thought to
underlie anxiety. When people are confronted with unpleasant and potentially
harmful stimuli such as foul odors or tastes, PET-scans show increased blood
flow in the amygdala. In these studies, the participants also reported moderate
anxiety. This might indicate that anxiety is a protective mechanism intended to
prevent the organism from engaging in potentially harmful behaviors.
Although single genes have little effect on intricate traits and interact
heavily both flanked by themselves and with the external factors, research is
under-method to unravel possible molecular mechanisms underlying anxiety
and comorbid circumstances. One candidate gene with polymorphisms that
influence anxiety is PLXNA2.
Caffeine may cause or exacerbate anxiety disorders. A number of clinical
studies have shown a positive association flanked by caffeine and anxiogenic
effects and/or panic disorder. Anxiety sufferers can have high caffeine
sensitivity.

Types

Medicine
Anxiety can be a symptom of an underlying health issue such as chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), heart failure, or heart arrythmia.
Abnormal and pathological anxiety or fear may itself be a medical
condition falling under the blanket term "anxiety disorder". Such
circumstances came under the aegis of psychiatry at the end of the 19th
century and current psychiatric diagnostic criteria recognize many specific
forms of the disorder. Recent surveys have found that as several as 18% of
Americans may be affected through one or more of them.
Standardized screening tools such as Zung Self-Rating Anxiety Scale,
Beck Anxiety Inventory, Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale and HAM-A
(Hamilton Anxiety Scale) can be used to detect anxiety symptoms and suggest
the need for a formal diagnostic assessment of anxiety disorder. The HAM-A
(Hamilton Anxiety Scale) measures the severity of a patient's anxiety, based
on 14 parameters, including anxious mood, tension, fears, insomnia, somatic
complaints and behavior at the interview.

Existential anxiety
The philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, in The Concept of Anxiety, described
anxiety or dread associated with the "dizziness of freedom" and suggested the
possibility for positive resolution of anxiety through the self-conscious
exercise of responsibility and choosing. In Art and Artist (1932), the
psychologist Otto Rank wrote that the psychological trauma of birth was the
pre-eminent human symbol of existential anxiety and encompasses the
creative person's simultaneous fear of – and desire for – separation,
individuation and differentiation.
The theologian Paul Tillich characterized existential anxiety as "the state
in which a being is aware of its possible nonbeing" and he listed three
categories for the nonbeing and resulting anxiety: ontic (fate and death), moral
(guilt and condemnation), and spiritual (emptiness and meaninglessness).
According to Tillich, the last of these three types of existential anxiety, i.e.
spiritual anxiety, is predominant in modern times while the others were
predominant in earlier periods. Tillich argues that this anxiety can be accepted
as part of the human condition or it can be resisted but with negative
consequences. In its pathological form, spiritual anxiety may tend to "drive the
person toward the creation of certitude in systems of meaning which are
supported through custom and authority" even though such "undoubted
certitude is not built on the rock of reality".
According to Viktor Frankl, the author of Man's Search for Meaning,
when a person is faced with extreme mortal dangers, the most basic of all
human wishes is to find a meaning of life to combat the "trauma of nonbeing"
as death is close to.

Test and performance anxiety

According to Yerkes-Dodson law, an optimal level of arousal is necessary
to best complete a task such as an exam, performance, or competitive event.
Though, when the anxiety or level of arousal exceeds that optimum, the result
is a decline in performance.
Test anxiety is the uneasiness, apprehension, or nervousness felt through
students who have a fear of failing an exam. Students who have test anxiety
may experience any of the following: the association of grades with personal
worth; fear of embarrassment through a teacher; fear of alienation from
parents or friends; time pressures; or feeling a loss of control. Sweating,
dizziness, headaches, racing heartbeats, nausea, fidgeting, uncontrollable
crying or laughing and drumming on a desk are all common. Because test
anxiety hinges on fear of negative evaluation, debate exists as to whether test
anxiety is itself a unique anxiety disorder or whether it is a specific type of
social phobia. The DSM-IV classifies test anxiety as a type of social phobia.
While the term "test anxiety" refers specifically to students, several
workers share the same experience with regard to their career or profession.
The fear of failing at a task and being negatively evaluated for failure can have
a similarly negative effect on the adult. Management of test anxiety focuses on
achieving relaxation and developing mechanisms to manage anxiety.

Stranger and social anxiety

Humans usually require social acceptance and therefore sometimes dread
the disapproval of others. Apprehension of being judged through others may
cause anxiety in social environments.
Anxiety throughout social interactions, particularly flanked by strangers, is
common among young people. It may persist into adulthood and become
social anxiety or social phobia. "Stranger anxiety" in small children is not
measured a phobia. In adults, an excessive fear of other people is not a
developmentally common stage; it is described social anxiety. According to
Cutting, social phobics do not fear the crowd but the fact that they may be
judged negatively.
Social anxiety varies in degree and severity. For some people it is
characterized through experiencing discomfort or awkwardness throughout
physical social get in touch with (e.g. embracing, shaking hands, etc.), while in
other cases it can lead to a fear of interacting with unfamiliar people
altogether. Those suffering from this condition may restrict their lifestyles to
accommodate the anxiety, minimizing social interaction whenever possible.
Social anxiety also forms a core aspect of certain personality disorders,
including Avoidant Personality Disorder.

Generalized anxiety
Overwhelming anxiety, if not treated early, can become a generalized
anxiety disorder (GAD), recognized through symptoms of exaggerated and
excessive worry, chronic anxiety and constant, irrational thoughts. These
anxious thoughts and feelings are hard to control and can cause serious mental
anguish that interferes with normal, daily functioning.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV)
comprises specific criteria for diagnosing generalized anxiety disorder. The
DSM-IV states that a patient necessity experience chronic anxiety and
excessive worry, approximately daily, for at least 6 months from a number of
stressors (such as work or school) and experience three or more defined
symptoms, including, "restlessness or feeling keyed up or on edge, being
easily fatigued, difficulty concentrating or mind going blank, irritability,
muscle tension, sleep disturbance (difficulty falling or staying asleep, or
restless unsatisfying sleep)." Generalized anxiety disorder is more likely to be
found among people who are living in a big city, or one that is politically and
economically unstable.
If symptoms of chronic anxiety are not addressed and treated in
adolescence the risk of developing an anxiety disorder in adulthood increases.
"Clinical worry is also associated with risk of comorbidity with other anxiety
disorders and depression" and therefore immediate treatment is significant.
Generalized anxiety disorder can be treated through specialized therapies
aimed at changing thinking patterns and in turn reducing anxiety-producing
behaviors. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and short-term psychodynamic
psychotherapy (STPP) can be used to treat GAD with positive effects lasting
12 months after treatment. Other treatment plans can be used in conjunction
with behavioral therapy to reduce the symptoms of generalized anxiety
disorder.
According to Ghafoor, 90% of individuals suffering from a generalized
anxiety disorder also thrash about with at least one additional mental health
issue. Of these individuals, up to 50% may have experienced a serious episode
of depression through age 18. Mental health professionals in the field are
therefore asking more relevant questions of their patients to achieve more
effective diagnoses. Ghafoor suggests that asking questions relating to
personal symptoms (such as fatigue, irritability, or restlessness) offers a better
a method for mental health professionals to make a more effective,
personalized treatment plan.

Trait anxiety
Anxiety can be either a short term 'state' or a long term "trait." Trait
anxiety reflects a stable tendency to respond with state anxiety in the
anticipation of threatening situations. It is closely related to the personality
trait of neuroticism. Such anxiety may be conscious or unconscious.

Choice or decision anxiety

Anxiety induced through the need to choose flanked by similar options is
increasingly being recognized as a problem for individuals and for
organizations.
In a decision context, unpredictability or uncertainty may trigger emotional
responses in anxious individuals that systematically alter decision-making.
There are primarily two forms of this anxiety type. The first form refers to a
choice in which there are multiple potential outcomes with recognized or
calculable probabilities. The second form refers to the uncertainty and
ambiguity related to a decision context in which there are multiple possible
outcomes with unknown probabilities.

Positive psychology
In positive psychology, anxiety is described as the mental state that results
from a hard challenge for which the subject has insufficient coping skills.

Prevention

Many approaches to prevention of mental disorders in general are

described in the article mental disorders. The use of treatments such as
cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for people at risk for anxiety has been
shown to significantly reduce the number of episodes of generalized anxiety
disorder and anxiety symptoms. Through managing negative thoughts and
maladaptive behavior, important improvements in explanatory style,
hopelessness, and dysfunctional attitudes are observed.

Treatments

There are several methods to treat anxiety.

Cognitive behavioral therapy

The most notable treatment for anxiety is cognitive behavioral therapy
(CBT). Cognitive behavioral therapy involves the changing of one's thought
through the therapist. Patients are asked to explain their feelings towards
certain things or incidents that cause their anxious behavior. One study found
that computerized CBT was equally effective as face-to-face CBT in
adolescent anxiety.

Parental Anxiety Management

Studies show that parental variables are sometimes involved in cases of
anxiety therefore Parental Anxiety Management (PAM) is also a viable
treatment option.

Herbal treatments
Traditional herbal remedies have been used for centuries to treat anxiety
but several lack strong proof of efficacy. There is some limited promising data
supporting the use of kava and, to some extent, inositol, but the limited proof
accessible for St John's wort, valerian, and omega-3 fatty acids demonstrates
little efficacy in anxiety and these remedies should not be recommended in
place of more effective treatments.

Caffeine elimination
For some people, anxiety may be reduced through eliminating caffeine
consumption. Anxiety can temporarily augment throughout caffeine
withdrawal.
Combined treatments
A combination of CBT and Parental Anxiety Management has been
proven through psychologists and psychiatrists alike to be more effective than
administering these treatments separately.

Meditation
The most simple form of meditating, directing attention to breathing, has
been proven helpful. Even other simple activities like walking approximately
or just lying down. The most key part is in relation to the having no
disturbance and a low sound level.

Other treatments
Other methods used in treating anxiety contain electroconvulsive therapy
(ECT), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and psychosurgery.
Psychosurgery is used in very extreme cases, when other treatment techniques
do not work.
JUNG’S ANALYTICAL THEORY—THE STRUCTURE AND
THE DYNAMICS OF PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS
Carl Jung whispered that people are very intricate beings who possess a
diversity of opposing qualities, such as introversion and extraversion,
masculinity and femininity, and rational and irrational drives.

Biography of Carl Jung

Carl Jung was born in Switzerland in 1875, the oldest surviving child of an
idealistic Protestant minister and his wife. Jung's early experience with parents
(who were quite opposite of each other) almost certainly influenced his own
theory of personality. Soon after getting his medical degree he became
acquainted with Freud's writings and eventually with Freud himself. Not long
after he traveled with Freud to the United States, Jung became disenchanted
with Freud's pansexual theories, broke with Freud, and began his own
approach to theory and therapy, which he described analytical psychology.
From a critical midlife crisis, throughout which he almost lost get in touch
with reality, Jung appeared to become one of the leading thinkers of the 20th
century. He died in 1961 at age 85.

Levels of the Psyche

Jung saw the human psyche as being divided into a conscious and an
unconscious level, with the latter further subdivided into a personal and a
communal unconscious.
 Conscious: Images sensed through the ego are said to be conscious.
The ego therefore represents the conscious side of personality, and in
the psychologically mature individual, the ego is secondary to the self.
Personal Unconscious: The unconscious refers to those psychic images
not sensed through the ego. Some unconscious processes flow from
our personal experiences, but others stem from our ancestors'
experiences with universal themes. Jung divided the unconscious into
the personal unconscious, which contains the complexes (emotionally
toned groups of related ideas) and the communal unconscious, or ideas
that are beyond our personal experiences and that originate from the
repeated experiences of our ancestors.
Communal Unconscious: Communal unconscious images are not
inherited ideas, but rather they refer to our innate tendency to react in a
scrupulous method whenever our personal experiences stimulate an
inherited predisposition toward action. Contents of the communal
unconscious are described archetypes.
Archetypes: Jung whispered that archetypes originate through the
repeated experiences of our ancestors and that they are expressed in
certain types of dreams, fantasies, delusions, and hallucinations. Many
archetypes acquire their own personality, and Jung recognized these
through name. One is the persona-the side of our personality that we
show to others. Another is the shadow-the dark side of personality. To
reach full psychological maturity, Jung whispered, we necessity first
realize or accept our shadow. A second hurdle in achieving maturity is
for men to accept their anima, or feminine side, and for women to
embrace their animus, or masculine disposition. Other archetypes
contain the great mother (the archetype of nourishment and
destruction); the wise old man (the archetype of wisdom and meaning);
and the hero, (the image we have of a conqueror who vanquishes evil,
but who has a single fatal flaw). The most comprehensive archetype is
the self; that is, the image we have of fulfillment, completion, or
perfection. The ultimate in psychological maturity is self-realization,
which is symbolized through the mandala, or perfect geometric figure.

Dynamics of Personality

Jung whispered that the dynamic principles that apply to physical energy
also apply to psychic energy. These forces contain causality and teleology as
well as progression and regression.
Causality and Teleology: Jung accepted a middle position flanked by
the philosophical issues of causality and teleology. In other words,
humans are motivated both through their past experiences and through
their expectations of the future.
 Progression and Regression: To achieve self-realization, people
necessity adapt to both their external and internal worlds. Progression
involves version to the outside world and the forward flow of psychic
energy, whereas regression refers to version to the inner world and the
backward flow of psychic energy. Jung whispered that the backward
step is essential to a person's forward movement toward self-
realization.

Psychological Types

Eight basic psychological types emerge from the union of two attitudes
and four functions.
Attitudes: Attitudes are predispositions to act or react in a
characteristic manner. The two basic attitudes are introversion, which
refers to people's subjective perceptions, and extraversion, which
designates an orientation toward the objective world. Extraverts are
influenced more through the real world than through their subjective
perception, whereas introverts rely on their individualized view of
things. Introverts and extraverts often mistrust and misunderstand one
another.
Functions: The two attitudes or extroversion and introversion can
combine with four basic functions to form eight general personality
types. The four functions are (1) thinking, or recognizing the meaning
of stimuli; (2) feeling, or placing a value on something; (3) sensation,
or taking in sensory stimuli; and (4) intuition, or perceiving elementary
data that are beyond our awareness. Jung referred to thinking and
feeling as rational functions and to sensation and intuition as irrational
functions.

Development of Personality

Almost unique among personality theorists was Jung's emphasis on the

second half of life. Jung saw middle and old age as times when people may
acquire the skill to attain self-realization.
Stages of Development: Jung divided development into four broad
stages: (1) childhood, which lasts from birth until adolescence; (2)
youth, the period from puberty until middle life, which is a time for
extraverted development and for being grounded to the real world of
schooling, occupation, courtship, marriage, and family; (3) middle life,
which is a time from in relation to the35 or 40 until old age when
people should be adopting an introverted attitude; and (4) old age,
which is a time for psychological rebirth, self-realization, and
preparation for death.
 Self-Realization: Self-realization, or individuation, involves a
psychological rebirth and an integration of several parts of the psyche
into a unified or whole individual. Self-realization represents the
highest level of human development.

Jung's Methods of Investigation

Jung used the word association test, dreams, and active imagination
throughout the process of psychotherapy, and all these methods contributed to
his theory of personality.
Word Association Test: Jung used the word association test early in his
career to uncover complexes embedded in the personal unconscious.
The technique requires a patient to utter the first word that comes to
mind after the examiner reads a incentive word. Unusual responses
indicate a intricate.
Dream Analysis: Jung whispered that dreams may have both a cause
and a purpose and therefore can be useful in explaining past events and
in making decisions in relation to the future. "Big dreams" and "typical
dreams," both of which come from the communal unconscious, have
meanings that lie beyond the experiences of a single individual.
Active Imagination: Jung also used active imagination to arrive at
communal images. This technique requires the patient to concentrate
on a single image until that image begins to appear in a different form.
Eventually, the patient should see figures that represent archetypes and
other communal unconscious images.
Psychotherapy: The goal of Jungian therapy is to help neurotic patients
become healthy and to move healthy people in the direction of self-
realization. Jung was eclectic in his choice of therapeutic techniques
and treated old people differently than the young.

Related Research

Although Jungian psychology has not generated large volumes of research,

some investigators have used the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to examine the
thought of psychological types. Some research suggests that extraverts and
introverts have different preferences in their choice of partners. Other
researchers have reported that personality type is related to academic
performance and success.

Critique of Jung

Although Jung measured himself a scientist, several of his writings have

more of a philosophical than a psychological flavor. As a scientific theory, it
rates average on its skill to generate research, but very low on its skill to
withstand falsification. It is in relation to the average on its skill to organize
knowledge but low on each of the other criteria of a useful theory.

Concept of Humanity

Jung saw people as very intricate beings that are a product of both
conscious and unconscious personal experiences. Though, people are also
motivated through inherited remnants that spring from the communal
experiences of their early ancestors. Because Jungian theory is a psychology
of opposites, it receives a moderate rating on the issues of free will versus
determinism, optimism versus pessimism, and causality versus teleology. It
rates very high on unconscious influences, low on uniqueness, and low on
social influences.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
What do you understand through the term personality? Discuss in
detail.
―Personality is conscious‖ comment in the light of characteristic
features of personality.
Discuss the trait dimension of personality, in detail. Also provide
examples.
Describe motivation and discuss several motivational dimensions.

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES

STRUCTURE
Learning objectives
Introduction
Adler‘s individual psychology
Erich Fromm
Karen Horney
Harry stack Sullivan
Erickson‘s social development theory
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
Describe and elucidate the social psychological theories of personality;
Describe Adler‘s theory of personality;
List the typical personality of individuals as visualized through Adler;
Elucidate the dynamics of the theory of Fromm;
List the personality that develops in conditions of Fromm‘s theory;
Describe Horney‘s basic anxiety;
Explain the personality types that arise out of Horney‘s theory of
personality;
Elucidate Sullivan‘s theory of personality; and
Analyze the several factors that contribute to the development of
personality according to Sullivan‘s theory.
INTRODUCTION
Theories of personality try to explain the differences in individuals in
regard to their behaviours and personality. The psychoanalytical theory of
Freud clearly stated that personality development is the result of interaction
flanked by the ego, Id and the superego and outside environment or societal
demands. The theory also measured personality development as going through
different stages and it was stated that once the personality is set approximately
the age of 5 years, the individual will carry that personality through out life.
Considering Freud‘s theory of personality as being fatalistic and deterministic
and not involving environmental factors, some of his students parted company
with Freud and put forward their own theory of personality. In this unit we
will be dealing with some of the major theorists who were part of Freudian
psychoanalytical school but moved absent from him and incorporated social
factors in their personality theories. The prominent theorists in this group are
Alfred Adler, Eric Fromm, Karen Horney and Harry Stack Sullivan.
Alfred Adler urbanized the school of individual psychology, which
contained the humanistic study of drives, feelings, emotions, and memory in
the context of the individual‘s overall life plan. Eric Fromm added to this mix
the thought of freedom. He measured people as transcending the determinisms
that Freud and Marx attributed to them. Fromm whispered that our social
unconscious is best understood through examining the country‘s economic
systems. Horney argued that the source of much female psychiatric
disturbance is situated in the very male dominated culture that had produced
Freudian theory. Horney recognized ten neurotic needs that characterize
neurotics in their attempts to combat anxiety. Harry Stack-Sullivan focused on
both the social characteristics of personality and cognitive representations.
This moved him absent from Freud‘s psychosexual development and toward a
more eclectic approach. This unit will be dealing with the theories of
personality put forward through the above theorists.

ADLER’S INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY

An original member of Freud's psychoanalytic group, Alfred Adler broke
from that group and advocated a theory of personality that was almost
diametrically opposed to that of Freud. Whereas Freud's view of humanity was
pessimistic and rooted in biology, Adler's view was optimistic, idealistic, and
rooted in family experiences.

Biography of Alfred Adler

Alfred Adler was born in 1870 in a town close to Vienna, a second son of
middle-class Jewish parents. Like Freud, Adler was a physician, and in 1902,
he became a charter member of Freud's organization. Though, personal and
professional differences flanked by the two men led to Adler's departure from
the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1911. Adler soon founded his own
group, the Society for Individual Psychology. Adler's strengths were his
energetic oral presentations and his insightful skill to understand family
dynamics. He was not a gifted writer, a limitation that may have prevented
individual psychology from attaining a world recognition equal to Freud's
psychoanalysis.

Introduction to Adlerian Theory

Although Adler's individual psychology is both intricate and

comprehensive, its main tenets can be stated in simple form.

Striving for Success or Superiority

The sole dynamic force behind people's actions is the striving for success
or superiority.
The Final Goal: The final goal of either success or superiority toward
which all people strive unifies personality and creates all behavior
meaningful.
The Striving Force as Compensation: Because people are born with
small, inferior bodies, they feel inferior and effort to overcome these
feelings through their natural tendency to move toward completion.
The striving force can take one of two courses: personal gain
(superiority) or community benefit (success).
Striving for Personal Superiority: Psychologically unhealthy
individuals strive for personal superiority with little concern for other
people. Although they may appear to be interested in other people,
their basic motivation is personal benefit.
Striving for Success: In contrast, psychologically healthy people strive
for the success of all humanity, but they do so without losing their
personal identity.

Subjective Perceptions

People's subjective view of the world-not reality-shapes their behavior.

Fictionalism: Fictions are people's expectations of the future. Adler
held that fictions guide behavior, because people act as if these fictions
 are true. Adler accentuated teleology over causality, or explanations of
behavior in conditions of future goals rather than past causes.
Organ Inferiorities: Adler whispered that all humans are "blessed" with
organ inferiorities, which stimulate subjective feelings of inferiority
and move people toward perfection or completion.

Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality

Adler whispered that all behaviors are directed toward a single purpose.
When seen in the light of that sole purpose, seemingly contradictory behaviors
can be seen as operating in a self-constant manner.
Organ Dialect: People often use a physical disorder to express style of
life, a condition Adler described organ dialect.
Conscious and Unconscious: Conscious and unconscious processes are
unified and operate to achieve a single goal. The part of our goal that
we do not clearly understood is unconscious; the part of our goal that
we fail to fully comprehend is conscious.

Social Interest

Human behavior has value to the extent that it is motivated through social
interest, that is, a feeling of oneness with all of humanity.
Origins of Social Interest: Although social interest exists as potentiality
in all people, it necessity be fostered in a social environment. Adler
whispered that the parent-child relationship can be so strong that it
negates the effects of heredity.
Importance of Social Interest: According to Adler, social interest is
"the sole criterion of human values," and the worthiness of all one's
actions necessity be seen through this standard. Without social interest,
societies could not exist; individuals in antiquity could not have
survived without cooperating with others to protect themselves from
danger. Even today, an infant's helplessness predisposes it toward a
nurturing person.

Style of Life

The manner of a person's striving is described style of life, a pattern that is

relatively well set through 4 or 5 years of age. Though, Adler whispered that
healthy individuals are marked through flexible behavior and that they have
some limited skill to change their style of life.
Creative Power

Style of life is partially a product of heredity and environment-the building

blocks of personality-but ultimately style of life is shaped through people's
creative power, that is, through their skill to freely choose a course of action.

Abnormal Development

Creative power is not limited to healthy people; unhealthy individuals also

make their own personalities. Therefore , each of us is free to choose either a
useful or a useless style of life.
General Description: The most significant factor in abnormal
development is lack of social interest. In addition, people with a
useless style of life tend to (1) set their goals too high, (2) have a
dogmatic style of life, and (3) live in their own private world.
External Factors in Maladjustment: Adler listed three factors that relate
to abnormal development: (1) exaggerated physical deficiencies, which
do not through themselves cause abnormal development, but which
may contribute to it through generating subjective and exaggerated
feelings of inferiority; (2) a pampered style of life, which contributes to
an overriding drive to establish a permanent parasitic relationship with
the mother or a mother substitute; and (3) a neglected style of life,
which leads to distrust of other people.
Safeguarding Tendencies: Both normal and neurotic people make
symptoms as a means of protecting their fragile self-esteem. These
safeguarding tendencies maintain a neurotic style of life and protect a
person from public disgrace. The three principal safeguarding
tendencies are (1) excuses, which allow people to preserve their
inflated sense of personal worth; (2) aggression, which may take the
form of depreciating others' accomplishments, accusing others of being
responsible for one's own failures, or self-accusation; and (3)
withdrawal, which can be expressed through psychologically moving
backward, standing still, hesitating, or constructing obstacles.
Masculine Protest: Both men and women sometimes overemphasize
the desirability of being manly, a condition Adler described the
masculine protest. The regularly found inferior status of women is not
based on physiology but on historical developments and social
learning.
Applications of Individual Psychology

Adler applied the principles of individual psychology to family

constellation, early recollections, dreams, and psychotherapy.
Family Constellation: Adler whispered that people's perception of how
they fit into their family is related to their style of life. He claimed that
firstborns are likely to have strong feelings of power and superiority, to
be overprotective, and to have more than their share of anxiety.
Second-born children are likely to have strong social interest, provided
they do not get trapped trying to overcome their older sibling.
Youngest children are likely to be pampered and to lack independence,
whereas only children have some of the characteristics of both the
oldest and the youngest child.
Early Recollections: A more reliable method of determining style of
life is to ask people for their earliest recollections. Adler whispered
that early memories are templates on which people project their current
style of life. These recollections need not be accurate accounts of early
events; they have psychological importance because they reflect a
person's current view of the world.
Dreams: Adler whispered that dreams can give clues to solving future
problems. Though, dreams are disguised to deceive the dreamer and
usually necessity be interpreted through another person.
Psychotherapy: The goal of Adlerian therapy is to make a relationship
flanked by therapist and patient that fosters social interest. To ensure
that the patient's social interest will eventually generalize to other
relationships, the therapist adopts both a maternal and a paternal role.

Related Research

Although family constellation and birth order have been widely

researched, a topic more pertinent to Adlerian theory is early recollections.
Research shows that early recollections are related to a number of personal
traits, such as depression, alcoholism, criminal behavior, and success in
counseling. Other research has shown that a change in style of life may be
capable of producing a change in early recollections. Still other research
suggests that made-up early recollections may be as meaningful as actual ones.

Critique of Adler

Individual psychology rates high on its skill to generate research, organize

data, and guide the practitioner. It receives a moderate rating on parsimony,
but because it lacks operational definitions, it rates low on internal
consistency. It also rates low on falsification because several of its related
research findings can be explained through other theories.

Concept of Humanity

Adler saw people as forward moving, social animals who are motivated
through goals they set (both consciously and unconsciously) for the future.
People are ultimately responsible for their own unique style of life. Therefore ,
Adler's theory rates high on free-choice, social influences, and uniqueness;
very high on optimism and teleology; and average on unconscious influences.

ERICH FROMM
Erich Fromm's humanistic psychoanalysis looks at people from the
perspective of psychology, history, and anthropology. Influenced through
Freud and Horney, Fromm urbanized a more culturally oriented theory than
Freud's and a much broader theory than Horney's.

Biography of Erich Fromm

Erich Fromm was born in Germany in 1900, the only child of orthodox
Jewish parents. A thoughtful young man, Fromm was influenced through the
bible, Freud, and Marx, as well as through socialist ideology. After getting his
Ph.D., Fromm began studying psychoanalysis and became an analyst through
being analyzed through Hanns Sachs,
a student of Freud. In 1934, Fromm moved to the United States and began
a psychoanalytic practice in New York, where he also resumed his friendship
with Karen Horney, whom he had recognized in Germany. Much of his later
years were spent in Mexico and Switzerland. He died in 1980.

Fromm's Basic Assumptions

Fromm whispered that humans have been torn absent from their
prehistoric union with nature and left with no powerful instincts to adapt to a
changing world. But because humans have acquired the skill to cause, they can
think in relation to their isolated condition-a situation Fromm described the
human dilemma.

Human Needs

According to Fromm, our human dilemma cannot be solved through

satisfying our animal needs. It can only be addressed through fulfilling our
uniquely human needs, an accomplishment that moves us toward a reunion
with the natural world. Fromm recognized five of these distinctively human or
existential needs.
Relatedness: First is relatedness, which can take the form of (1)
submission, (2) power, and (3) love. Love, or the skill to unite with
another while retaining one's own individuality and integrity, is the
only relatedness need that can solve our basic human dilemma.
Transcendence: Being thrown into the world without their consent,
humans have to transcend their nature through destroying or creating
people or things. Humans can destroy through malignant aggression, or
killing for reasons other than survival, but they can also make and care
in relation to their creations.
Rootedness: Rootedness is the need to establish roots and to feel at
home again in the world. Productively, rootedness enables us to grow
beyond the security of our mother and establish ties with the outside
world. With the nonproductive strategy, we become fixated and afraid
to move beyond the security and safety of our mother or a mother
substitute.
Sense of Identity: The fourth human need is for a sense of identity, or
an awareness of ourselves as a separate person. The drive for a sense of
identity is expressed nonproductively as conventionality to a group and
productively as individuality.
Frame of Orientation: Through frame of orientation, Fromm meant a
road map or constant philosophy through which we find our method
through the world. This need is expressed nonproductively as a striving
for irrational goals and productively as movement toward rational
goals.

The Burden of Freedom

As the only animal possessing self-awareness, humans are what Fromm

described the "freaks of the universe." Historically, as people gained more
political freedom, they began to experience more isolation from others and
from the world and to feel free from the security of a permanent place in the
world. As a result, freedom becomes a burden, and people experience basic
anxiety, or a feeling of being alone in the world.
Mechanisms of Escape: To reduce the frightening sense of isolation
and aloneness, people may adopt one of three mechanisms of escape:
(1) authoritarianism, or the tendency to provide up one's independence
and to unite with a powerful partner; (2) destructiveness, an escape
mechanism aimed at doing absent with other people or things; and (3)
conventionality, or surrendering of one's individuality in order to meet
the wishes of others.
 Positive Freedom: The human dilemma can only be solved through
positive freedom, which is the spontaneous activity of the whole,
integrated personality, and which is achieved when a person becomes
reunited with others.

Character Orientations

People relate to the world through acquiring and using things

(assimilation) and through relating to self and others (socialization), and they
can do so either nonproductively or productively.
Nonproductive Orientations: Fromm recognized four nonproductive
strategies that fail to move people closer to positive freedom and self-
realization. People with a receptive orientation consider that the source
of all good lies outside themselves and that the only method they can
relate to the world is to receive things, including love, knowledge, and
material objects. People with an exploitative orientation also consider
that the source of good lies outside themselves, but they aggressively
take what they want rather than passively getting it. Hoarding
characters try to save what they have already obtained, including their
opinions, feelings, and material possessions. People with a marketing
orientation see themselves as commodities and value themselves
against the criterion of their skill to sell themselves. They have fewer
positive qualities than the other orientations because they are
essentially empty.
The Productive Orientation: Psychologically healthy people work
toward positive freedom through productive work, love, and reasoning.
Productive love necessitates a passionate love of all life and is
described biophilia.

Personality Disorders

Unhealthy people have nonproductive methods of working, reasoning, and

especially loving. Fromm recognized three major personality disorders: (1)
necrophilia, or the love of death and the hatred of all humanity; (2) malignant
narcissism, or a belief that everything belonging to one's self is of great value
and anything belonging to others is worthless; and incestuous symbiosis, or an
extreme dependence on one's mother or mother surrogate.

Psychotherapy

The goal of Fromm's psychotherapy was to work toward satisfaction of the

basic human needs of relatedness, transcendence, rootedness, a sense of
identity, and a frame of orientation. The therapist tries to accomplish this
through shared communication in which the therapist is simply a human being
rather than a scientist.

Fromm's Methods of Investigation

Fromm's personality theory rests on data he gathered from a diversity of

sources, including psychotherapy, cultural anthropology, and psychohistory.
Social Character in a Mexican Village: Fromm and his associates spent
many years investigating social character in a isolated farming village
in Mexico and found proof of all the character orientations except the
marketing one.
A Psychohistorical Study of Hitler: Fromm applied the techniques of
psychohistory to the study of many historical people, including Adolf
Hitler-the person Fromm regarded as the world's most conspicuous
instance of someone with the syndrome of decay, that is, necrophilia,
malignant narcissism, and incestuous symbiosis.

Related Research

Fromm's theory ranks close to the bottom of personality theories with

regard to stimulating research. Recently, Shaun Saunders and Don Munro
have urbanized the Saunders Consumer Orientation Index (SCOI) to measure
Fromm's marketing character. To date, much of their work has consisted in
establishing the validity of this instrument. In general, Saunders has found that
people with a strong consumer orientation tend to place low value on freedom,
inner harmony, equality, self-respect, and community.

Critique of Fromm

The strength of Fromm's theory is his lucid writings on a broad range of

human issues. As a scientific theory, though, Fromm's theory rates very low
on its skill to generate research and to lend itself to falsification; it rates low
on usefulness to the practitioner, internal consistency, and parsimony. Because
it is quite broad in scope, Fromm's theory rates high on organizing existing
knowledge.

Concept of Humanity

Fromm whispered that humans were "freaks of the universe" because they
lacked strong animal instincts while possessing the skill to cause. In brief, his
view is rated average on free choice, optimism, unconscious influences, and
uniqueness; low on causality; and high on social influences.
KAREN HORNEY
 Karen Horney's psychoanalytic social theory assumes that social and
cultural circumstances, especially throughout childhood, have a powerful
effect on later personality. Like Melanie Klein, Horney accepted several of
Freud's observations, but she objected to most of his interpretations, including
his notions on feminine psychology.

Biography of Karen Horney

Karen Horney, who was born in Germany in 1885, was one of the first
women in that country admitted to medical school. There, she became
acquainted with Freudian theory and eventually became a psychoanalyst and a
psychiatrist. In her mid-40s, Horney left Germany to settle in the United
States, first in Chicago and then in New York. She soon abandoned orthodox
psychoanalysis in favor of a more socially oriented theory-one that had a more
positive view of feminine development. She died in 1952 at age 67.

Introduction to Psychoanalytic Social Theory

Although Horney's writings deal mostly with neuroses and neurotic

personalities, her theories also appropriate suggest much that is appropriate to
normal development. She agreed with Freud that early childhood traumas are
significant, but she placed distant more emphasis on social factors.
Horney and Freud Compared: Horney criticized Freudian theory on at
least three accounts: (1) its rigidity toward new ideas, (2) its skewed
view of feminine psychology, and (3) its overemphasis on biology and
the pleasure principle.
The Impact of Culture: Horney insisted that modern culture is too
competitive and that competition leads to hostility and feelings of
isolation. These circumstances lead to exaggerated needs for affection
and cause people to overvalue love.
The Importance of Childhood Experiences: Neurotic conflict stems
largely from childhood traumas, most of which are traced to a lack of
genuine love. Children who do not receive genuine affection feel
threatened and adopt rigid behavioral patterns in an effort to gain love.

Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety

All children need feelings of safety and security, but these can be gained
only through love from parents. Unfortunately, parents often neglect, control,
reject, or overindulge their children, circumstances that lead to the child's
feelings of basic hostility toward parents. If children repress feelings of basic
hostility, they will develop feelings of insecurity and a pervasive sense of
apprehension described basic anxiety. People can protect themselves from
basic anxiety through a number of protective devices, including (1) affection,
(2) submissiveness, (3) power, prestige, or possession, and (4) withdrawal.
Normal people have the flexibility to use any or all of these approaches, but
neurotics are compelled to rely rigidly on only one.

Compulsive Drives

Neurotics are regularly trapped in a vicious circle in which their

compulsive need to reduce basic anxiety leads to a diversity of self-defeating
behaviors; these behaviors then produce more basic anxiety, and the cycle
continues.
Neurotic Needs: Horney recognized 10 categories of neurotic needs
that mark neurotics in their effort to reduce basic anxiety. These
contain needs (1) for affection and approval, (2) for a powerful partner
(3) to restrict one's life within narrow borders, (4) for power, (5) to use
others, (6) for social recognition or prestige, (7) for personal
admiration, (8) for ambition and personal achievement, (9) for self-
sufficiency and independence, and (10) for perfection and
unassailability.
Neurotic Trends: Later, Horney grouped these 10 neurotic needs into
three basic neurotic trends, which apply to both normal and neurotic
individuals in their effort to solve basic conflict. The three neurotic
tends are (1) moving toward people, in which compliant people protect
themselves against feelings of helplessness through attaching
themselves to other people; (2) moving against people, in which
aggressive people protect themselves against perceived hostility of
others through exploiting others; and (3) moving absent from people,
in which detached people protect themselves against feelings of
isolation through appearing arrogant and aloof.

Intrapsychic Conflicts

People also experience inner tensions or intrapsychic conflicts that become

part of their belief system and take on a life of their own, separate from the
interpersonal conflicts that created them.
The Idealized Self-Image: People who do not receive love and
affection throughout childhood are blocked in their effort to acquire a
stable sense of identity. Feeling alienated from self, they make an
idealized self-image, or an extravagantly positive picture of
 themselves. Horney recognized three characteristics of the idealized
self-image: (1) the neurotic search for glory, or a comprehensive drive
toward actualizing the ideal self; (2) neurotic claims, or a belief that
they are entitled to special privileges; and (3) neurotic pride, or a false
pride based not on reality but on a distorted and idealized view of self.
Self-Hatred: Neurotics dislike themselves because reality always falls
short of their idealized view of self. So, they learn self-hatred, which
can be expressed as: (1) relentless demands on the self, (2) merciless
self-accusation, (3) self-contempt, (4) self-frustration, (5) self-torment
or self-torture, and (6) self-destructive actions and impulses.

Feminine Psychology

Horney whispered that psychological differences flanked by men and

women are not due to anatomy but to culture and social expectations. Her
view of the Oedipus intricate differed markedly from Freud's in that she
insisted that any sexual attraction or hostility of child to parent would be the
result of learning and not biology.

Psychotherapy

The goal of Horney's psychotherapy was to help patients grow toward self-
realization, provide up their idealized self-image, relinquish their neurotic
search for glory, and change self-hatred to self-acceptance. Horney whispered
that successful therapy is built on self-analysis and self-understanding.

Related Research

Horney's concepts of morbid dependency and hypercompetitiveness have

both stimulated some recent research.
Morbid Dependency: The current concept of codependency, which is
based on Horney's notion of morbid dependency, has produced
research showing that people with neurotic needs to move toward
others will go to great lengths to win the approval of other people. A
study through Lyon and Greenberg (1991) found that women with an
alcoholic parent, compared with women without an alcoholic parent,
were much more nurturant toward a person they perceived as
exploitative than toward a person they perceived as nurturing.
 Hypercompetitiveness: Horney's thought of moving against people
relates to the concept of hyper-competitiveness, a topic that has
received some recent research interest. Some of this research
designates that, although hypercompetitiveness is a negative
personality trait, some types of competitiveness can be positive. Other
research has found that hypercompetitive European American women
regularly have some type of eating disorder.

Critique of Horney

Although Horney painted a vivid portrayal of the neurotic personality, her

theory rates very low in generating research and low on its skill to be falsified,
to organize data, and to serve as a useful guide to action. Her theory is rated in
relation to the average on internal consistency and parsimony.

Concept of Humanity

Horney's concept of humanity is rated very high on social factors, high on

free choice, optimism, and unconscious influences, and in relation to the
average on causality versus teleology and on the uniqueness of the individual.

HARRY STACK SULLIVAN

Although Sullivan had a lonely and isolated childhood, he evolved a
theory of personality that accentuated the importance of interpersonal
relations. He insisted that personality is shaped approximately entirely through
the relationships we have with other people. Sullivan's principal contribution
to personality theory was his conception of developmental stages.

Biography of Harry Stack Sullivan

Harry Stack Sullivan, the first American to develop a comprehensive

personality theory, was born in a small farming community in upstate New
York in 1892. A socially immature and isolated child, Sullivan nevertheless
formed one close interpersonal relationship with a boy five years older than
himself. In his interpersonal theory, Sullivan whispered that such a
relationship has the power to transform an immature preadolescent into a
psychologically healthy individual. Six years after becoming a physician, and
with no training in psychiatry, Sullivan gained a position at St. Elizabeth's
Hospital in Washington, D.C., as a psychiatrist. There, his skill to work with
schizophrenic patients won him a reputation as a therapeutic wizard. Though,
despite achieving much respect from an influential group of associates,
Sullivan had few close interpersonal relations with any of his peers. He died
alone in Paris in 1949, at age 56.

Tensions

Sullivan conceptualized personality as an energy system, with energy

existing either as tension (potentiality for action) or as energy transformations
(the actions themselves). He further divided tensions into needs and anxiety.
Needs: Needs can relate either to the general well-being of a person or
to specific zones, such as the mouth or genitals. General needs can be
either physiological, such as food or oxygen, or they can be
interpersonal, such as tenderness and intimacy.
Anxiety: Unlike needs-which are conjunctive and call for specific
actions to reduce them-anxiety is disjunctive and calls for no constant
actions for its relief. All infants learn to be anxious through the
empathic relationship that they have with their mothering one. Sullivan
described anxiety the chief disruptive force in interpersonal relations.
A complete absence of anxiety and other tensions is described
euphoria.

The structure and the Dynamics of personality

Sullivan used the term dynamism to refer to a typical pattern of behavior.

Dynamisms may relate either to specific zones of the body or to tensions.
Malevolence: The disjunctive dynamism of evil and hatred is described
malevolence, defined through Sullivan as a feeling of living among
one's enemies. Those children who become malevolent have much
difficulty giving and getting tenderness or being intimate with other
people.
Intimacy: The conjunctive dynamism marked through a close personal
relationship flanked by two people of equal status is described
intimacy. Intimacy facilitates interpersonal development while
decreasing both anxiety and loneliness.
Lust: In contrast to both malevolence and intimacy, lust is an isolating
dynamism. That is, lust is a self-centered need that can be satisfied in
the absence of an intimate interpersonal relationship. In other words,
although intimacy presupposes tenderness or love, lust is based solely
on sexual gratification and requires no other person for its satisfaction.
Self-System: The most inclusive of all dynamisms is the self-system,
or that pattern of behaviors that protects us against anxiety and
 maintains our interpersonal security. The self-system is a conjunctive
dynamism, but because its primary job is to protect the self from
anxiety, it tends to stifle personality change. Experiences that are
inconsistent with our self-system threaten our security and necessitate
our use of security operations, which consist of behaviors intended to
reduce interpersonal tensions. One such security operation is
dissociation, which comprises all those experiences that we block from
awareness. Another is selective inattention, which involves blocking
only certain experiences from awareness.

Personifications

Sullivan whispered that people acquire certain images of self and others
throughout the developmental stages, and he referred to these subjective
perceptions as personifications.
Bad-Mother, Good-Mother: The bad-mother personification grows out
of infants' experiences with a nipple that does not satisfy their hunger
needs. All infants experience the bad-mother personification, even
though their real mothers may be loving and nurturing. Later, infants
acquire a good-mother personification as they become mature enough
to recognize the tender and cooperative behavior of their mothering
one. Still later, these two personifications combine to form a intricate
and contrasting image of the real mother.
Me Personifications: Throughout infancy, children acquire three "me"
personifications: (1) the bad-me, which grows from experiences of
punishment and disapproval, (2) the good-me, which results from
experiences with reward and approval, and (3) the not-me, which
allows a person to dissociate or selectively in attend the experiences
related to anxiety.
Eidetic Personifications: One of Sullivan's most motivating
observations was that people often make imaginary traits that they
project onto others. Incorporated in these eidetic personifications are
the imaginary playmates that preschool-aged children often have.
These imaginary friends enable children to have a safe, secure
relationship with another person, even though that person is imaginary.

Levels of Cognition

Sullivan recognized three levels of cognition, or methods of perceiving

things-prototaxic, parataxic, and syntaxic.
Prototaxic Level: Experiences that are impossible to put into words or
to communicate to others are described prototaxic. Newborn infants
 experience images mostly on a prototaxic level, but adults, too,
regularly have preverbal experiences that are momentary and incapable
of being communicated.
Parataxic Level: Experiences that are prelogical and almost impossible
to accurately communicate to others are described parataxic.
Incorporated in these are erroneous assumptions in relation to the cause
and effect, which Sullivan termed parataxic distortions.
Syntaxic Level: Experiences that can be accurately communicated to
others are described syntaxic. Children become capable of syntaxic
language at in relation to the12 to 18 months of age when words begin
to have the same meaning for them that they do for others.

Development of personality

Sullivan saw interpersonal development as taking place over seven stages,

from infancy to mature adulthood. Personality changes can take place at any
time but are more likely to occur throughout transitions flanked by stages.
Infancy: The period from birth until the emergence of syntaxic
language is described infancy, a time when the child receives
tenderness from the mothering one while also learning anxiety through
an empathic linkage with the mother. Anxiety may augment to the
point of terror, but such terror is controlled through the built-in
protections of apathy and somnolent detachment that allow the baby to
go to sleep. Throughout infancy children use autistic language, which
takes place on a prototaxic or parataxic level.
Childhood: The stage that lasts from the beginning of syntaxic
language until the need for playmates of equal status is described
childhood. The child's primary interpersonal relationship continues to
be with the mother, who is now differentiated from other persons who
nurture the child.
Juvenile Era: The juvenile stage begins with the need for peers of equal
status and continues until the child develops a need for an intimate
relationship with a chum. At this time, children should learn how to
compete, to compromise, and to cooperate. These three abilities, as
well as an orientation toward living, help a child develop intimacy, the
chief dynamism of the after that developmental stage.
Preadolescence: Perhaps the most crucial stage is preadolescence,
because mistakes made earlier can be corrected throughout
preadolescence, but errors made throughout preadolescence are almost
impossible to overcome in later life. Preadolescence spans the time
from the need for a single best friend until puberty. Children who do
not learn intimacy throughout preadolescence have added difficulties
relating to potential sexual partners throughout later stages.
 Early Adolescence: With puberty comes the lust dynamism and the
beginning of early adolescence. Development throughout this stage is
ordinarily marked through a coexistence of intimacy with a single
friend of the same gender and sexual interest in several persons of the
opposite gender. Though, if children have no preexisting capability for
intimacy, they may confuse lust with love and develop sexual
relationships that are devoid of true intimacy.
Late Adolescence: Chronologically, late adolescence may start at any
time after in relation to the age 16, but psychologically, it begins when
a person is able to feel both intimacy and lust toward the same person.
Late adolescence is characterized through a stable pattern of sexual
activity and the growth of the syntaxic mode, as young people learn
how to live in the adult world.
Adulthood: Late adolescence flows into adulthood, a time when a
person establishes a stable relationship with a important other person
and develops a constant pattern of viewing the world.

Psychological Disorders

Sullivan whispered that disordered behavior has an interpersonal origin,

and can only be understood with reference to a person's social environment.

Psychotherapy

Sullivan pioneered the notion of the therapist as a participant observer,

who establishes an interpersonal relationship with the patient. He was
primarily concerned with understanding patients and helping them develop
foresight, improve interpersonal relations, and restore their skill to operate
mostly on a syntaxic level.

Related Research

In recent years, a number of researchers have studied the impact of two-

person relationships, involving both therapy and non-therapy encounters.
Therapist-Patient Relationships: Hans Strupp, William Henry, and
associates at Vanderbilt urbanized the Structural Analysis of Social
Behavior, an instrument for studying the dynamics flanked by therapist
and patient. This group of researchers found that patients tended to
have relatively stable behaviors that were constant with the method
their therapists treated them. Later, these researchers reported
 therapists' professional training was less significant to successful
therapy than the therapists' own developmental history.
Intimate Relationships with Friends: Elizabeth Yaughn and Stephen
Nowicki studied intimate interpersonal relationships in same-gender
dyads and found that women-but not men-had complementary
interpersonal styles with their close women friends. Also, women were
more likely than men to engage in a wide diversity of activities with
their intimate friend, a finding that suggests that women develop
deeper same-gender friendships than do men.
Imaginary Friends: Other researchers have studied Sullivan's notion of
imaginary playmates and have found that children who have
identifiable eidetic playmates tend to be more socialized, less
aggressive, more intelligent, and to have a better sense of humor than
children who do not report having an imaginary playmate.

Critique of Sullivan

Despite Sullivan's insights into the importance of interpersonal relations,

his theory of personality and his approach to psychotherapy have lost
popularity in recent years. In summary, his theory rates very low in
falsifiability, low in its skill to generate research, and average in its capability
to organize knowledge and to guide action. In addition, it is only average in
self-consistency and low in parsimony.

Concept of Humanity

Because Sullivan saw human personality as being largely formed from

interpersonal relations, his theory rates very high on social influences and very
low on biological ones. In addition, it rates high on unconscious determinants,
average on free choice, optimism, and causality, and low on uniqueness.

ERICKSON’S SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Erikson postulated eight stages of psychosocial development through
which people progress. Although he differed from Freud in his emphasis on
the ego and on social influences, his theory is an extension, not a repudiation,
of Freudian psychoanalysis.

Biography of Erik Erikson

When Erik Erikson was born in Germany in 1902 his name was Erik
Salomonsen. After his mother married Theodor Homburger, Erik eventually
took his step-father's name. At age 18 he left home to pursue the life of a
wandering artist and to search for self-identity. He gave up that life to teach
young children in Vienna, where he met Anna Freud. Still searching for his
personal identity, he was psychoanalyzed through Ms. Freud, an experience
that allowed him to become a psychoanalyst. In mid-life, Erik Homburger
moved to the United States, changed his name to Erikson, and took a position
at the Harvard Medical School. Later, he taught at Yale, the University of
California at Berkeley, and many other universities. He died in 1994, a month
short of his 92nd birthday.

The Ego in Post-Freudian Psychology

One of Erikson's chief contributions to personality theory was his

emphasis on ego rather than id functions. According to Erikson, the ego is the
center of personality and is responsible for a unified sense of self. It consists
of three interrelated facets: the body ego, the ego ideal, and ego identity.
Society's Influence: The ego develops within a given society and is
influenced through child-rearing practices and other cultural customs.
All cultures and nations develop a pseudospecies, or a fictional notion
that they are superior to other cultures.
Epigenetic Principle: The ego develops according to the epigenetic
principle; that is, it grows according to a genetically established rate
and in a fixed sequence.

Stages of Psychosocial Development

Each of the eight stages of development is marked through a conflict

flanked by a syntonic (harmonious) element and a dystonic (disruptive)
element, which produces a basic strength or ego quality. Also, from
adolescence on, each stage is characterized through an identity crisis or
turning point, which may produce either adaptive or maladaptive adjustment.
Infancy: Erikson's view of infancy (the first year of life) was similar to
Freud's concept of the oral stage, except that Erikson expanded the
notion of incorporation beyond the mouth to contain sense organs such
as the eyes and ears. The psychosexual mode of infancy is oral-
sensory, which is characterized through both getting and accepting.
The psycho-social crisis of infancy is basic trust versus basic mistrust.
From the crisis flanked by basic trust and basic mistrust emerges hope,
the basic strength of infancy. Infants who do not develop hope retreat
from the world, and this withdrawal is the core pathology of infancy.
Early Childhood: The second to third year of life is early childhood, a
period that compares to Freud's anal stage, but it also comprises
mastery of other body functions such as walking, urinating, and
holding. The psychosexual mode of early childhood is anal-urethral-
muscular, and children of this age behave both impulsively and
compulsively. The psychosocial crisis of early childhood is autonomy
versus shame and doubt. The psychosocial crisis flanked by autonomy
on the one hand and shame and doubt on the other produces will, the
basic strength of early childhood. The core pathology of early
childhood is compulsion.
Play Age: From in relation to the third to the fifth year, children
experience the play age, a period that parallels Freud's phallic phase.
Unlike Freud, though, Erikson saw the Oedipus intricate as an early
model of lifelong playfulness and a drama played out in children's
minds as they effort to understand the basic facts of life. The primary
psychosexual mode of the play age is genital-locomotor, meaning that
children have both an interest in genital activity and an increasing skill
to move approximately. The psychosocial crisis of the play age is
initiative versus guilt. The conflict flanked by initiative and guilt helps
children to act with purpose and to set goals. But if children have too
little purpose, they develop inhibition, the core pathology of the play
age.
School Age: The period from in relation to the6 to 12 or 13 years of
age is described the school age, a time of psychosexual latency, but it
is also a time of psychosocial growth beyond the family. Because
sexual development is latent throughout the school age, children can
use their energies to learn the customs of their culture, including both
formal and informal education. The psychosocial crisis of this age is
industry versus inferiority. Children need to learn to work hard, but
they also necessity develop some sense of inferiority. From the conflict
of industry and inferiority emerges competence, the basic strength of
school age children. Lack of industry leads to inertia, the core
pathology of this stage.
Adolescence: Adolescence begins with puberty and is marked through
a person's thrash about to find ego identity. It is a time of psychosexual
growth, but it is also a period of psychosocial latency. The
psychosexual mode of adolescence is puberty or genital maturation.
The psychosocial crisis of adolescence is identity versus identity
confusion. Psychologically healthy individuals emerge from
adolescence with a sense of who they are and what they consider; but
some identity confusion is normal. The conflict flanked by identity and
identity confusion produces fidelity, or faith in some ideological view
of the future. Lack of belief in one's own selfhood results in role
repudiation, or an inability to bring together one's several self images.
 Young Adulthood: Young adulthood begins with the acquisition of
intimacy at in relation to the age 18 and ends with the development of
generativity at in relation to theage 30. The psychosexual mode of
young adulthood is geniality, which is expressed as mutual trust
flanked by partners in a stable sexual relationship. Its psychosocial
crisis is intimacy versus isolation. Intimacy is the skill to fuse one's
identity with that of another without fear of losing it; whereas isolation
is the fear of losing one's identity in an intimate relationship. The crisis
flanked by intimacy and isolation results in the capability to love. The
core pathology of young adulthood is exclusivity, or inability to love.
Adulthood: The period from in relation to the31 to 60 years of age is
adulthood, a time when people create important contributions to
society. The psychosexual mode of adulthood is procreativity, or the
caring for one's children, the children of others, and the material
products of one's society. The psychosocial crisis of adulthood is
generativity versus stagnation, and the successful resolution of this
crisis results in care. Erikson saw care as taking care of the persons and
products that one has learned to care for. The core pathology of
adulthood is receptivity, or the rejection of certain individuals or
groups that one is unwilling to take care of.
Old Age: The final stage of development is old age, from in relation to
theage 60 until death. The psychosexual mode of old age is generalized
sensuality; that is, taking pleasure in a diversity of sensations and an
appreciation of the traditional lifestyle of people of the other gender.
The psychosocial crisis of old age is the thrash about flanked by
integrity (the maintenance of ego-identity) and despair (the surrender
of hope). The thrash about flanked by integrity and despair may
produce wisdom (the basic strength of old age), but it may also lead to
disdain (a core pathology marked through feelings of being finished or
helpless).

Erikson's Methods of Investigation

Erikson relied mostly on anthropology, psychohistory, and play

construction to explain and describe human personality.
Anthropological Studies: Erikson's two most significant
anthropological studies were of the Sioux of South Dakota and the
Yurok tribe of northern California. Both studies demonstrated his
notion that culture and history help shape personality.
Psychohistory: Erikson combined the methods of psychoanalysis and
historical research to study many personalities, most notably Gandhi
and Luther. In both cases, the central figure experienced an identity
crisis that produced a basic strength rather than a core pathology.
 Play Construction: Erikson's technique of play construction became
controversial when he found that 10- to 12-year-old boys used toys to
construct elongated objects and to produce themes of rising and falling.
In contrast, girls arranged toys in low and peaceful scenes. Erikson
concluded that anatomical differences flanked by the sexes play a role
in personality development.

Related Research

Erikson's theory has generated a moderately large body of research,

necessity of it investigating the concept of identity. In addition, some
researchers have looked at Erikson's concept of generativity.
Identity in Early Adulthood: A longitudinal study through Jennifer Pals
and Ravenna Helson found that identity established in early adulthood
is associated with stable marriage and high levels of creativity.
Additional research through Helson and Pals found that women who
had solid identity and high creative potential at age 21 were more
likely than other women to have had a challenging and creative work
experience at age 52.
Generativity in Midlife: People high in generativity should have a
lifestyle marked through creating and passing on knowledge, values,
and ideals to a younger generation, and should benefit from a pattern
of helping younger people. Research through Dan McAdams and
colleagues found that adults at midlife who contributed to the well-
being of young people had a clear sense of who they were and what
life had to offer them. Other research found that people high in
generativity are typically concerned with the well-being of others.

Critique of Erikson

Although Erikson's work is a logical extension of Freud's psychoanalysis,

it offers a new method of looking at human development. As a useful theory, it
rates high on its skill to generate research, and in relation to the average on its
skill to be falsified, to organize knowledge, and to guide the practitioner. It
rates high on internal consistency and in relation to the average on parsimony.

Concept of Humanity

Erikson saw humans as basically social animals who have limited free
choice and who are motivated through past experiences, which may be either
conscious or unconscious. In addition, Erikson is rated high on both optimism
and uniqueness of individuals.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Describe Adler‘s theory. What are the dynamic features of Adler‘s
theory of personality.
Put forward the theory of Fromm‘s personality theory and highlight the
major features in that theory.
What are the typical personalities that will develop according to Eric
Fromm?
Elucidate the ten neurotic needs of the individual according to Karen
Horney‘s theory of personality.
Put forward Harry Stack Sullivan‘s theory of personality highlighting
some of the significant main features.

HUMANISTIC/EXISTENTIAL THEORIES

STRUCTURE
Learning Objectives
Kurt Lewin Field Theory
Kelly‘s cognitive theory: Personal Constructs theory
Roger‘s Phenomena logical theory
Henry Murray
Review Questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Understand the Kurt Lewin Field Theory
State Kelly‘s philosophical position of constructive alternatives.
Discuss the fundamental postulate of Kelly‘s theory.
Describe Kelly‘s concept of role, including core role and peripheral
role.
Discuss Rogers‘s concept of self and its development.
Discuss Rogers‘s philosophy of science.

KURT LEWIN FIELD THEORY

 Kurt Zadek Lewin (September 9, 1890 – February 12, 1947) was a
German-American psychologist, recognized as one of the modern pioneers of
social, organizational, and applied psychology. Lewin is often recognized as
the "founder of social psychology" and was one of the first to study group
dynamics and organizational development.

Biography

In 1890, he was born into a Jewish family in Mogilno, County of Mogilno,

Province of Posen, Prussia (modern Poland). He was one of four children born
into a middle-class family. His father owned a small general store and a farm.
The family moved to Berlin in 1905. In 1909, he entered the University of
Freiburg to study medicine, but transferred to University of Munich to study
biology. He became involved with the socialist movement and women's rights
approximately this time. He served in the German army when World War I
began. Due to a war wound, he returned to the University of Berlin to
complete his Ph.D., with Carl Stumpf (1848–1936) the supervisor of his
doctoral thesis.
Lewin had originally been involved with schools of behavioral psychology
before changing directions in research and undertaking work with
psychologists of the Gestalt school of psychology, including Max Wertheimer
and Wolfgang Kohler. He also joined the Psychological Institute of the
University of Berlin where he lectured and gave seminars on both philosophy
and psychology. Lewin often associated with the early Frankfurt School,
originated through an influential group of largely Jewish Marxists at the
Institute for Social Research in Germany. But when Hitler came to power in
Germany in 1933 the Institute members had to disband, moving to England
and then to America. In that year, he met with Eric Trist, of the London
Tavistock Clinic. Trist was impressed with his theories and went on to use
them in his studies on soldiers throughout the Second World War.
Lewin emigrated to the United States in August 1933 and became a
naturalized citizen in 1940. Earlier, he had spent six months as a visiting
professor at Stanford in 1930, but on his immigration to the United States,
Lewin worked at Cornell University and for the Iowa Child Welfare Research
Station at the University of Iowa. Later, he went on to become director of the
Center for Group Dynamics at MIT. While working at MIT in 1946, Lewin
received a phone call from the Director of the Connecticut State Inter Racial
Commission requesting help to find an effective method to combat religious
and racial prejudices. He set up a workshop to conduct a 'change' experiment,
which laid the foundations for what is now recognized as sensitivity training.
In 1947, this led to the establishment of the National Training Laboratories, at
Bethel, Maine. Carl Rogers whispered that sensitivity training is "perhaps the
most important social invention of this century."
Following WWII Lewin was involved in the psychological rehabilitation
of former occupants of displaced persons camps with Dr. Jacob Fine at
Harvard Medical School. When Eric Trist and A T M Wilson wrote to Lewin
proposing a journal in partnership with their newly founded Tavistock Institute
and his group at MIT, Lewin agreed. The Tavistock journal, Human Relations,
was founded with two early papers through Lewin entitled "Frontiers in Group
Dynamics". Lewin taught for a time at Duke University.
Lewin died in Newtonville, Massachusetts of a heart-attack in 1947. He
was buried in his home town. His wife died in 1987.

Work

Lewin coined the notion of genidentity, which has gained some

importance in several theories of space-time and related fields. He also
proposed Herbert Blumer's interactionist perspective of 1937 as an alternative
to the nature versus nurture debate. Lewin suggested that neither nature
(inborn tendencies) nor nurture (how experiences in life shape individuals)
alone can account for individuals' behavior and personalities, but rather that
both nature and nurture interact to shape each person. This thought was
presented in the form of Lewin's equation for behavior B = ƒ(P, E). Prominent
psychologists mentored through Kurt Lewin incorporated Leon Festinger
(1919–1989), who became recognized for his cognitive dissonance theory
(1956), environmental psychologist Roger Barker, Bluma Zeigarnik, and
Morton Deutsch, the founder of modern conflict resolution theory and
practice.

Force field analysis

Force field analysis gives a framework for looking at the factors (forces)
that influence a situation, originally social situations. It looks at forces that are
either driving movement toward a goal (helping forces) or blocking movement
toward a goal (hindering forces). The principle, urbanized through Kurt
Lewin, is a important contribution to the fields of social science, psychology,
social psychology, organizational development, process management, and
change management. His theory was expanded through John R. P. French who
related it to organizational and industrial settings.

Action research
Lewin, then a professor at MIT, first coined the term ― action research‖ in
relation to the1944, and it appears in his 1946 paper ― Action Research and
Minority Problems‖. In that paper, he described action research as ― a
comparative research on the circumstances and effects of several forms of
social action and research leading to social action‖ that uses ―a spiral of steps,
each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding in
relation to the result of the action‖.
Leadership climates
Lewin often characterized organizational management styles and cultures
in conditions of leadership climates defined through (1) authoritarian, (2)
democratic and (3) laissez-faire work environments. He is often mixed up with
McGregor with his work environments, but McGregor adapted them directly
to leadership-theory. Authoritarian environments are characterized where the
leader determines policy with techniques and steps for work tasks dictated
through the leader in the division of labor. The leader is not necessarily hostile
but is aloof from participation in work and commonly offers personal praise
and criticism for the work done. Democratic climates are characterized where
policy is determined through communal processes with decisions assisted
through the leader. Before accomplishing tasks, perspectives are gained from
group discussion and technical advice from a leader. Members are given
choices and collectively decide the division of labor. Praise and criticism in
such an environment are objective, fact minded and given through a group
member without necessarily having participated extensively in the actual
work. Laissez-faire Environments provide freedom to the group for policy
determination without any participation from the leader. The leader remains
uninvolved in work decisions unless asked, does not participate in the division
of labor, and very infrequently provides praise. (Miner 2005: 39-40)

Change process
An early model of change urbanized through Lewin described change as a
three-stage process. The first stage he described "unfreezing". It involved
overcoming inertia and dismantling the existing "mind set". It necessity be
part of surviving. Protection mechanisms have to be bypassed. In the second
stage the change occurs. This is typically a period of confusion and transition.
We are aware that the old methods are being challenged but we do not have a
clear picture as to what we are replacing them with yet. The third and final
stage he described "freezing". The new mindset is crystallizing and one's
comfort level is returning to previous levels. This is often misquoted as
"refreezing" (see Lewin K (1947) Frontiers in Group Dynamics).

Lewin's equation
The Lewin's equation, B = ƒ(P, E), is a psychological equation of behavior
urbanized through Kurt Lewin. It states that behavior is a function of the
person in their environment. The equation is the psychologist's most well
recognized formula in social psychology, of which Lewin was a modern
pioneer. When first presented in Lewin's book Principles of Topological
Psychology, published in 1936, it contradicted most popular theories in that it
gave importance to a person's momentary situation in understanding his or her
behavior, rather than relying entirely on the past.
Group Dynamics
In a 1947 article, Lewin coined the term 'group dynamics'. He described
this notion as the method that groups and individuals act and react to changing
circumstances. This field appeared as a concept dedicated to the advancement
of knowledge concerning the nature of groups, their laws, establishment,
development, and interactions with other groups, individuals and institutions.
Throughout the early years of research on group processes, several
psychologists rejected the reality of group phenomena. Critics shared the
opinion that groups did not exist as scientifically valid entities. It had been
said through skeptics that the actions of groups were nothing more than those
of its members measured separately. Lewin applied his interactionism formula
B = ƒ(P, E), to explain group phenomena, where a member's personal
characteristics (P) interact with the environmental factors of the group, (E) its
members, and the situation to elicit behaviour (B). Given his background in
Gestalt Psychology, Lewin justified group subsistence using the dictum "The
whole is greater than the sum of its parts". He theorized that when a group is
established it becomes a unified system with supervening qualities that cannot
be understood through evaluating members individually. This notion - that a
group is composed of more than the sum of its individual members - quickly
gained support from sociologists and psychologists who understood the
significance of this emerging field. Several pioneers noted that the majority of
group phenomena could be explained according to Lewin's equation and
insight and opposing views were hushed. The study of group dynamics
remains relevant in today's society where a vast number of professions (i.e.
business and industry, clinical/counseling psychology, sports and recreation)
rely on its mechanisms to thrive.

Field theory

Field theory is a psychological theory which examines patterns of

interaction flanked by the individual and the total field, or environment. The
concept was urbanized through Kurt Lewin, a Gestalt psychologist, in the
1940s. Field theory holds that behavior necessity be derived from a totality of
coexisting facts. These coexisting facts create up a "dynamic field", which
means that the state of any part of the field depends on every other part of it.
Behavior depends on the present field rather than on the past or the future.

The structure and the dynamics of personality

Lewin accentuated the explanation of human behavior in conditions of the

forces and tensions that move us to action. Unlike Wertheimer, Kohler, and
Koffka, who started with perception and then moved to behavior, Lewin began
with behavior and what produces it, and then moved on to the problems of
how people perceived their own and others' behavior. When a perceptual set
(described below) affected the method learned associations were expressed,
Lewin saw it as conflict flanked by competing determining tendencies. In both
laboratory and world, he held, a person's behavior is always oriented toward
some goal. The person is always trying to do something. That intention or
determining tendency is what matters most.
Associations, held Lewin, are not sources of energy, but just links or
connections "like the couplings flanked by the cars of railroad train which do
nothing except transmit the energy supplied through the locomotive."
(Woodworth, 1964) Lewin declared, "Psychology cannot try to explain
everything with a single construct, such as association, instinct, or gestalt. A
diversity of constructs has to be used. They should be interrelated, though, in a
logically precise manner. "
Intentions and intentional actions, he held, do not result from simply a
incentive here or a reinforce there. They follow "field principles." We have to
look for psychological forces and intensions that arise from motives, and at
goals, and at how people perceive the situation. Lewin did not try to relate
psychological forces to physical forces, except in the descriptive names like
"vector." He did not address the question of how motives originate, whether in
instinct or previous experience, but rather focused on how they operate.
Lewin viewed the person as system containing subsystems that are more or
less separate and more or less able to interact and combine with each other.
"One subsystem," writes Woodworth, "might be friendship for a certain
person; another might be love for a certain sport. When a person is intent on
reaching a goal, one of his subsystem is in a state of tension". If he is
interrupted, this subsystem remains tense for some time and cause him to
resume the activity once the interruption is gone. Or if it can't be resumed, an
activity that's somehow similar can substitute for it and drain off the tension. A
repetitive task will eventually drain off all the tension in its subsystem, leaving
a state of satiation. With sustained activity this spreads to related subsystems.
("Cosatiation.")
The structure of a person comprises an outer region described the
perceptual-motor region that is in get in touch with the psychological
environment, and a central portion described the inner-personal region. The
inner-personal region is divided into cells that represent tension systems.
As a child develops, the personality system expands and differentiates. His
view of the psychological environment is subject to cognitive restructuring--it
becomes better understood and he does a better job of distinguishing flanked
by the real world and the "real" world of wishes and fears. The child finds new
social roles and learns new social norms and codes.
FIELD THEORY. Its basic statements are that:
Behavior necessity be derived from a totality of coexisting facts
These coexisting facts create up a "dynamic field," which means that
the state of any part of the field depends on every other part of it
 Behavior depends on the present field rather than on the past or the
future. "This is in contrast both to the belief of teleology that the future
is the cause of behavior, and that of asociationism that the past is the
cause of behavior."
The field is the life space, which contains the person and his or her
psychological (or behavioral) environment. The psychological environment is
the environment as the person perceives and understands it, and as related to
his needs and quasi-needs. Several objects that do not presently concern him
exist only in the background of the psychological environment (the Gestalt
"ground.)

The Life-Space
What do you contain in your field of perception and action? If you're
lucky, to some degree your life space is determined through you. For others,
it's largely determined through your environment and the people you're in
association with life space comprises:
The places where you physically go, the people and events that occur
there, and your feelings in relation to the place and people. One part of
this is the places you inhabit every day, or at least regularly. Another
part is places you've been to, but go only very occasionally or may
never go back to again.
Your vicarious life-space (my term, not Lewin's), comprises the world
you travel into through reading, movies, TV, what other people say,
etc.
Then there is also your own personal mental life space--the places you
inhabit in your mind, your fantasy world, etc. This was of great
concern to Jung, although he did not use this term for it, but of less
interest to Lewin who was most interested in our social world.
When you're planning what to do tomorrow, your life-space is not the
room you're in now but the place where you expect to be tomorrow.
Your present locomotion in that expected environment involves
deciding on one course of action rather than another, as a result of
vectors that impel you in one or another direction.

The person and the psychological environment are divided into regions
that undergo differentiation. Regions are linked when a person can perform a
locomotion between them. Locomotion comprises any kind of approach or
withdrawal--even looking at a pretty object or absent from an ugly one, or
listening to liked music and avoiding disliked or uninteresting music. They are
said to be linked when communication can take place flanked by them. The
region that lies just jousted the life-space is the foreign hull. The person is a
differentiated region in the life space, set separately from the psychological
environment through a boundary. A barrier may block the locomotion
described for through vectors. A barrier exerts no force until force is exerted
on it. Then it may yield, or resist strongly. How rigid it is you can find out
only through exploration. You may have a plan that another person doesn't
like, but you don't know how strongly he'll resist your carrying it out until you
try. An impassible barrier is likely to acquire a negative valence and may lead
to cursing or attacking it.
An awakened need is a state of tension, a readiness for action but without
specific direction. When a appropriate object is found, it acquires positive
valence, and a vector then directs locomotion toward the object. Excessive
tension may blur the person's perception of the environment, so that he doesn't
find a appropriate object to reduce the tension.

Characteristics Research and Methods

Lewin was especially interested in investigation of how to get people to act

in methods that were of benefit both to them and the superior social body. He
was less interested in "pure research" that had no implications for practical
application.

The wartime studies, and the "public commitment" variable

Throughout World War II the government wanted to get people to act in a
diversity of methods that would help the country as a whole and also the war
effort. An instance was getting people to change from eating white bread to
eating brown bread. In such studies, Lewin found that the variable of public
commitment had a strong effect on people's behavior. People who heard a
lecture on the virtues of eating brown bread changed little. People who also
made a public commitment, such as raising their hands or standing up to
indicate that they would serve brown bread, were much more likely to actually
do so. This group of studies through Lewin spurred several later studies on
social influence.

Field studies in the community

Lewin accepted out studies on the effects of integrated housing on
prejudice, on equalizing employment opportunities, and on the development
and prevention of prejudice in children. Such investigation led to his founding
of the Society For the Study of Social Issues, which still carries out such word
and publishes the journal Social Issues.

Interplay flanked by field studies and laboratory studies

Often Lewin would investigate a phenomenon as it naturally occurred in
the field, and then use those results as the basis for devising a more cautiously
controlled laboratory study. In term, he would take the results from his
laboratory research.
KELLY’S COGNITIVE THEORY: PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS
THEORY
Kelly's theory of personal constructs can be seen as a meta-theory, or a
theory in relation to the theories. It holds that people expect events through the
meanings or interpretations that they place on those events. Kelly described
these interpretations personal constructs. His philosophical position, described
constructive alternativism, assumes that alternative interpretations are always
accessible to people.

Biography of George Kelly

George Kelly was born on a farm in Kansas in 1905. Throughout his

school years and his early professional career, he dabbled in a wide diversity
of jobs, but he eventually received a Ph.D. in psychology from the State
University of Iowa. He began his academic career at Fort Hays State College
in Kansas, then after World War II, he took a position at Ohio State. He
remained there until 1965 when he joined the faculty at Brandeis. He died two
years later at age 61.

Kelly's Philosophical Position

Kelly whispered that people construe events according to their personal

constructs rather than reality.
Person as Scientist: People usually effort to solve everyday problems
in much the same fashion as scientists; that is, they observe, ask
questions, formulate hypotheses, infer conclusions, and predict future
events.
Scientist as Person: Because scientists are people, their
pronouncements should be regarded with the same skepticism as any
other data. Every scientific theory can be viewed from an alternate
angle, and every competent scientist should be open to changing his or
her theory.
Constructive Alternativism: Kelly whispered that all our interpretations
of the world are subject to revision or replacement, an assumption he
described constructive alternativism. He further stressed that, because
people can construe their world from different angles, observations that
are valid at one time may be false at a later time.
Personal Constructs

Kelly whispered that people look at their world through templates that they
make and then effort to fit over the realities of the world. He described these
templates or transparent patterns personal constructs, which he whispered
shape behavior.
Basic Postulate: Kelly expressed his theory in one basic postulate and
11 supporting corollaries. The basic postulate assumes that human
behavior is shaped through the method people expect the future.
Supporting Corollaries: The 11 supporting corollaries can all be
inferred from this basic postulate: (1) Although no two events are
exactly alike, we construe similar events as if they were the same, and
this is Kelly's construction corollary. (2) The individuality corollary
states that because people have different experiences, they can construe
the same event in different methods. (3) The organization corollary
assumes that people organize their personal constructs in a hierarchical
system, with some constructs in a superordinate position and others
subordinate to them. (4) The dichotomy corollary assumes that people
construe events in an either/or manner, e.g., good or bad. (5) Kelly's
choice corollary assumes that people tend to choose the alternative in a
dichotomized construct that they see as extending the range of their
future choices. (6) The range corollary states that constructs are limited
to a scrupulous range of convenience; that is, they are not relevant to
all situations. (7) Kelly's experience corollary suggests that people
continually revise their personal constructs as the result of their
experiences. (8) The modulation corollary assumes that only
permeable constructs lead to change; concrete constructs resist
modification through experience. (9) The fragmentation corollary
states that people's behavior can be inconsistent because their construct
systems can readily admit incompatible elements. (10) The
commonality corollary suggests that our personal constructs tend to be
similar to the construction systems of other people to the extent that we
share experiences with them. (11) The sociality corollary states that
people are able to communicate with other people because they can
construe those people's constructions. With the sociality corollary,
Kelly introduced the concept of role, which refers to a pattern of
behavior that stems from people's understanding of the constructs of
others. Each of us has a core role and numerous peripheral roles. A
core role provides us a sense of identity whereas peripheral roles are
less central to our self-concept.
Applications of Personal Construct Theory

Kelly's several years of clinical experience enabled him to evolve concepts

of abnormal development and psychotherapy, and to develop a Role Construct
Repertory (Rep) Test.
Abnormal Development: Kelly saw normal people as analogous to
competent scientists who test reasonable hypotheses, objectively view
the results, and willingly change their theories when the data warrant
it. Similarly, unhealthy people are like incompetent scientists who test
unreasonable hypotheses, reject or distort legitimate results, and refuse
to amend outdated theories. Kelly recognized four common elements
in most human disturbances: (1) threat, or the perception that one's
basic constructs may be drastically changed; (2) fear, which requires
an incidental rather than a comprehensive restructuring of one's
construct system; (3) anxiety, or the recognition that one cannot
adequately deal with a new situation; and (4) guilt, defined as "the
sense of having lost one's core role structure."
Psychotherapy: Kelly insisted that clients should set their own goals
for therapy and that they should be active participants in the
therapeutic process. He sometimes used a procedure described fixed-
role therapy in which clients act out a predetermined role for many
weeks. Through playing the part of a psychologically healthy person,
clients may discover previously hidden characteristics of themselves.
The Rep Test: The purpose of the Rep test is to discover methods in
which clients construe important people in their lives. Clients place
names of people they know on a repertory grid in order to identify both
similarities and differences among these people.

Related Research

Kelly's personal construct theory and his Rep test have generated a
substantial amount of empirical research in both the United States and the
United Kingdom.
The Rep Test and Children: Use of the Rep test with children reveals
that the self-constructs of depressed adolescents are marked through
low self-esteem, pessimism, and an external locus of control. Other
research with children and the Rep test shows that preadolescents
construe themselves and others in methods constant with the Big Five
personality factors (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,
emotional stability, and intelligence), therefore demonstrating that the
Big Five factors can come from instruments other than standard
personality tests.
 The Rep Test and the Real Self Versus the Ideal Self: Other research
has found that the Rep test was useful in (1) predicting adherence to a
physical activity program, (2) detecting differences flanked by the real
self and the ideal self, and (3) measuring neuroticism.
The Rep Test and the Pain Patient: A number of studies, including the
Large and Strong (1997) study, have found that the Rep test can be a
reliable and valid instrument for measuring pain.

Critique of Kelly

Kelly's theory almost certainly is most applicable to relatively normal,

intelligent people. Unfortunately, it pays scant attention to problems of
motivation, development, and cultural influences. On the six criteria of a
useful theory, it rates very high on parsimony and internal consistency and in
relation to the average on its skill to generate research. Though, it rates low on
its skill to be falsified, to guide the practitioner, and to organize knowledge.

Concept of Humanity

Kelly saw people as anticipating the future and living their lives in
accordance with those anticipations. His concept of elaborative choice
suggests that people augment their range of future choices through the present
choices they freely create. Therefore , Kelly's theory rates very high in
teleology and high in choice and optimism. In addition, it receives high ratings
for conscious influences and for its emphasis on the uniqueness of the
individual. Finally, personal construct theory is in relation to the average on
social influences.

ROGER’S PHENOMENA LOGICAL THEORY

Although Carl Rogers is best recognized as the founder of client-centered
therapy, he also urbanized an significant theory of personality that underscores
his approach to therapy.

Biography of Carl Rogers

Carl Rogers was born into a devoutly religious family in a Chicago suburb
in 1902. After the family moved to a farm close to Chicago, Carl became
interested in scientific farming and learned to appreciate the scientific method.
When he graduated from the University of Wisconsin, Rogers planned to
become a minister, but he gave up that notion and completed a Ph.D. in
psychology from Columbia University in 1931. In 1940, after almost a dozen
years absent from an academic life working as a clinician, he took a position at
Ohio State University. Later, he held positions at the University of Chicago
and the University of Wisconsin. In 1964, he moved to California where he
helped found the Center for Studies of the Person. He died in 1987 at age 85.

Person-Centered Theory

Rogers cautiously crafted his person-centered theory of personality to meet

his own demands for a structural model that could explain and predict
outcomes of client-centered therapy. Though, the theory has implications
distant beyond the therapeutic setting.
Basic Assumptions: Person-centered theory rests on two basic
assumptions: (1) the formative tendency, which states that all matter,
both organic and inorganic, tends to evolve from simpler to more
intricate forms, and (2) an actualizing tendency, which suggests that all
living things, including humans, tend to move toward completion, or
fulfillment of potentials. Though, in order for people (or plants and
animals) to become actualized, certain identifiable circumstances
necessity be present. For a person, these circumstances contain a
relationship with another person who is genuine, or congruent, and
who demonstrates complete acceptance and empathy for that person.
The Self and Self-Actualization: A sense of self or personal identity
begins to emerge throughout infancy, and, once established, it allows a
person to strive toward self-actualization, which is a subsystem of the
actualization tendency and refers to the tendency to actualize the self
as perceived in awareness. The self has two subsystems: (1) the self-
concept, which comprises all those characteristics of one's identity that
are perceived in awareness, and (2) the ideal self, or our view of our
self as we would like to be or aspire to be. Once formed, the self
concept tends to resist change, and gaps flanked by it and the ideal self
result in incongruence and several levels of psychopathology.
Awareness: People are aware of both their self-concept and their ideal
self, although awareness need not be accurate or at a high level. Rogers
saw people as having experiences on three levels of awareness: (1)
those that are symbolized below the threshold of awareness and are
either ignored or denied, that is, subceived, or not allowed into the self-
concept; (2) those that are distorted or reshaped to fit it into an existing
self-concept; and (3) those that are constant with the self-concept and
therefore are accurately symbolized and freely admitted to the self-
structure. Any experience not constant with the self-concept-even
positive experiences-will be distorted or denied.
 Needs: The two basic human needs are maintenance and enhancement,
but people also need positive regard and self-regard. Maintenance
needs contain those for food, air, and safety, but they also contain our
tendency to resist change and to maintain our self-concept as it is.
Enhancement needs contain needs to grow and to realize one's full
human potential. As awareness of self emerges, an infant begins to
receive positive regard from another person-that is, to be loved or
accepted. People naturally value those experiences that satisfy their
needs for positive regard, but, unfortunately, this value sometimes
becomes more powerful than the reward they receive for meeting their
organism needs. This sets up the condition of incongruence, which is
experienced when basic organismic needs are denied or distorted in
favor of needs to be loved or accepted. As a result of experiences with
positive regard, people develop the need for self-regard, which they
acquire only after they perceive that someone else cares for them and
values them. Once established, though, self-regard becomes
autonomous and no longer dependent on another's continuous positive
evaluation.
Circumstances of Worth: Most people are not unconditionally
accepted. Instead, they receive circumstances of worth; that is, they
feel that they are loved and accepted only when and if they meet the
circumstances set through others.
Psychological Stagnation: When the organismic self and the self-
concept are at variance with one another, a person may experience
incongruence, which comprises vulnerability, threat, defensiveness,
and even disorganization. The greater the incongruence flanked by
self-concept and the organismic experience, the more vulnerable that
person becomes. Anxiety exists whenever the person becomes dimly
aware of the discrepancy flanked by organismic experience and self-
concept, whereas threat is experienced whenever the person becomes
more clearly aware of this incongruence. To prevent incongruence,
people react with defensiveness, typically in the forms of distortion
and denial. With distortion, people misinterpret an experience so that it
fits into their self-concept; with denial, people refuse to allow the
experience into awareness. When people's defenses fail to operate
properly, their behavior becomes disorganized or psychotic. With
disorganization, people sometimes behave uniformly with their
organismic experience and sometimes in accordance with their
shattered self-concept.

Psychotherapy

For client-centered psychotherapy to be effective, certain circumstances

are necessary: A vulnerable client necessity have get in touch with of some
duration with a counselor who is congruent, and who demonstrates
unconditional positive regard and listens with empathy to a client. The client
necessity in turn perceive the congruence, unconditional positive regard, and
empathy of the therapist. If these circumstances are present, then the process
of therapy will take place and certain predictable outcomes will result.
Circumstances: Three circumstances are crucial to client-centered
therapy, and Rogers described them the necessary and enough
circumstances for therapeutic growth. The first is counselor
congruence, or a therapist whose organismic experiences are matched
through an awareness and through the skill and willingness to openly
express these feelings. Congruence is more basic than the other two
circumstances because it is a relatively stable characteristic of the
therapist, whereas the other two circumstances are limited to a specific
therapeutic relationship. Unconditional positive regard exists when the
therapist accepts the client without circumstances or qualifications.
Empathic listening is the therapist's skill to sense the feelings of a
client and also to communicate these perceptions so that the client
knows that another person has entered into his or her world of feelings
without prejudice, projection, or evaluation.
Process: Rogers saw the process of therapeutic change as taking place
in seven stages: (1) clients are unwilling to communicate anything in
relation to the themselves; (2) they discuss only external events and
other people; (3) they begin to talk in relation to the themselves, but
still as an object; (4) they discuss strong emotions that they have felt in
the past; (5) they begin to express present feelings; (6) they freely
allow into awareness those experiences that were previously denied or
distorted; and (7) they experience irreversible change and growth.
Outcomes: When client-centered therapy is successful, clients become
more congruent, less suspicious, more open to experience, and more
realistic. The gap flanked by their ideal self and their true self narrows
and, as a consequence, clients experience less physiological and
psychological tension. Finally, clients' interpersonal relationships
improve because they are more accepting of self and others.

The Person of Tomorrow

Rogers was vitally interested in the psychologically healthy person,

described the "fully functioning person" or the "person of tomorrow." Rogers
listed seven characteristics of the person of tomorrow. The person of
tomorrow (1) is able to adjust to change, (2) is open to experience, (3) is able
to live fully in the moment, (4) is able to have harmonious relations with
others, (5) is more integrated with no artificial boundaries flanked by
conscious and unconscious processes, (6) has a basic trust of human nature,
and (7) enjoys a greater richness in life. The factors have implications both for
the individual and for society.

Philosophy of Science

Rogers agreed with Maslow that scientists necessity care in relation to the
and be involved in the phenomena they study and that psychologists should
limit their objectivity and precision to their methodology, not to the creation of
hypotheses or to the communication of research findings.

The Chicago Study

When he taught at the University of Chicago, Rogers, beside with

colleagues and graduate students, mannered a sophisticated and intricate study
on the effectiveness of psychotherapy.
Hypotheses: This study tested four broad hypotheses. As a
consequence of therapy (1) clients will become more aware of their
feelings and experiences, (2) the gap flanked by the real self and the
ideal self will lessen; (3) clients' behavior will become more socialized
and mature; and (4) clients will become both more self-accepting and
more accepting of others.
Method: Participants were adults who sought therapy at the University
of Chicago counseling center. Experimenters asked half of them to
wait 60 days before getting therapy while beginning therapy with the
other half. In addition, they tested a control group of "normals" who
were matched with the therapy group. This control group was also
divided into a wait group and a non-wait group.
Findings: Rogers and his associates found that the therapy group-but
not the wait group-showed a lessening of the gap flanked by real self
and ideal self. They also found that clients who improved throughout
therapy-but not those rated as least improved-showed changes in social
behavior, as noted through friends.
Summary of Results: Although client-centered therapy was successful
in changing clients, it was not successful in bringing them to the level
of the fully functioning persons or even to the level of "normal"
psychological health.
Related Research

More recently, other researchers have investigated Rogers's facilitative

circumstances both outside therapy and within therapy.
Facilitative Circumstances Outside Therapy: In the United Kingdom,
Duncan Cramer has mannered a series of studies investigating the
therapeutic qualities of Rogers's facilitative circumstances in
interpersonal relationships outside of therapy. Cramer found positive
relationships flanked by self-esteem, as measured through the
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the four facilitative circumstances
that create up the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory-level of
regard, unconditionality of regard, congruence, and empathy.
Moreover, the direction of the relationship strongly suggested that
Rogers's facilitative circumstances precede the acquisition of higher
levels of self-esteem.
Facilitative Circumstances and Couples Therapy: In Belgium, Alfons
Vansteenwegen (1996) used a revised form of the Barrett-Lennard to
determine if Rogers's facilitative circumstances related to success
throughout couples therapy. He found that client-centered couples
therapy can bring in relation to thepositive changes in couples, and that
some of these changes lasted for at least seven years after therapy.

Critique of Rogers

Rogers's person-centered theory is one of the most cautiously constructed

of all personality theories, and it meets quite well each of the six criteria of a
useful theory. It rates very high on internal consistency and parsimony, high
on its skill to be falsified and to generate research, and high-average on its
skill to organize knowledge and to serve as a guide to the practitioner.

Concept of Humanity

Rogers whispered that humans have the capability to change and grow-
provided that certain necessary and enough circumstances are present. So, his
theory rates very high on optimism. In addition, it rates high on free choice,
teleology, conscious motivation, social influences, and the uniqueness of the
individual.

HENRY MURRAY
Henry Alexander Murray (May 13, 1893 – June 23, 1988) was an
American psychologist who taught for over 30 years at Harvard University.
He was Director of the Harvard Psychological Clinic in the School of Arts and
Sciences after 1930 and collaborated with Stanley Cobb, Bullard Professor of
Neuropathology at the Medical School, to introduce psychoanalysis into the
Harvard curriculum but to keep those who taught it absent from the decision-
making tools in Vienna. He and Cobb set the stage for the founding of the
Boston Psychoanalytic Society after 1931, but both were excluded from
membership on political grounds. While personality theory in psychology was
becoming dominated through the statistics of trait theory, Murray urbanized a
theory of personality described Personology, based on "need" and "press".
Patterned after the Henderson-Hasselbach equation upon which the
measurement of the different constituents of blood plasma are measured all at
the same time, Personology was a holistic approach that studied the person at
several levels of complexity all at the same time through an interdisciplinary
team of investigators. Murray was also a co-developer, with Christiana
Morgan, of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), which he always fondly
referred to as "the second best-seller that Harvard ever published, second only
to the Harvard Handbook of Music."

Personal background

Henry Murray was born into a wealthy family in New York in 1893. He
had an older sister and a younger brother. Carver and Scheier, in "Perspectives
on Personality" p. 100, note that "he got on well with his father but had a poor
relationship with his mother", resulting in a deep-seated feeling of depression.
They hypothesize that the disruption of this relationship led Murray to be
especially aware of people's needs and their importance as underlying
determinants of behavior. At Harvard, he majored in history with a poor
performance, but compensated with football, rowing and boxing. At Columbia
University he did much better in medicine, completed his M.D. and also
received an M.A. in biology, in 1919. For the after that two years he was an
instructor in physiology at Harvard and received his doctorate in biochemistry
from the University of Cambridge in 1928.
A turning point occurred in Murray's life at the age of 30; after seven years
of marriage, he met and fell in love with Christiana Morgan but experienced
serious conflict as he did not want to leave his wife, Josephine. This raised his
awareness of conflicting needs, the pressure that can result, and the links to
motivation. Carver and Scheier note that it was Morgan who was "fascinated
through the psychology of Carl Jung" and it was as a result of her urging that
he met Carl Jung in Switzerland. He described Jung as "The first full blooded,
spherical — and Goethian, I would say, intelligence I had ever met." He was
analyzed through him and studied his works. "The experience of bringing a
problem to a psychologist and getting an answer that seemed to work had a
great impact on Murray, leading him to seriously consider psychology as a
career" (J. W. Anderson). Jung's advice to Murray concerning his personal life
was to continue openly with both relationships.
Murray was a leading authority on the works of American author Herman
Melville and amassed a collection of books, manuscripts and relics relating to
Melville which he donated to the Berkshire Athenaeum in Pittsfield,
Massachusetts.

Professional career

In 1927, at the age of 33, Murray became assistant director of the Harvard
Psychological Clinic. He urbanized the concepts of latent needs (not openly
displayed), manifest needs (observed in people's actions), "press" (external
influences on motivation) and "thema" — "a pattern of press and need that
coalesces approximately scrupulous interactions". Murray used the term
"apperception" to refer to the process of projecting fantasy imagery onto an
objective incentive. The concept of apperception and the assumption that
everyone's thinking is shaped through subjective processes gives the rationale
behind the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). This was urbanized through
Murray and Morgan (1935). In 1937 Murray became director of the Harvard
Psychological Clinic. In 1938 he published Explorations in Personality, now a
classic in psychology, which comprises a description of the Thematic
Apperception Test. Throughout his period at Harvard, Murray sat in on
lectures through Alfred North Whitehead, whose process philosophy marked
his philosophical and metaphysical thinking throughout his professional career
(Laughlin 1973).
Throughout World War II, he left Harvard and worked as lieutenant
colonel for the Office of Strategic Services (OSS). James Miller, in charge of
the selection of secret agents at the OSS throughout World War Two, reports
that Murray was the originator of the term "situation test". This type of
assessment, based on practical tasks and activities, was pioneered through the
British Military. Murray acted as a consultant for the British Government
(1938) in the setting up of the Officer Selection Board. Murray's previous
work at The Harvard Psychological Clinic enabled him to apply his theories in
the design of the selection processes used through WOSB and OSS to assess
potential agents. The assessments were based on analysis of specific criteria
(e.g. "leadership") through a number of raters crossways a range of activities.
Results were pooled to achieve an overall assessment. The underlying
principles were later adopted through AT&T in the development of the
Assessment Centre methodology, now widely used to assess management
potential in both private and public sector organisations.
Murray's identification of core psychological needs (Murray's Psychogenic
Needs, Murray's system of needs), including Achievement, Affiliation and
Power (1938) provided the theoretical basis for the later research of David
McClelland and underpins development of competency-based models of
management effectiveness (Richard Boyatzis), Maslow's hierarchy of needs,
and ideas relating to Positive psychology. Though, Murray's contribution is
rarely acknowledged in contemporary academic literature. McClelland,
Boyatzis and Spencer went on to found the McBer Consultancy.
Commissioned through OSS boss, William "Wild Bill" Donovan, in 1943
Professor Murray helped complete Analysis of the Personality of Adolph
Hitler. The report was done in collaboration with psychoanalyst Walter C.
Langer, Dr. Ernst Kris, New School for Social Research, and Dr. Bertram D.
Lawin, New York Psychoanalytic Institute. The report used several sources to
profile Hitler including a number of informants such as Ernst Hanfstaengl,
Hermann Rauschning, Princess Stephanie von Hohenlohe, Gregor Strasser,
Friedelinde Wagner, and Kurt Ludecke. The groundbreaking study was the
pioneer of Offender profiling and political psychology, today commonly used
through several countries as part of assessing international relations.
In addition to predicting that if defeat for Germany was close to, Adolf
Hitler would choose suicide, Professor Murray's collaborative report stated
that Hitler was impotent as distant as heterosexual relations were concerned
and that there was a possibility that Hitler had participated in a homosexual
relationship. The 1943 report stated that: "The belief that Hitler is homosexual
has almost certainly urbanized (a) from the fact that he does show so several
feminine characteristics, and (b) from the fact that there were so several
homosexuals in the Party throughout the early days and several continue to
occupy significant positions. It is almost certainly true that Hitler calls Albert
Forster "Bubi", which is a common nickname employed through homosexuals
in addressing their partners."
Having returned to Harvard 1947, Murray lectured and established with
others the Psychological Clinic Annex and was a chief researcher at Harvard.
Alston Chase's book Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an
American Terrorist tells of the MK ULTRA experiments that Theodore
Kaczynski is reported to have undergone at Harvard, under the direction of
Henry Murray. Chase connects these experiences to Kaczynski's later criminal
career as the Unabomber.
When Murray became emeritus professor at Harvard, he earned the
Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award from the American
Psychological Association and Gold Medal Award for lifetime achievement
from the American Psychological Foundation. Murray died from pneumonia at
the age of 95.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
List Kelly's four elements that result in psychological disturbance.
Explain the purpose of fixed-role therapy.
Explain the Lewin's approach to personality.
Compare Rogers's concepts of the formative tendency and the
actualizing tendency.
 Discuss Rogers's concept of self-actualization.

DISPOSITIONAL THEORIES

STRUCTURE
Learning objectives
Abraham Maslow
Allport trait theory
Cattell‘s factor theory
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
Explain Maslow‘s five assumptions with regard to motivation.
Distinguish flanked by conative, aesthetic, cognitive, and neurotic
needs.
Describe Allport‘s theory of personality;
Describe Alport‘s concept of trait and the theory of personality;
Delineate the dynamics of personality as mentioned through Allport;
Describe Cattell‘s methods of data collection and investigation; and
Discuss Cattell‘s research on the genetic basis of traits

ABRAHAM MASLOW
Abraham Maslow urbanized the Hierarchy of Needs model in the 1940-
50‘s in the USA, and the Hierarchy of Needs theory remains valid even today
for understanding human motivation, management training, and personal
development. Indeed, Maslow‘s ideas nearby the Hierarchy of Needs
concerning the responsibility of employers to give a workplace environment
that encourages and enables employees to fulfill their own unique potential
(self-actualisation) are today more relevant than ever. Maslow took this
thought and created his now well-known hierarchy of needs. Beyond the
details of air, water, food, and sex, he laid out five broader layers: the
physiological needs, the needs for safety and security, the needs for love and
belonging, the needs for esteem, and the need to actualize the self, in that
order.
Self-actualization

Self-actualization is a term that has been used in several psychology

theories, often in slightly different methods. The term was originally
introduced through the organismic theorist Kurt Goldstein for the motive to
realize one's full potential. Expressing one's creativity, quest for spiritual
enlightenment, pursuit of knowledge, and the desire to provide to society are
examples of self-actualization. In Goldstein's view, it is the organism's master
motive, the only real motive: "the tendency to actualize itself as fully as
possible is the basic drive... the drive of self-actualization." Carl Rogers
similarly wrote of "the curative force in psychotherapy - man's tendency to
actualize himself, to become his potentialities... to express and activate all the
capacities of the organism." The concept was brought most fully to
prominence in Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory as the final level
of psychological development that can be achieved when all basic and mental
needs are essentially fulfilled and the "actualization" of the full personal
potential takes place, although he adapted this viewpoint later on in life, and
saw it more flexibly.
As Abraham Maslow noted, the basic needs of humans necessity be met
(e.g. food, shelter, warmth, security, sense of belongingness etc.) before a
person can achieve self-actualization - the need to be good, to be fully alive
and to find meaning in life. Research shows that when people live lives that
are different from their true nature and capabilities, they are less likely to be
happy than those whose goals and lives match. For instance, someone who has
inherent potential to be a great artist or teacher may never realize his/her
talents if their energy is focused on attaining the basic needs of humans.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow's book Motivation and psychology started a

philosophical revolution out of which grew humanistic psychology. This
changed the view of human nature from a negative point of view - man is a
conditioned or tension reducing organism- to a more positive view in which
man is motivated to realize his full potential. This is reflected in his hierarchy
of needs and in his theory of Self-actualization.
The term was later used through Abraham Maslow in his article, A Theory
of Human Motivation, Maslow explicitly defines self-actualization to be "the
desire for self-fulfillment, namely the tendency for him [the individual] to
become actualized in what he is potentially. This tendency might be phrased
as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that
one is capable of becoming." Maslow used the term self-actualization to
describe a desire, not a driving force that could lead to realizing one's
capabilities. Maslow did not feel that self-actualization determined one's life;
rather, he felt that it gave the individual a desire, or motivation to achieve
budding ambitions. Maslow's usage of the term is now popular in modern
psychology when discussing personality from the humanistic approach.
A basic definition from a typical college textbook defines self-
actualization according to Maslow simply as "the full realization of one's
potential", and of one's 'true self'.
A more explicit definition of self-actualization according to Maslow is
"intrinsic growth of what is already in the organism, or more accurately of
what is the organism itself...self-actualization is growth-motivated rather than
deficiency-motivated." This explanation emphasizes the fact that self-
actualization cannot normally be reached until other lower order necessities of
Maslow's hierarchy of needs are satisfied. While Goldstein defined self-
actualization as a driving force, Maslow uses the term to describe personal
growth that takes place once lower order needs have essentially been met, one
corollary being that, in his opinion, "self-actualisation...rarely
happens...certainly in less than 1% of the adult population." The fact that
"most of us function most of the time on a level lower than that of self-
actualization" he described the psychopathology of normality.
Maslow measured self-actualizing people to possess "an unusual skill to
detect the spurious, the fake, and the dishonest in personality, and in general to
judge the people correctly and efficiently."
Maslow based his theory partially on his own assumptions or convictions
in relation to the human potential and partially on his case studies of historical
figures that he whispered to be self-actualized, including Albert Einstein and
Henry David Thoreau. Maslow examined the lives of each of these people in
order to assess the common qualities that led each to be to become self-
actualized. In general he found that these individuals were very accepting of
themselves and of their life circumstances; were focused on finding solutions
to cultural problems rather than to personal problems; were open to others'
opinions and ideas; had strong senses of privacy, autonomy, human values and
appreciation of life; and a few intimate friendships rather than several
superficial ones. He also whispered that each of these people had somehow
supervised to find their core-nature that is unique to them, and is one of the
true goals of life.

Maslow's characteristics of self-actualizers

A self-actualizer is a person who is living creatively and fully using his or

her potentials. In his studies, Maslow found that self-actualizers share
similarities. Whether well-known or unknown, educated or not, rich or poor,
self-actualizers tend to fit the following profile.

Efficient perceptions of reality. Self-actualizers are able to judge

situations correctly and honestly. They are very sensitive to the fake
and dishonest, and are free to see reality 'as it is'.
 Comfortable acceptance of self, others, nature. Self-actualizers accept
their own human nature with all its flaws. The shortcomings of others
and the contradictions of the human condition are accepted with humor
and tolerance.
Spontaneity. Maslow's subjects extended their creativity into everyday
activities. Actualizes tend to be unusually alive, occupied, and
spontaneous.
Task centering. Most of Maslow's subjects had a mission to fulfill in
life or some task or problem ‗beyond‘ themselves (instead of outside of
themselves) to pursue. Humanitarians such as Albert Schweitzer and
Mother Teresa are measured to have possessed this quality.
Autonomy. Self-actualizers are free from reliance on external
authorities or other people. They tend to be resourceful and
independent.
Sustained freshness of appreciation. The self-actualizer seems to
constantly renew appreciation of life's basic goods. A sunset or a
flower will be experienced as intensely time after time as it was at first.
There is an "innocence of vision", like that of an artist or child.
Fellowship with humanity. Maslow's subjects felt a deep identification
with others and the human situation in general.
Profound interpersonal relationships. The interpersonal relationships
of self-actualizers are marked through deep loving bonds.
Comfort with solitude. Despite their satisfying relationships with
others, self-actualizing persons value solitude and are comfortable
being alone.
Non-hostile sense of humor. This refers to the skill to laugh at oneself.
Peak experiences. All of Maslow's subjects reported the frequent
occurrence of peak experiences (temporary moments of self-
actualization). These occasions were marked through feelings of
ecstasy, harmony, and deep meaning. Self-actualizers reported feeling
at one with the universe, stronger and calmer than ever before, filled
with light, beautiful and good, and so forth.

In summary, self-actualizers feel finally themselves, safe, not anxious,

accepted, loved, loving, and alive, certainly living a fulfilling life.
Additionally, Schott discussed in connection with transpersonal business
studies.

In psychology

Self-actualization is at the top of Maslow's hierarchy of needs - becoming

'"fully human"...maturity or self-actualization' - and is measured a part of the
humanistic approach to personality. Humanistic psychology is one of many
methods used in psychology for studying, understanding, and evaluating
personality. The humanistic approach was urbanized because other
approaches, such as the psychodynamic approach made well-known through
Sigmund Freud, focused on unhealthy individuals that exhibited disturbed
behavior; whereas the humanistic approach focuses on healthy, motivated
people and tries to determine how they describe the self while maximizing
their potential.
Stemming from this branch of psychology is Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
According to Maslow, people have lower order needs that in general necessity
be fulfilled before high order needs can be satisfied: 'five sets of needs -
physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization'.
As a person moves up Maslow's hierarchy of needs, eventually they may
find themselves reaching the summit — self-actualization. Maslow's hierarchy
of needs begins with the most basic necessities deemed "the physiological
needs" in which the individual will seek out items like food and water, and
necessity be able to perform basic functions such as breathing and sleeping.
Once these needs have been met, a person can move on to fulfilling "the safety
needs", where they will effort to obtain a sense of security, physical comforts
and shelter, employment, and property. The after that level is "the
belongingness and love needs", where people will strive for social acceptance,
affiliations, a sense of belongingness and being welcome, sexual intimacy, and
perhaps a family. After that are "the esteem needs", where the individual will
desire a sense of competence, recognition of achievement through peers, and
respect from others.
Some argue that once these needs are met, an individual is primed for self-
actualization. Others maintain that there are two more phases an individual
necessity progress through before self-actualization can take place. These
contain "the cognitive needs", where a person will desire knowledge and an
understanding of the world approximately them, and "the aesthetic needs"
which contain a need for "symmetry, order, and beauty". Once all these needs
have been satisfied, the final stage of Maslow's hierarchy—self
actualization—can take place.
Classical Adlerian psychotherapy promotes this level of psychological
development, utilizing the foundation of a 12-stage therapeutic model to
realistically satisfy the basic needs, leading to an advanced stage of "meta-
therapy," creative living, and self/other/task-actualization. Gestalt therapy,
acknowledging that 'Kurt Goldstein first introduced the concept of the
organism as a whole ', built on the assumption that "every individual, every
plant, every animal has only one inborn goal - to actualize itself as it is."
Maslow's writings are used as inspirational resources. The key to Maslow's
writings is understanding that there are no quick routes to becoming self-
actualizing: rather it is predicated on the individual having their lower
deficiency needs met. Once a person has moved through feeling and believing
that they are deficient, they naturally seek to grow into who they are, that is
self-actualize. Elsewhere, though, Maslow (2011) and Carl Rogers (1980) both
suggested necessary attitudes and/or attributes that need to be inside an
individual as a pre-requisite for self-actualization. Amongst these, are: a real
wish to be themselves, to be fully human, to fulfill themselves, to be totally
alive, as well as to risk being vulnerable, and uncovering more 'painful'
characteristics in order to learn about/grow through and integrate these parts of
themselves (which has parallels with Jung‘s slightly similar concept of
individuation).
In other words, one needs to somehow have faith that one is at least 'OK' if
not 'ultimately 'Good' in one's ultimate nature, to help one bear uncomfortable
areas of the ‗self‘ that the person has not been clearly aware of in
consciousness, hitherto... : one needs to be self-aware and realistic to one's
current-limitations on the one hand, as well as having the 'positivist' and faith
that these are changeable on the other, so that one can grow into all one can
be. Perhaps it is this determination and courage -alongside a wisdom and a
patience, that can help a person transform their life and 'self-nature' into
something much more fulfilling – so that all of what one is inside (-in one's
real essential nature) can be expressed in one's total 'person-hood' at the right
time and place.
This leads onto the other characteristic belief in the humanistic
perspective: that not only is one truly becoming ‗oneself‘, but that there is an
essential completeness to the person: body, heart, mind and soul -all are now
essentially ‗alive‘ in consciousness, and have come into their own. Moreover,
each of these ‗centers‘ of the human-being have now become much more
integrated, so that one what ‗thinks‘ is also more integrated -or synonymous
with how one feels, etc.… To this end, this suggests less likelihood for
hypocrisy, and such an individual feels that they belong significantly more to
the human species, but are at the same time are at last free to be their unique
and individual selves.
Although initially being biologically-centered (or focused approximately
the more ordinary, psychological self-nature), both Maslow (2011) and Rogers
(1980) became more open to 'spirituality' and grew to accept a more open and
‗spiritual‘ conception of man before the end of their lives. Also, there have
been several similarities and cross-references flanked by several spiritual
schools or groups (particularly Eastern spiritual methods) in the past 40 years.
One can also suggest that Sri Ramana Maharshi‘s description, that complete
and spiritual self-realization is characterized through ‗Being (sat),
Consciousness (chit) and Bliss (Ananda), has a reflection -albeit perhaps paler
in scope - in humanistic thinking or experience, that the experience of a self-
actualizing person partakes of these things to some degree...‗beingness‘,
‗awareness‘ and a ‗meaningful happiness‘(i.e.the person has urbanized beside
this line), even if one can go further than mere self-actualization into Self-
transcendence, where Being-Consciousness-Bliss Fully come to Be...
Criticism

Maslow early noted his impression that "impulsivity, the unrestrained

expression of any whim, the direct seeking for 'kicks' and for non-social and
purely private pleasures...is often mislabeled self-actualization." In this sense,
"self-actualization" is little more than what Eric Berne described as the game
of '"Self-Expression"...based on the dogma "Feelings are Good"'.
Broader criticism from within humanistic psychology of the concept of
self-actualization comprises the danger that 'emphasis on the actualizing
tendency...can lead to a highly positive view of the human being but one
which is strangely non-relational'. According to Fritz Perls there is also the
risk of confusing "self-actualizing and self-image actualizing...the curse of the
ideal." Through conflating "the virtue of self-actualization and the reality of
self-actualization," the latter becomes merely another measuring rod for the
"top dog" - the nagging conscience: "You tell me to do things. You tell me to
be - real. You tell me to be self-actualized...I don't have to be that good!"
Barry Stevens‘s remarks: "Abe Maslow was unhappy with what happened
with several people when they read what he wrote in relation to the‘ self-
actualizing people'. What they did with it was very strange. I have received a
fair number of letters saying 'I am a self-actualized person'. Maslow said that
he necessity have left something out. Fritz (Perls) put it in. He saw that most
people actualized a self-concept. This is not self-actualizing."
According to Paul Vitz, this may be linked with the charge that "Rogers
and Maslow both transform self-actualization from a descriptive notion into a
moral norm."; although if it is indeed as good a reality as they purport, then a
certain eagerness in their communication is understandable.
In general throughout the early twenty-first-century, "the usefulness of the
concepts of self and self-actualization continue to attract discussion and
debate."
Also, there may also be a common feeling that the possibility of ‗self-
actualization‘ is reserved for those people who have been lucky in life and
don‘t have to thrash about for their day-to-day survival in a dead-end job.
Notwithstanding, Maslow (2011) suggested that it was very much in relation
to the attitude the individual brought to his/her life that might be the crucial
catalyst for where one‘s life and self-growth goes. There are several examples
of when people have been in basically the same circumstances, but have
turned out very differently, which might indicate that attitude can have an
enormous bearing upon one's fate; though, there is always the question: what
IS it that creates attitude different from person to person?

Maslow's View of Motivation

Maslow's theory rests on five basic assumptions in relation to the

motivation: (1) the whole organism is motivated at any one time; (2)
motivation is intricate, and unconscious motives often underlie behavior; (3)
people are continually motivated through one need or another; (4) people in
different cultures are all motivated through the same basic needs; and (5)
needs can be arranged on a hierarchy.
Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow held that lower level needs have
prepotency over higher level needs; that is, they necessity be satisfied
before higher needs become motivators. Maslow's hierarchy comprises
(1) physiological needs, such as oxygen, food, water, and so on; (2)
safety needs, which contain physical security, stability, dependency,
protection, and freedom from danger, and which result in basic anxiety
if not satisfied; (3) love and belongingness needs, including the desire
for friendship, the wish for a mate and children, and the need to
belong; (4) esteem needs, which follow from the satisfaction of love
needs and which contain self-confidence and the recognition that one
has a positive reputation; and (5) self-actualization needs, which are
satisfied only through the psychologically healthiest people. Unlike
other needs that automatically are activated when lower needs are met,
self-actualization needs do not inevitably follow the satisfaction of
esteem needs. Only through embracing such B-values as truth, beauty,
oneness, and justice, can people achieve self-actualization. The five
needs on Maslow's hierarchy are conative needs. Other needs contain
aesthetic needs, cognitive needs, and neurotic needs.
Aesthetic Needs: Aesthetic needs contain a desire for beauty and order,
and some people have much stronger aesthetic needs than do others.
When people fail to meet their aesthetic needs, they become sick.
Cognitive Needs: Cognitive needs contain the desire to know, to
understand, and to be curious. Knowledge is a prerequisite for each of
the five conative needs. Also, people who are denied knowledge and
kept in ignorance become sick, paranoid, and depressed.
Neurotic Needs: With each of the above three dimensions of needs,
physical or psychological illness results when the needs are not
satisfied. Neurotic needs, though, lead to pathology regardless of
whether they are satisfied or not. Neurotic needs contain such motives
as a desire to control, to inflict pain, or to subject oneself to the will of
another person. Neurotic needs are nonproductive and do not foster
health.
General Discussion of Needs: Maslow whispered that most people
satisfy lower level needs to a greater extent than they do higher levels
needs, and that the greater the satisfaction of one need, the more fully
the after that highest need is likely to emerge. In certain unusual cases,
the order of needs might be reversed. For instance, a starving mother
may be motivated through love needs to provide up food in order to
feed her starving children. Though, if we understood the unconscious
motivation behind several apparent reversals, we would see that they
are not genuine reversals at all. Therefore , Maslow insisted that much
 of our surface behavior is actually motivated through more basic and
often unconscious needs. Maslow also whispered that some expressive
behaviors are unmotivated, even though all behaviors have a cause.
Expressive behavior has no aim or goal but is merely a person's mode
of expression. In comparison, coping behaviors (which are motivated)
deal with a person's effort to cope with the environment. The conative
needs ordinarily call forth coping behaviors. Deprivation of any of the
needs leads to pathology of some sort. For instance, people's inability
to reach self-actualization results in met pathology, defined as an
absence of values, a lack of fulfillment, and a loss of meaning in life.
Maslow suggested that instinctual needs are innately determined even
though they can be customized through learning. Maslow also
whispered that higher level needs (love, esteem, and self-actualization)
are later on the evolutionary scale than lower level needs and that they
produce more genuine happiness and more peak experiences

ALLPORT TRAIT THEORY

Gordon Allport, whose major emphasis was on the uniqueness of each
individual, built a theory of personality as a reaction against what he regarded
as the non-humanistic positions of both psychoanalysis and animal-based
learning theory. Though, Allport was eclectic in his approach and accepted
several of the ideas of other theorists.

Biography of Gordon Allport

Gordon W. Allport was born in Indiana in 1897. He received an

undergraduate degree in philosophy and economics from Harvard, and taught
in Europe for a year. While in Europe, he had a fortuitous meeting with
Sigmund Freud in Vienna, which helped him decide to complete a Ph.D. in
psychology. After getting his Ph.D. from Harvard, Allport spent two years
studying under some of the great German psychologists, but he returned to
teach at Harvard. Two years later he took a position at Dartmouth, but after
four years at Dartmouth, he again returned to Harvard, where he remained
until his death in 1967.

Allport's Approach to Personality

Allport whispered that psychologically healthy humans are motivated

through present, mostly conscious drives and that they not only seek to reduce
tensions but to establish new ones. He also whispered that people are capable
of proactive behavior, which suggests that they can consciously behave in new
and creative methods that foster their own change and growth. He described
his study of the individual morphogenesis science and contrasted it with
traditional nomothetic methods.

Personality Defined

Allport defined personality as "the dynamic organization within the

individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic
behavior and thought."

Structure of Personality

According to Allport, the basic units of personality are personal

dispositions and the proprium.
Personal Dispositions: Allport distinguished flanked by common traits,
which permit inter-individual comparisons, and personal dispositions,
which are peculiar to the individual. He recognized three overlapping
levels of personal dispositions, the most general of which are cardinal
dispositions that are so obvious and dominating that they can not be
hidden from other people. Not everyone has a cardinal disposition, but
all people have 5 to 10 central dispositions, or characteristics
approximately which their lives revolve. In addition, everyone has a
great number of secondary dispositions, which are less reliable and less
conspicuous than central traits. Allport further divided personal
dispositions into (1) motivational dispositions, which are strong
enough to initiate action and (2) stylistic dispositions, which refer to
the manner in which an individual behaves and which guide rather than
initiate action.
Proprium: The proprium refers to all those behaviors and
characteristics that people regard as warm and central in their lives.
Allport preferred the term proprium over self or ego because the latter
conditions could imply an object or thing within a person that controls
behavior, whereas proprium suggests the core of one's personhood.

Motivation

Allport insisted that an adequate theory of motivation necessity consider

the notion that motives change as people mature and also that people are
motivated through present drives and wants.
 Reactive and Proactive Theories of Motivation: To Allport, people not
only react to their environment, but they also shape their environment
and cause it to react to them. His proactive approach accentuated the
thought that people often seek additional tension and that they
purposefully act on their environment in a method that fosters growth
toward psychological health.
Conscious and Unconscious Motivation: Although Allport
accentuated conscious motivation more than any other personality
theorist, he did not totally overlook the possible influence of
unconscious motives on pathological behaviors. Most people, though,
are aware of what they are doing and why they are doing it.

Meaning of Functional Autonomy

Allport's most distinctive and controversial concept is his theory of

functional autonomy, which holds that some (but not all) human motives are
functionally independent from the original motive responsible for a scrupulous
behavior. Allport recognized two levels of functional autonomy: (1)
preservative functional autonomy, which is the tendency of certain basic
behaviors (such as addictive behaviors) to continue in the absence of
reinforcement, and (2) appropriate functional autonomy, which refers to self-
sustaining motives (such as interests) that are related to the proprium.

The Psychologically Healthy Personality

Allport whispered that people are motivated through both the need to
adjust to their environment and to grow toward psychological health; that is,
people are both reactive and proactive. Nevertheless, psychologically healthy
persons are more likely to engage in proactive behaviors. Allport listed six
criteria for psychological health: (1) an extension of the sense of self, (2)
warm relationships with others, (3) emotional security or self-acceptance, (4) a
realistic view of the world, (5) insight and humor, and (6) a unifying
philosophy of life.

The Study of the Individual

Allport strongly felt that psychology should develop and use research
methods that study the individual rather than groups.
Morphogenesis Science: Traditional psychology relies on nomothetic
science, which seeks general laws from a study of groups of people,
 but Allport used idiographic or morphogenic procedures that study the
single case. Unlike several psychologists, Allport was willing to accept
self-reports at face value.
The Diaries of Marion Taylor: In the late 1930's, Allport and his wife
became acquainted with diaries written through woman they described
Marion Taylor. These diaries-beside with descriptions of Marion
Taylor through her mother, younger sister, favorite teacher, friends,
and a neighbor-provided the Allports with a large quantity of material
that could be studied using morphogenic methods. Though, the
Allports never published this material.
Letters from Jenny: Even though Allport never published data from
Marion Taylor's dairies, he did publish a second case study-that of
Jenny Gove Masterson. Jenny had written a series of 301 letters to
Gordon and Ada Allport, whose son had been a roommate of Jenny's
son. Two of Gordon Allport's students, Alfred Baldwin and Jeffrey
Paige used a personal structure analysis and factor analysis
respectively, while Allport used a commonsense approach to discern
Jenny's personality structure as revealed through her letters. All three
approaches acquiesced similar results, which suggests that
morphogenic studies can be reliable.

Related Research

Allport whispered that a deep religious commitment was a mark of a

mature person, but he also saw that several regular churchgoers did not have a
mature religious orientation and were capable of deep racial and social
prejudice. In other words, he saw a curvilinear relationship flanked by church
attendance and prejudice.
The Religious Orientation Scale: This insight led Allport to develop
and use the Religious Orientation Scale to assess both an intrinsic
orientation and an extrinsic orientation toward religion. Allport and
Ross found that people with an extrinsic orientation toward religion
tend to be quite prejudiced, whereas those with an intrinsic orientation
tend to be low on racial and social prejudice.
Religious Orientation and Psychological Health: Research has found
that people who score high on the Intrinsic scale of the ROS tend to
have overall better personal functioning than those who score high on
the Extrinsic scale. In general, these studies have found that some
highly religious people have strong psychological health whereas
others suffer from a diversity of psychological disorders. The principal
difference flanked by the two groups is one of intrinsic or extrinsic
religious orientation; that is, people with an intrinsic orientation tend to
 be psychologically healthy, but those with an extrinsic orientation
suffer from poor psychological health.

Critique of Allport

Allport has written eloquently in relation to the personality, but his views
are based more on philosophical speculation and common sense than on
scientific studies. As a consequence, his theory is very narrow, being limited
mostly to a model of human motivation. Therefore , it rates low on its skill to
organize psychological data and to be falsified. It rates high on parsimony and
internal consistency and in relation to the average on its skill to generate
research and to help the practitioner.

Human Nature

Allport saw people as thinking, proactive, purposeful beings who are

usually aware of what they are doing and why. On the six dimensions for a
concept of humanity, Allport rates higher than any other theorist on conscious
influences and on the uniqueness of the individual. He rates high on free
choice, optimism, and teleology, and in relation to the average on social
influences.
CATTELL’S FACTOR THEORY
Raymond Cattell and Hans Eysenck have each used factor analysis to
identify traits (that is, relatively permanent dispositions of people). Cattell has
recognized
a large number of personality traits, whereas Eysenck has extracted only
three general factors.

Biography of Raymond B. Cattell

Raymond B. Cattell was born in England in 1905, educated at the

University of London, but spent most of his professional career in the United
States. He held positions at Columbia University, Clark University, Harvard
University, and the University of Illinois, where he spent most of his active
career. Throughout the last 20 years of his life, he was associated with the
Hawaii School of Professional Psychology. He died in 1998, a few weeks
short of his 93rd birthday.
Basics of Factor Analysis

Factor analysis is a mathematical procedure for reducing a large number of

scores to a few more general variables or factors. Correlations of the original,
specific scores with the factors are described factor loadings. Traits generated
through factor analysis may be either unipolar (scaled from zero to some large
amount) or bipolar (having two opposing poles, such as introversion and
extraversion). For factors to have psychological meaning, the analyst necessity
rotate the axes on which the scores are plotted. Eysenck used an orthogonal
rotation whereas Cattell favored an oblique rotation. The oblique rotation
procedure ordinarily results in more traits than the orthogonal method.

Introduction to Cattell's Trait Theory

Cattell used an inductive approach to identify traits; that is, he began with
a large body of data that he composed with no preconceived hypothesis or
theory.
P Technique: Cattell's P technique is a correlational procedure that uses
measures composed from one person on several different occasions
and is his effort to measure individual or unique, rather than common,
traits. Cattell also used the dR (differential R) technique, which
correlates the scores of a large number of people on several variables
obtained at two different occasions. Through combining these two
techniques, Cattell has measured both states (temporary circumstances
within an individual) and traits (relatively permanent dispositions of an
individual).
Media of Observation: Cattell used three different sources of data that
enter the correlation matrix: (1) L data, or a person's life record that
comes from observations made through others; (2) Q data, which are
based on questionnaires; and (3) T data, or information obtained from
objective tests.

Source Traits

Source traits refer to the underlying factor or factors responsible for the
intercorrelation among surface traits. They can be distinguished from trait
indicators, or surface traits.
Personality Traits

Personality traits contain both common traits (shared through several

people) and unique traits (peculiar to one individual). Personality traits can
also be classified into temperament, motivation (dynamic), and skill.
Temperament Traits: Temperament traits are concerned with how a
person behaves. Of the 35 primary or first-order traits Cattell has
recognized, all but one (intelligence) is basically a temperament trait.
Of the 23 normal traits, 16 were obtained through Q media and
compose Cattell's well-known 16 PF scale. The additional seven
factors that create up the 23 normal traits were originally recognized
only through L data. Cattell whispered that pathological people have
the same 23 normal traits as other people, but, in addition, they exhibit
one or more of 12 abnormal traits. Also, a person's pathology may
simply be due to a normal trait that is accepted to an extreme.
Second-Order Traits: The 35 primary source traits tend to cluster
together, forming eight clearly identifiable second-order traits. The two
strongest of the second-order traits might be described
extraversion/introversion and anxiety.

Dynamic Traits

In addition to temperament traits, Cattell recognized motivational or

dynamic traits, which contain attitudes, ergs, and sems.
Attitudes: An attitude refers to a specific course of action, or desire to
act, in response to a given situation. Motivation is usually quite
intricate, so that a network of motives, or dynamic lattice, is ordinarily
involved with an attitude. In addition, a subsidiation chain, or a
intricate set of subgoals, underlies motivation.
Ergs: Ergs are innate drives or motives, such as sex, hunger, loneliness,
pity, fear, curiosity, pride, sensuousness, anger, and greed that humans
share with other primates.
Sems: Sems are learned or acquired dynamic traits that can satisfy
many ergs at the same time. The self-sentiment is the most significant
seem in that it integrates the other sems.
The Dynamic Lattice: The dynamic lattice is a intricate network of
attitudes, ergs, and sems underlying a person's motivational structure.

Genetic Basis of Traits

Cattell and his colleagues provided estimates of heritability of the several

source traits. Heritability is an estimate of the extent to which the variance of a
given trait is due to heredity. Cattell has found relatively high heritability
values for both fluid intelligence (the skill to adapt to new material) and
crystallized intelligence (which depends on prior learning), suggesting that
intelligence is due more to heredity than to environment.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Explain the difference flanked by reputation and self-esteem.
According to Maslow, why might a person have a Jonah intricate?
Discuss in detail the concept of personality as propounded through
Allport.
Discuss the structure and dynamics of personality as mentioned
through Allport.
Critically evaluate Allport‘s theory.
Describe a unipolar trait.
Briefly explain Cattell's concept of dynamic lattice.
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