Draw the wiring diagram

with Orcad Capture

Before starting the realization of the printed circuit it is necessary to draw
the scheme (it seems obvious to me that before that we need to design the
circuit ... but this is another matter).

One of the programs to do this is OrCad Capture ; in theory any other

program that supports one of the formats required by OrCad Layout could be
used but, in practice, this is the most rational choice both as costs (the
Capture + Layout package has substantially the same cost as Layout only)
and compatibility. It is also possible to use OrCad Express (the software that
I actually use and that in practice is an extension of Capture)

The use of the Capture package is rather intuitive if only the basic tools are
used and I will therefore limit myself to a brief overview. The in-depth
Capture description would require another tutorial, which I will perhaps
write one day.

Start a drawing from scratch

By clicking on the File> New> Project menu on the Capture home screen,
you can start a new project. It is at least appropriate (but not mandatory) to
dedicate a folder to each design, specifying it at the time of creation. The
.opj file that is created will contain all the hierarchical information on the
drawing. In this phase the libraries of the components to be used are also
requested, although it is always possible to add others later.

The actual schema (which will be saved in a separate file) is created in a

similar way, after creating the project (click on the File menu > New>
Capture Design ).

A tip is to use the Capture Layout library instead of Device for generic
devices as it creates fewer problems in the next step due to the exact
correspondence in the pin nomenclature. Generally the other libraries (eg
TTL, CMOS, various analogs) have no problems. It is then appropriate and
often necessary to create your own libraries with the most used
components, even if it is not always easy for beginners.

To draw the components select Place> Part , choosing the device you want
in the libraries. Each component is identified by a Part Reference and
a Value : the use of the second identifier is intuitive (eg resistance value)
and, if necessary, it can be modified. The Part Reference is appropriate not
to be changed manually or even deleted as this could create problems in the
next steps.

For the electrical connections it is necessary to use the Place> Wire tool (be
careful to exactly connect the wires to the pins of the components, an
operation greatly facilitated by the use of the grid, activated by definition
and which I strongly advise against deactivation. In the case of connection
of three wires or pins it is necessary to use the Place> Junction tool (in
obvious cases the point indicating the connection is automatically placed.) It
is convenient and appropriate (but not mandatory) to name the links, at
least to the most important ones, with the command Place> Net Alias .

An alternative way to name a wire is to use the command Place>

Power or Place> Ground , from the obvious meaning. Please note that the
actual connection depends on the name of the symbol and not on the
graphic format used. In particular, the TTL (or CMOS) digital integrated
circuits use Vcc (Vdd) and GND (Vss) for the power supplies and the ground
and therefore it is necessary to use these names.

A mistake often made is to forget the connectors to the outside, typically

the power supplies or input / output connectors, gathered in a special
library ( Place> Part> Header ). Obviously in the scheme this does not
matter but at the moment when the PCB is made it becomes an essential
aspect.

When saving the file containing the schema (.dsn) remember to specify the
directory (Capture proposes the last one used but this is often not a rational
choice) and possibly even a meaningful name.

The tools
Before continuing, assign the PartReference of each component, ie the
progressive numbering of each component (for example R1, R2, R3 ...). Can
I proceed manually, replacing the font? present by default in the Part
Reference with a progressive number but I strongly recommend the use of
the Tools> Update Part Reference command .

This command also allows the pins to be correctly numbered if a single

integrated contains several components of the same type, such as quadruple
operational amplifiers or logic gates. Possible different assignments can be
made manually before creating the PCB (beware of duplicates) or later, in
the unraveling phase to facilitate connections.

If new components are added, this command can be used again, leaving the
number of components already updated unchanged. If you have already
started routing the circuit, I do not recommend using the Tools> Update Part
Reference command to remove the numbering and the subsequent re-
numbering because the operation destroys any PCBs already created by the
same scheme.

A second very useful tool is Tools> Design Rules Check which allows to verify
the existence of formal errors (pins or unconnected wires, short circuits,
duplicated components ...). When asked which errors to verify, I
recommend you to select all the boxes except the one related to
OrCad_SDT_IV (unless of course you also use this old DOS program). I also
advise you to activate the report, a text file that is worth consulting
because at times it shows devious errors such as the presence of several
masses with different names and therefore not connected to each other.

The netlist generation

To generate the netlist (ie the set of connections necessary for the creation
of the printed circuit) it is necessary to select the Tools> Create
NetList command .

It is necessary to choose the Layout folder (the generated file has the
extension .mnl) and highlight the Run Eco To Layout options (it is used to
signal Layout any modifications to the schema so that it automatically
reloads the netlist) and User Properties Are In Inch (unless the unlikely event
of actually working in millimeters, the unit of measurement "absurdly" by
default).

The file is generated in the directory where the drawing is located.

Consulting the message window (always open when starting Capture) you
should read a sentence like Processing complete with no errors - DSN2MNL
returned PASS : any error messages indicate the non-creation of the .mnl
file and therefore the impossibility to continue . The main reason for the
failure of the command comes from the presence of unresolved references
(R? For example), from errors in the connection, from unrelated pins, from
the presence of duplicate components.

Another common situation is one in which, using some integrated circuits,

the presence of duplicate pins is signaled but this is more often than not an
error but simply a consequence in the pin numbering solved by the program
without problems.

The creation of the first printed circuit

Before making a "real" printed circuit I recommend a little practice using a
simple scheme. As an example I report, without too much imagination, a
classic power supply that I will use as a reference later. This project is
contained in the file orcad.tgz freely downloadable from my site, along with
all the files mentioned in this tutorial.
 Define the parameters of
the project
On this page I will describe a fairly long (and boring ...) series of steps with
which to define the parameters that the program will use in the actual
design of the printed circuit: from the physical form of the components to
the thickness of the tracks to the shape of the pads for the welding. It is
important not to be in a hurry at this stage because often it is not possible
to go back, if not starting all over again from the beginning.

In the tutorial I refer to the example contained in the file orcad.tgz

Loading the netlist

Once Orcad Layout is started, a completely empty window appears and a
series of menus and icons that allow you to launch the various applications
that make up OrCad Layout.

Obviously, to start a new drawing, click on File> New . Two files are
needed:

 the technology file (.tch): it contains information relating to the

construction technology of the printed circuit such as the number and
type of layer to be used, the size of the tracks and pads, the minimum
required insulation. For single-sided applications the best choice is to
use the Jump6238.tch file or another JumpXXX.tch if more precision
or thinner tracks are required. Alternatively the file 2bet_thr.tch is
available for double-sided circuits. There are also rows for surface
mounting (they contain the suffix SMD). The default settings can still
be changed later.
 the file with the netlist , created by OrCad Capture (.mnl) or with
other compatible programs.

The name of the .max file that will contain the printed circuit is then
requested.

Another type of file that is used is the one that contains the footprints (with
the .llb extension), that is the mechanical description of the various types of
components. The quantity of such files that comes with Layout is really
impressive but ... when needed, something is always missing. And you will
also find that often too much information is a stumbling block. Finally, most
libraries are not very suitable for the production of homemade circuits
which, necessarily, are built with a poor mechanical precision, without
solder-mask and, above all, with non-metallic holes. For this the last section
of this tutorial is dedicated to creating custom libraries .

At this point the operation begins which, above all the first few times, is
certainly the longest and the source of errors: the merger between the
information contained in the three files mentioned.

For each type of component, you are asked which footprint should be used,
with a window similar to the one shown (it does not refer to any of the
components of the example diagram).

Usually the first existing footprint to component link button is used to

choose which footprint to bind that particular component. It is therefore
necessary to choose the library among those displayed and then choose the
footprint among those contained in the library.

Unfortunately, the enormous number of bookstores present makes the

choice less immediate. If you want, to start you can use for this example
project the tutorial.llb library present in the aforementioned file
orcad.tgz which contains all and only the components used in the
diagram. Later you will have to learn to move around in the libraries
provided by OrCad and above all to create new ones . Should a library not
appear among those presented by the program, use the add button .

The choice of the footprint can be changed later without insurmountable

problems but it must still be done at this time, on pain of failure to
complete the operation and the impossibility of continuing. If you cancel
this operation, the easiest thing to do is to restart from the beginning and
overwrite any file created.

The first few times this operation is rather long and boring but, fortunately,
the choices made are stored in the User.prt file and automatically reused
later: being a text file, it can be edited with any text editor even if the
more appropriate is to simply delete lines that are no longer needed or
contain errors. There is also the System.prt file , supplied with the program
and of identical structure and use, but I do not recommend its modification
as it contains standard assignments.

Once this operation is finished, an image appears on the screen that

represents all the components joined by rectilinear segments that represent
the connections that must be made (the ratsnest). The image refers to the
example diagram, after the manual arrangement of the components, done
simply by dragging the components with the mouse to the desired position.
It is advisable to save the work done up to this point (multilevel automatic
saving is enabled by default but trusting is good, trusting is better ...).

The most frequent errors

During the first loading of the netlist in layout some errors often
appear. Below I illustrate the most frequent and the method of resolution:

Cannot load a metric netlist on top of an english board or template

This error comes from the fact of having loaded a netlist in metric format
into an inch technology. To fix the error it is necessary to recreate the
netlist in inches, highlighting the appropriate option present when creating
the netlist with Capture. 99.99% of home-made cards have imperial (ie
inches) measures, especially if they use DIP integrated.

Electrical package xxx for comp xxx has at least one pin which has no
corresponding pin on footprint xxx.
This error occurs when the name of a pin of a component on the diagram
does not match the one present in the footprint library (for example the
anode of a diode indicated as A in one library and ANODO in another, or the
pin 15 of an integrated pin that has only 14). The simplest solution is to
choose another footprint. Alternatively you need to modify or create a
library in Capture (operation not described in this tutorial) or in Layout .

Let's get to know the toolbar

The following image shows the name of the icons on the toolbar. It is
obviously not necessary to use or know all the commands immediately. I will
only describe some of them.

 The Component_tool icon allows you to select and move

components. Note that this icon and the following are automatically
activated if Option> Preference> Auto_select_tool (which I think is not
very convenient) is selected from the menu . This icon is clearly
incompatible with the following ones of the same block and, if
selected, disables them
 The Obstacle_tool icon allows to create obstacles (for example the
physical dimensions of the card, the holes, areas without copper)
 The Spreadsheet_tool icon allows the drawing to be viewed and
modified through a series of tables similar to the classic spreadsheet
in which the various connection parameters (for example the size of
 the tracks) and the components (for example, are shown in rows and
columns) the types of pitches used). Individual cells, rows, columns or
groups of cells can be selected with usual methods (drag the mouse,
click on the header of the rows and columns, etc.)
 The Zoom do not need description. The black "stamp" on the right lets
you understand, in a large card, which area is displayed and also to
move on it without using the scroll-bars
 If the card's measurements are in inches (almost always true), the X
and Y coordinates are expressed in mils (1000 mils = 1 inch = 25.4 mm)
 The Current_layer indicates which layer of the circuit board you are
working on. The most important layers are the Bottom (also called the
weld side, the one under "the printed circuit), the Top (any tracks
placed in a two-sided circuit on the same side as the components or
the" bridges "), the Global (the objects that go through all the
printouts, for example the edges of the card),
the Assembly_top (where the components are), the drill(the drawing
for drilling). If a layer appears black, it means that it is not used in the
current drawing. Remember that the print is always seen "from
above", ie from the component side and therefore the tracks and
welds are seen by "transparency".

A small-small help comes from the F1 key (generic help) or F2 (context-

sensitive help)

The change of a component or a

connection
Visualizing the components and the ratsnest, some inconsistencies in the
assignment of the components may appear evident. In the ratsnest image
above, for example, it is unreasonable to assume that the 10 uF polarized
capacitor (could be a tantalum capacitor) has the same physical dimensions
as a 1000 uF electrolytic capacitor.

To change the assignment of a footprint to a component, select the

component by clicking it with the right mouse button (after having obviously
selected the Component_tool icon ) and choose Modify . At this point it is
possible to redefine the footprint to be used (you are asked if the change is
for the selected component only or for all those of the same type) choosing
it from a library.
It is also possible to change the electrical connections but this is extremely
inappropriate. Much better to go back to Capture, make changes, recreate
the .mnl file: Layout automatically notices the change (if the Capture
RunEcoToLayout option is enabled , as previously recommended) and
imports the changes without having to redo anything up to this point.

The definition of dimensions

At this point we can load the strategies file ( File> Load_strategy ): this file
contains information necessary for the automatic and semi-automatic
routing tools to choose the "rules" to use. Many parameters will have to be
changed manually depending on the individual printout but a correct
strategy is a good starting point. For single-sided circuits to be done at
home, the best choice is Jumper_v.sf or Jumper_h.sf (depending on whether
vertical or horizontal bridges are preferred). For two-sided circuits, the best
choice is 2_thr_x.sf.

Before starting to arrange the components it is mandatory to define the

dimensions of the printout. To do this we need:

 select the Obstacle_tool icon

 right-click on the drawing and select Insert
 click again with the right mouse button (the menu that opens changes)
and select Modify . This operation is useless if you have just created
an obstacle of the same type
 choose the following options: Board_outline, Width = 50 (another
value may also be appropriate) and Global_layer
 start drawing the edge of the board (it must be only one closed line,
of any shape)
 press ESC to finish

The dimensions and the number of sides of the card can be changed at any
time, simply by clicking on the border and dragging it where needed.

With the same tool it is possible to create mounting holes and other
mechanical objects without electrical functions.

It is therefore necessary to define the dimensions of the slopes. To do this,

select the Spreadsheet> Nets tool . A sort of spreadsheet appears with all
the links listed; if Capture had given a name to a connection (for example
GND_POWER or VCC) this appears, otherwise a unique code of the type
Nxxxx is assigned by the system, obviously difficult to read. Clicking on a
line the corresponding connection is highlighted on the ratsnest (and vice
versa: selecting a connection on the printout shows a line on the
spreadsheet).

To modify a property, select a row or a group of lines (also the whole table)
and then click with the right mouse button and choose Modify .

The size of the tracks is predefined but it might be appropriate to set it for
example to 15 or 20 mils (and maybe 50 for mass and 35 for power
supplies). I do not recommend to go below 8 mils, unless you have an
excellent photoengraving system. The system requires three measures
(minimum, default and maximum), generally equal to each other. If they
are different, the auto-route chooses the default one but manually you can
change the setting (for example to make the track pass in a particularly
narrow point).

Also this parameter can be modified later but to make it effective it is

necessary to first destroy the connection by clicking on the spreadsheet the
line concerned with the right mouse button and
selecting Remove_track . The operation can also be done directly on the
drawing if you are using one of the manual tools for creating the tracks.

The third measure to set is isolation, through the Spreadsheet> Strategy>

Route_spacing menu . There are a series of lines (one for each layer and of
course the hobbyist uses only the Bottom_layer and at the limit the
Top_layer) and a series of isolations expressed in mils. In general it is
advisable to choose a value of at least 15 or 20 mils when the pitches are
involved (but if you also want 8 mils they are fine, if you have a firm hand
during welding) and at least 10 or 15 mils between tracks.

The last dimension to be set is that of the grid used for routing the tracks
and the positioning of the vias (the holes that connect the various layers to
each other) and the components. To do this, select Option> Grid from the
main menu . Values normally used are 50 mils (even 100 for the components
is a good value). It is important (although not strictly necessary) that these
values are a whole sub-multiple of the distance between the pins of the
components (so generally 50, 25, 12.5, 6 ¼ mils are good if DIP integrated
circuits are used).
If the grid is too small in relation to the dimensions of the printout, a dotted
white rectangle is highlighted on the printout itself: it is only possible to
unravel it. This rectangle automatically moves between the various areas of
the printout and therefore there are no problems except a certain
inconvenience for the routing of long runs. Furthermore, there is sometimes
a certain slowness in the unraveling.

Grids that are too large sometimes make the unraveling of a circuit
impossible.

Spreadsheets
In the previous paragraph two spreadsheets have already been introduced
(the one for the definition of the isolations and the one for the definition of
the dimensions of the slopes) but as it is possible to see observing the menus
there are many others. These tools allow you to have all the parameters of
the design under control, they are initialized by uploading technology files
or strategies and can be modified manually. Frequent checking of the
information present in these sheets makes it possible to find and solve
numerous apparently problem-free problems

I now present a roundup of those most frequently used.

 Spreadsheet> Stategy> Route_pass allows you to define which steps

should be used during automatic routing. The parameters are defined
when the appropriate strategy file is loaded and I do not recommend
manual changes. The only option that is useful to modify is Done to be
able to resume the automatic routing from scratch without reloading
the strategy file
 Spreadsheet> Strategy> Route_spacing and Spreadsheet> Nets have
just been described
 Spreadsheet> Statistic is of obvious interpretation. The main utility is
to identify if links have still not been made (when the card is large it
is easy for something to escape even careful control)
 Spreadsheet> Layer allows you to define which layers to use for
manual or automatic routing. The most used option by the hobbyist is
Bottom = routing, Top = jumper (or routing if working in double
sided), Power, GND, Innerxx = unused (attention that often some of
these internal plans appear as routing or plane, making in fact
impossible to build the printed at home). Generally, after loading the
 correct technology file, manual intervention is not necessary or
appropriate
 Spreadsheet> Padstack contains the description of the different types
of pads used in the printout . It is possible to change its size and shape
for occasional interventions, specifying it for each layer (in general,
however, an intervention on libraries is advisable). The best way to
use this tool is to highlight the type of pitch on the printout (using the
tool associated with the Pin_tool icon) and then open the spreadsheet
(the rows involved will be highlighted). The reverse operation is also
possible (select a row on the spreadsheet and find all pads of that
type highlighted on the printout.

The other spreadsheets are as intuitive to use but in my opinion less useful
for making a direct change.

The positioning of the components

The components must be placed on the printout manually, according to the
classic criteria learned by making printed circuits without a PC (connectors,
switches, horizontal and external trimmers, nearby components with many
connections between them, sufficient space for the tracks, a certain order
"aesthetic" and logical ...).

The components can be rotated and moved at will without obviously leaving
the edges and mutual overlaps.

At this stage we can introduce two automatic verification tools:

 the DRC is the icon that allows a continuous monitoring of the work
done and the immediate identification of any errors such as a
component placed outside the board or insulations not respected. To
activate it, click on the corresponding icon, which remains highlighted
in red. It is generally advisable to activate this option only when the
arrangement of the components is semi-definitive as it causes too
many error messages when the board is still far from the final
appearance. Once the DRC is activated, there are few occasions when
it should be deactivated.
 The second command ( Auto> Board_space_check ) performs an
overall check on the board. It is appropriate to use this command
every now and then as the DRC sometimes misses something and the
sooner it becomes clearer the better.
The Plus version of Layout is also available with automatic component
placement but personally I found it very ineffective for single-sided circuits
and therefore I do not recommend it if not for a test run or in the case of
circuits with many small ones components similar to each other as external
dimensions. The only time I needed was to place a hundred components to
create a passive quadraphonic audio filter.

Before activating the auto-copying ( Auto> Batch_place ), remember

however to manually position the connectors and any other delicate
components from this point of view and to lock them in the chosen position
(right-click and then Lock ) .
 routing a printed circuit
routing is the operation that transforms an electrical scheme into the design
of a printed circuit. Before proceeding, make sure you have performed all
the steps described on the previous page.

The manual routing

Three software routing levels are available by clicking on the three
corresponding icons. Using these tools, the program verifies compliance with
the design rules (the DRC must be activated) and, at different levels,
provides support for choosing the best route.

 Manual_route is the least assisted tool and for this purpose they are in
the most complex cases (for example to create a zigzag track). The
program limits itself to preventing the violation of the rules (for
example, crossing with other tracks already present) and to signal the
point of arrival with a straight line. To activate this method, click on
the relative icon and then on the track you want to untangle. A little
help is obtained with a double click when the conclusion of the path is
"obvious". Note that if you want to make a manually created track no
longer editable, you must lock it (click with the right mouse button
and then Lock).
 Manual_route_with_shove is similar to the previous one with the
possibility of moving any tracks (or even components if the
Option option> Grid> Shove_components is activated ). This method is
powerful enough to create tracks from the predefined route in an area
where there are already previously tracked tracks, to be moved
slightly to make room for new ones.
 Auto_path is, among the manual ones, the one that leaves the most
control to the program. In many cases not too complex it is sufficient
to double-click on a connection of the ratsnest to see the track
complete by itself, moving any already present tracks and inserting
jumpers if necessary. In general, however, it is a better choice to
"accompany" the development of the track along the path that is
considered to be the best. It should be noted that, as long as the track
is not defined, what the program considers the best choice is outlined.
Using each of the three previous methods it is possible to introduce via (ie,
metallized holes between two layers or holes for the insertion of jumpers or
"bridges"). To do this, simply press the V key or press the 1 key to switch to
Layer_top or 2 to switch to the Layer_Bot. The routes are introduced
automatically using Auto_Path, if needed but sometimes even when it's
useless. Generally the size of the pitches by the way is a bit small than
necessary but can be changed using spreadsheet> padstack .

Below is the result of a manual unraveling, corrected by the electric point of

life but not well cared for (zigzag lines, paths with right angles, poor
"aesthetics").

To improve things you can either use the Auto_path by double-clicking on

each of the tracks to be reviewed or use the fully automatic Auto>
Auto_boardDFM tool . The effect of this command can be seen in the image
of the same printed document reported a few pages later.

It is particularly useful and opportune to use the Auto>

Board_space_check command frequently to check the routing correctness,
as Layout often seems to forget some basic rules: if you observe strange
phenomena (for example a track that refuses to pass in an empty space or a
track that insists on passing over a high) using this tool you will avoid a lot
of headaches.

The automatic routing

OrCad Layout has a completely automatic routing tool. Unfortunately for the
hobbyist the results are not very useful as using printed single-sided the
result is likely to be very disappointing (presence of numerous unnecessary
jumpers, failure to complete some tracks). The results are definitely better
when using double-sided circuits, even though they could be difficult to
achieve since it is decidedly complex to make metallized holes. I solved with
ad hoc libraries that I wrote myself, generally obtaining acceptable results.

The instrument is activated with the command Auto> Batch_route . The

process is completely automatic in the sense that the rules are provided by
the previously uploaded strategy file.

To be successful, the following rules must be followed

 Always load the most appropriate strategy (Jumper_x.sf for single-

sided and 2_thr_x.sf circuits for double-sided ones)
 Set all the parameters as described in the previous paragraph
 Manually untangle important tracks before starting (for example
power supplies or mass) or at least assign them a higher priority
( Spreadsheet> Nets> doppio_click> Weight> 50 )

Orcad Layout also provides a gridless automatic routing tool

( SmartRoute ). This tool is less flexible and less controllable than Layout
but with circuits with at least two sides it is extremely powerful. It is
practically useless in single-sided circuits (it does not automatically insert
the jumpers). To activate this tool it is necessary to edit all the features of
the card as described up to this point and then save the file. From the menu
of the first Layout window (the one in which only the gray background
appears), select Tool> SmartRoute and then start the routing operation. At
the end, return to Layout for any adjustments.

Some advice
Although the unraveling work is essentially based on experience, here are
some tips, in no particular order.

 Before starting the rigging, print the circuit ( File> Print , selecting
Scaled_plot) to make a careful 1: 1 scale evaluation of the circuit and
the component footprint. Unfortunately, sometimes the monitor
"cheats" on the actual dimensions and the results that will be obtained
are not the expected ones
 Manually untangle at least the most important tracks (for example
mass and power supply). In single-sided prints, the manual routing is
often faster and qualitatively better
 When moving components or tracks into an already partially untangled
circuit, always check that the DRC is active. In general, once the
components are roughly positioned, it is useless to disable the DRC
 You often use the command Auto> Board_space_check (and also Auto>
Board_design_check ) to search for violations of the drawing
rules. Don't wait for the program to make mistakes to find out how
useful and faster it is to use this command frequently
 If you find that a track creates a short in several places (for example
after a change of minimum insulation on the fly) it is often faster to
remove the track than to correct the error. To remove a track, totally
or partially, click with the right mouse button on the track when using
the Manual_route_with_shove or Manual_route tools and
choose Remove or use the spreadsheet in a similar way
 If you have to pass a bundle of tracks in a small space (even if
sufficient) it is better to use the Manual_route_with_shove tool . You
can also try reducing the grid to very low values or activate the Tools>
Gridless_tool tool
 It is advisable and strongly advised to create your
own footprint libraries , as described in the last chapter of the tutorial
 If you are designing a double-sided circuit, never use standard libraries
as they require metallised holes (unless of course you know how to do
them)
 If you decide to change the width of a track, remember to delete
it first to make the changes effective
 If you find difficulty in routing a track, press the X key on the
keyboard to invert the starting and ending point of the ratsnest: it
often simplifies things
 To avoid the passage of tracks at a certain point, insert a rectangle or
a copper line or cover the space between the tracks with a ground
plane, insert the appropriate obstacles
(respectively Anti_copper , Copper_area , Free_track , Copper_pour )
with the same method already described for inserting the edges of the
print. All these objects can be electrically isolated or connected to a
track (for example GND)
 Remember that with a 75 mils pitch the hole should be as low as 0.8
mm. With 60 mils pitches, the hole must be 0.6mm (sufficient for an
integrated DIP but not for a ¼ W resistance), with 100 mils pitches,
1.3 mm. A useful table can be found here
 Layout provides some tools to identify and resolve errors after
executing Board_space_check: after selecting the Error_tool icon ,
with the Q key a text window opens with the description of the error
and with in the N key we can move between the various errors,
highlighted by a circle. The explanation given is not very effective,
especially at the beginning, but it helps
 To verify the effective completion of the routing, use
the Spreadsheet> Statistic tool as sometimes microscopic sections
remain unconnected and difficult to identify until the test is
printed. If it is not possible to identify the nets not yet connected, it
is often useful to activate the automatic routing and let him complete
the job
 If you have automatically untangled a card and made some changes,
remember before resuming the routing to reload the strategy
(or Spreadsheet> Route_pass , select all the lines, press the right
button and then Modify and uncheck Done)
 On many occasions it is advisable to simplify the fraud by reversing
between them two pins of an integrated (for example the inputs of a
logic door). To do this, select the Pin_tool icon, then right-click and
select Swap. If the exchange does not appear to be correct from the
electrical point of view to the program (for example the attempt to
exchange an input with an output), a warning is issued and a
confirmation is requested. To update the schematic with this change,
use the Tools File> Reports> Orcad_backannotation in Layout
 and Tool> Gate_and_pin_swap in Capture, in order to create and use,
respectively, a .swp file
 Similarly it is possible to exchange two identical integrated doors. You
select Tool> Gate and, after using the right mouse button, Swap
 As an alternative to the previous method, to simplify a routing,
a direct intervention on the schematic is possible , keeping Capture
and Layout open at the same time: in this case the libraries do not
need to support the swap and it is also possible to do little "orthodox"
operations such as the exchange of pins on the outputs of a
microcontroller
 Before making radical changes to a circuit, save a copy of the work up
to that point. However, the program autonomously manages these
backups (all files have a .max extension: backupX.max, SweepX.max,
PlaceX.max)
 Add writings to indicate the polarities of the components and above
all to identify the correct direction with which the transparencies will
be used (remembering that a writing that must be read correctly on
the solder side must be seen mirrored on the monitor during the
schematic project)
 Layout likes to insert jumpers and away because in the industrial
production these are not a problem (they are instead for that makes
holes and welds by hand). To improve things you can use Option>
Manual_route and set a "cost" greater than 70 or 80 on the way: it is
obviously not advisable to overdo it. Similarly an intervention is
possible in the case of automatic routing ( Spreadsheet> Route_pass )
but even here it is better not to exaggerate for the secondary effects
that it could have on the entire strategy.
 The press of the master
In order to make the circuit it is necessary to print the various layers of the
circuit separately. To do this, first use the Post_processing icon >
Set_up_batch .

Below, I post, in the background, the post-processing spreadsheet which

shows the layers that make up the printout on the various lines and the
setting of the output parameters on the columns.

After having selected one of the lines (bottom_layer in the example shown
here), clicked with the right mouse button and chosen modify, the window
that allows you to set the various parameters appears:

 the type of output required (in practice, the hobbyist will always
choose Print_manager since it is unlikely to have a Gerber
photoplotter). The output on the printer is adequate for the
production of master for photoengraving
  The option to keep the holes open (it is strongly recommended to
activate it). It is not possible to decide on its size but the one
obtained is adequate for manual drilling
 The possible possibility of moving or rotating the image that will be
printed
 The scale, obviously to leave 1: 1 if you print on acetate or on another
support for photoengraving
 The possibility of Mirror. Personally I leave this option off for the
Bottom layer and active for the Top one as this allows you to use the
sheet that will be printed in the way I consider the best (ie with the
printing ink facing the copper). Be careful not to make mistakes
 The option to enable or disable layer printing. Normally it is active
only for the Bottom, Top (if provided) and assembly layers. A separate
sheet is printed for each layer. It may also be useful to print the
drilling plan

Right-clicking on a row of the post-processing spreadsheet and choosing

preview will reveal two things that leave you perplexed:

 The holes at one hundred of the pitches do not appear open even if
the appropriate option has been activated. In reality the print will be
correct, it is only an "oversight" of the programmers
 The tracks often appear in various colors (usually blue). This thing,
apart from aesthetic considerations, poses a big problem: with a black
and white printer (in particular with lasers, the best for this use) the
tracks will appear netted, producing very bad results when going to
photoengraving. To solve the problem you need to take the following
steps (be scrupulous ...)

1. Display the post-processing spreadsheet in about half the screen

2. Right-click on the line of the layer concerned and press preview
3. Size the preview window to occupy about half the screen
4. Click anywhere in the preview window
5. Click on the Inizialize_color icon, right-click on the line concerned, in
the column with the color, and choose the black color
6. Go back to the post-processing spreadsheet (without closing the top
windows), right-click on the line in question and select Save_colors.

An always necessary intervention for a better readability is to edit the

Assembly layer, that is the one that contains the design of the components
and the respective values in addition to various written. In particular it is
necessary the correct rotation and the displacement of the overlapping
writings. It is also useful to add writings, even if they are not present on the
printout (unless you also want to make a serigraphy).

To edit a layer (graphically only!) It is sufficient to intervene with the tools

available when the preview window is open.

Finally, to print the activated layers it is necessary to use the

command Post_processing> Run_batch . Each layer is printed on a different
sheet and obviously for each of them it will be necessary to introduce the
appropriate support, paper rather than glossy.

An alternative method for scaling a single layer is to highlight it in the

Post_process spreadsheet and, after clicking with the right mouse button,
select Plot_to_print_manager .

Below are four example circuit views chosen from the many available, not
printed to scale. In the order:

1. The window with the printout at the end of the routing operations
2. The printing of the weld side. Note that the color has been correctly
forced to black and that the print is symmetrical with respect to what
you will have to see on the printout if viewed from the weld side
3. The arrangement of the components (in the classic dark blue color)
4. The drilling plan (normally useless for the hobbyist) .
 The use of libraries
In the course of the tutorial I have repeatedly mentioned the fact that it is
important to use own footprint libraries. The main reasons for this choice
are:

 The number of different physical forms of the components used is

generally a few dozen at most. It is easier to find these few
components in a small library than to search for them in dozens of
different libraries, each with hundreds of components whose names
are not always immediate
 The standard libraries generally have the pitches too small (typically
from 50 to 63 mils): they are perfect if metalized but inadequate
holes are used for holes with a diameter greater than 0.6 mm, ie those
most frequently used by the hobbyist. In the case of pitches that are
too small, there is a risk that during drilling or welding, the stand
itself will detach from the vetronite support
 Often the footprints that are needed are not found: trimmers, 7-
segment displays, integrated power are those that are most often
missed due to the considerable variability. In this case there are no
alternatives to the design of the new footprint
 The standard libraries create problems with double-sided printed
circuits in the case of components that cannot be welded "from above"
such as connectors, vertical condensers and, in some cases, integrated
circuit sockets: in fact the program implies the metallization of the
holes to perform connections.

There are two temptations to be avoided in the most absolute way:

 Modify standard library components, leaving them the same name:

when that original standard component is needed, it will simply have
been deleted
 Change the footprint directly in the circuit: the next time that
footprint is used, the same problem would occur again.
The best way to create a new footprint and a new library is to modify an
existing component similar to the one you want to create; obviously it is
necessary to save it with a new name and, possibly, in a proper library
file. Normally I use three rows of libraries: one for connectors, one for high
density circuits (minimum insulation, small pads) and one for low density
circuits; obviously everyone is free to choose how to organize their
footprints.

To create a new library, use the Tools> Library_manager command from the
main Layout window . A list of libraries is opened, by clicking on which the
list of the components they contain is shown. The same command is present
between the icons in the main Layout window and can also be used during
the routing of a circuit.

On the icon bar of the Library manager there are some tools to modify the
footprint, practically coinciding with those present in the Layout routing
window; the use is rather intuitive if you have already used the Layout
tools, especially if you start from a component already done (which I
strongly recommend, and not just the first few times).

The main attention must be paid to the preparation of pitches: all

information is manipulated using the Spreadsheet>
Padstack command (stack of sheets) which contains the list of all types of
pitches available in the library. To identify a specific element, first click on
the drawing to highlight a pin in the spreadsheet (or vice versa).
In the spreadsheet the shape and size of the pitches appear, divided by
layer. It is possible to edit directly or, more simply, through a double click,
use the appropriate window. Some pitches are predefined and even in this
case it is advisable to use already made ones (or create new ones starting
from others already done). Indicatively the ideal size for round or square
pads is 75 mils for 0.8 mm holes, value to be adjusted for holes of different
sizes.

The padstacks of those components that must not have welds on the upper
layer deserve special treatment (for double-sided circuits but obviously the
same component can be used in single-sided circuits). In this case it is
advisable that on the top layer the pitch diameter is much smaller (say 30
mils, practically the size of the hole), of an annular shape and above all
reported as No_connection and Non_plated . It is not advisable to
completely remove the pads from the top layer as, during the routing, you
could have the passage of a track in correspondence with the hole, with
obvious negative results and difficult to identify

Another thing to pay attention to when creating libraries is to identify

obstacles on all layers (even those that are "invisible" such as the
mechanical dimensions of the components). If you start from footprint
already made there are no problems as all the layers are always present.