Aquaculture PDF

DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 327 657 CE 056 667
AUTHOR Walker, Susan S.

TITLE Aquaculture. Teacher Edition.
INSTTJTON Mid-America Vocational Curriculum Consortium,
Stillwater, Okla.
PUB DATE 90
NOTE 876p.
AVAILABLr FROM Mid-America 7ocational Curriculum Consortium, 1500
West Seventh Avenue, Stillwater, OK 74074 (order no.
CN601501: $38.50).
PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use Guides (For Teachers) (052)
EDRS PRICE MF06 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.

DESCRIPTORS *Agricultural Production; Behavioral Objectives;
Business Administration; *Equipment; *Fisheries;
Learning Activities; Lesson Plans; Marine Biology;
Postsecondary Education; Secondary Education;
Teaching Methods; Test Items; Units of Study; *Water
Quality
IDENTIFIERS *Aquaculture
ABSTRACT
This color-coded guide was developed to assist
teachers in helping interested students plan, build, stock, and run
aquaculture facilities of varied sizes. The guide contains 15
instructional units, each of which includes some or all of the
following basic components: objective sheet, suggested activities for
the teacher, instructor supplements, transparency masters,
information sheet, assignment sheets, assignment sheet answers, job
sheets, practical tests, written test, and answers to written test.
Units cover the following topics: introduction to aquaculture; the
aquatic environment; fundamental fish biology; marketing; site
selection; facility design and layout; water quality management; fish
health management; commercial catfish production; commercial trout
production; commercial baitfish production; commercial crayfish
production; other commercial species; harvesting and hauling; and
business management. All of the units focus on measurable and
observable learning outcomes. They are designed for use in more than
one lesson or class period of instruction. (KC)
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AQUACULTURE
Written by
Susan S. Walker
Edited by
Dan Fulkerson
Developed by
- The Mid-America Vocational Curriculum Consortium, Inc.
Board of Directors
Ann Masters, Nebraska, Chairman

Sylvia Clark, Texas, Vice-Chairman
Donna Brookhart, Colorado, Parliamentarian
Bruce Simpson, Arkansas
Janet Huss, Iowa
Carol Fagan, Kansas
David Poston, Louisiana
Harley Schlichting, Missouri
Ron Mehrer, North Dakota
Ann Benson, Oklahoma
Larry Nelson, South Dakota
Jim Steward, Executive Director
90-007289
4 CN601501
el
©1990 by the Mid-America Vocational Curriculum Consortium, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in

any form or by any means without written permission from the
publisher.
Printed in the United States of American by the

Oklahoma State Department of Vocational-Technical Education
Stillwater, OK 74074
Mid-America Vocational Curriculum Consortium, Inc.

1500 West Seventh
Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074-4364
5
o
ii
\
1
AQUACULTURE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit I: Introduction to Aquaculture

1
Unit II: The Aquatic Environment

39
Unit III: Fundamental Fish Biology
109
Unit IV: Marketing
157
Unit V: Site Selection
199
Unit VI: Facility Design and Layout
241
Unit VII: Water Quality Management
323
Unit VIII: Fish Health Management
411
Unit IX: Commercial Catfish Production
513
Unit X: Commercial Trout Production
581
Unit XI: Commercial Baitfish Production
635
Unit XII: Commercial Crayfish Production
703
Unit XIII: Other Commercial Species
747
Unit XIV: Harvesting and Hauling
781
Unit XV: Business Management
861
iii 6
FOREWORD
Because American agriculture is increasingly subject to unstable markets and inroads from
foreign competition, alternatives to agriculture are emerging to help the American farmer
find new products and markets. Aquaculture is one of the exciting alternatives that
promises economic rewards to those who take the time to plan and develop a fish farm
or any other aquaculture project properly. That's what MAVCC's Aquaculture has as an
ultimate objective: to help interested students plan, build, stock and run aquaculture
facilities of varied sizes. Aquaculture projects require planning and management
comparable to any other commercial endeavor. Much of the material in our text addresses
the down-to-earth activities of selecting a site, evaluating soil types, selecting equipment,
planning a facility, and managing water quality to promote good health and growth.
Aquaculture is a good-sized text, almost bigger than a bread basket, but with the bigness
comes a comprehensive text from which instructors and students may select materials that
can be put to work locally.
As is typical with MAVCC's competency-based format, Aquaculture is chock full of hands-

on assignment and job sheets that explain to students how to get things done. We think
you'll enjoy the textwe feel that everyone will profit from it.
Ann Masters, Chairman Jim Steward

Board of Directors Executive Director
Mid-Amefica Vocational Mid-America Vocatiorrl
Curriculum Consortium Curriculum Consortium
v 7
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Resource Committee which planned and approved materials for Aquaculture was
professional in every sense of the word. Some committee members farm fish; other
committee members are involved in the teaching and experimentation that helps others
farm fish more profitably. Their collective knowledge is evident in each unit of the text.
To the Resource Committee goes a thank you to every member:
Bill Binnian, President/General Manager, Mount Blanca Game Bird and Trout, Inc.,
Blanca, Colorado.
Glen Gebhart, Langston University Agricultui al Research and Extension Department,

Langston, University, Langston, Oklahoma.
Jim Gleim, Hatchery Biologist, Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, North Platte
Hatchery, North Platte, Nebraska.
D. Leroy Gray, Extension Fisheries Specialist, University of Arkansas Co-op Extension

Service, Little Rock, Arkansas.
Dr. Gary Jensen, Aquaculture Specialist, Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service,

Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Jim Kahrs, Owner/Operator, Osage Catfishery, Osage Beach, Missouri.
Dr. Wallace Klussman, Professor, Department of Wildlife and Fishery Science, Texas
A&M University, College Station, Texas.
It would be impossible to name everyone whose works in other books and published items
have contributed significantly to MAVCC's effort to produce a comprehensive text. But it's
worth a try.
A thank you to John Guidice, D. Leroy Gray, and J. Mayo Martin for their Manual for Bait
Fish Culture in the South, a joint publication of the University of Arkansas Cooperative
Extension Service and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Another valuable reference is Jasper S. Lee's Catfish Farming. A Reference Unit, published
by Mississippi State University, and we thank all associated with that publication'.
Catfish AqLiaculture: A Decision-Making Guidebook was published by the Louisiana

Cooperative Extension Service at the Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, and
to those who helped with that project, another thank you for providing a valuable resource.
We thank Claude E. Boyd and Frank Lichtkoppler for another valuable resource, Water
Quality Management in Pond Fish Culture. The text was published by the International
Center for Aquaculture, Agricultural Experiment Station at Auburn University, Auburn,
Alabama, under the direction of R. Dennis Rouse.
To Larry Belusz we extend a thank you for materials used from his Fish Farming
Techniques. That text was published as a ;oint effort by the Instructional Materials
Laboratory, University of Missouri, Columbia, in coope,ation with the Missouri Department
to Elementary and Secondary Education, Jefferson City, Missouri.
r
Crawfish in the Classroom is only a five-page brochure, but we thank J. V. Huner of

Southern University ark; J. E. Barr of the Louisiana Department of Education for an
impressive effort and the good graphics.
Glenn L. Hoffman and Andrew J. Mitchell wrote Some Parasites and Diseases of
Warmwater Fishes. This was published by the Fish Farming Experimental Station, U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, Stuttgart, Arkansas. Although it is listed as Fish and Wildlife
Leaflet 6, it had a book-size value to the MAVCC effort, and we thank Hoffman and
Mitchell for a job well done.
A special thank you goes to Harry K. Dupree and Jay V. Huner for the Third Report to
the Fish Farmers which they edited. The Report proved its value time and time again.
Naturally, our thank you is extended to all the contributors to that marvelous book, and to
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for publishing the text.
Fish Hatchery Management published by the United States Department of the Interior, Fish
and Wildlife Service, contributed vital information to the unit about trout production. Thanks
to Robert G. Piper, Ivan B. McElwain, Leo E. Orme, Joseph P. McCraren, Laurie G.
Fowler, John R. Leonard, and others who helped with that excellent text.
,
,
We thank the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission and the very cooperative people at
1
NEBRASKALand Magazine for their well-illustrated publication, The Fish Book.
For their help with other stages of development, we thank Glen Gebhart for help with
photographs and his technical expertise, Jim Gleim for special help with the trout farming
unit, D. Leroy Gray for help with photographs and information in the baitfish unit, Gary
Jensen for help with photographs and for finding Louisiana crawfish farmers willing to lend
a hand, Wallace Kiussman for materials on international aquaculture, and Jim Kahrs for
a special fish farming textall in Chinese.
Our final thank you goes to the many anonymous fish farmers whose failures and
successes alike, in varied circumstances, have contributed to the solid body of references
that have turned aquaculture into a disciplined activity.
Development of Aquaculture has been an adventure. We at MAVCC hope it serves well

the 'instructors and students for whom it is designed.
9
viii
AQUACULTURE
INSTRUCTIONAL / TASK ANALYSIS
JOB TRAINING: What the RELATED INFORMATION:

Worker Should Be Able to Do What the Worker Should Know
(Psychomotor) (Cognitive)
UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO AQUACULTURE
1. Terms and definitions
2. Facts about aquaculture
3. The historical background of

aquaculture
4. Types of aquaculture environ-

ments
5. Types of aquaculture enterprises
6. Species of economic importance
7. Factors to consider before starting

an aquaculture enterprise
8. Limiting factors in joint agriculture/

aquaculture enterprises
9. Physical and fiscal risks

associated with aquaculture
10. Advantages of aquaculture
11. Sources of information about

aquaculture
12. Survey local aquaculture production.
(Assignment Sheet #1)
13. Visit a support facility and interview

the operator(s). (Assignment Sheet
#2)
14. Survey local market outlets for types

of fish sold. (Assignment Sheet #3)
15. Interview a local producer.

..,- .
ix I. 0
Worker Should be Able to Do What the Worker Should Know
UNIT II: THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT

2. Important variables affecting the

ecological balance of a pond
3. Links in the aquatic food chain
4. The oxygen cycle in pond ecology
5. Factors affecting oxygen

production in pond water
6. The effects of seasonal

temperature changes on pond
water
7. The positive roles of plankton and

benthic organisms in pond
ecology
8. ';he negative roles of plankton

and benthic organisms in pond
ecology
9. Problems concerning carbon

dioxide in the aquatic environment
10. Problems concerning water acidity

(pH) in pond ecology
11. Water alkalinity and hardness
12. Ammonia and ammonia

byproducts in pond ecology
13. Hydrogen sulfide in the aquatic

environment
14. Aquatic plants
15. Sources of water pollution
Collect pond plankton and examine

under a microscope. (Assignment
Sheet #1)
Observe the effects of sunlight on
collected samples of pond water.
Seine a pond; examine findings and

discuss the fish food chain.
11
x
19. Collect a pond bottom

sample;examine and discuss
findings. (Assignment Sheet #4)
20. Prepare a list of food sources a

sample pond. offers its fish
populations; identify benthio
organisms and other elements in the
food chain. (Assignment Sheet #5)
21. Survey the aquatic plants and
marginal ecology of a sample pond;
discuss the ecological impact on fish
populations and the aquatic
environment. (Assignment Sheet #6)
UNIT III: FUNDAMENTAL FISH BIOLOGY

2. External parts of a typical fish
3. Basic external body features that
permit fish to live in water
4. Internal organs of a typical fish
5. The functions of internal organs
and systems of fishes
6. Life cycles of fish
7. Fish species
8. Dissect a fish, examine under a
microscope, and identify internal
organs. (Job Sheet #1)
9. Kill, weigh, measure, and dress a
catfish, and compare dressed and
undressed measurements. (Job
Sheet #2)
UNIT IV: MARKETING

2. Processing plant markets
3. Live haul markets
4. Local markets: stores and
restaurants
5. Local retail markets
6. The fee-fish market
xi 12
7. Economy of scale
8. Factors to consider when

exploring marketing alternatives
9. Product forms
10. Food processing cuts and forms
11. Dressout percentages of

processing cuts and forms
12. On-site versus plant processing
13. Disposal of processing waste
14. Permits and regulations
18. Survey local markets. (Assignment

Sheet #1)
16. Skin and filet a catfich. (Job Sheet
#1)
17. Dress and package a trout. (Job

Sheet #2)
UNIT V: SITE SELECTION
2. Three basic site requirements
3. Facts to consider when evaluatIng

a site's potential water sources
4. Steps in determining a site's
'slater quality
5. Pond type and site evaluation
6. Steps in determining whether soil

is suitable for pond construction
7. Basic soil types

8. Soil considerations in site
sek)ction
9. Topographical considerations in
site selection
10. General facts to consider in site

selection
11. Site-specific factors that determine

cost
xii
13
12. Laws, regulations, and permits

required to develop a site for fish
farming
13. Survey a site*.-; potential as a fish

farm. (Assignment Sheet #1)
14. Evaluate a potential site's soil

quality. (Assignment Sheet #2)
15. Evaluate a potential site's water

sources and quariy. (Assignment
Sheet #3)
16. Complete a checklist to determine
site's feasibility. (Assignment Sheet
#4)
UNIT VI: FACILITY DESIGN AND LAYOUT

2. Types of farm water enclosures
3. Facility requirements for food-fish
production
4. Facility requirements for channel

catfish fingerling production
5. Requirements for rainbow trout
fingerling production
6. Facility requirements for fee-fish

operation
7. Initial steps in planning an on-site

processing facility
8. Facility and equipment

requirements for an on-site
processing facility
9. Factors to consider when planning

pond size
10. Layout and design considerations
11. Advantages of small versus large
pond
12. Estimate water requirements.

13. Calculate common earth pond
construction requirements.
r xiii
_ _,
14. Design and layout a pond.

15. Determine costs of local well drilling,
earthmoving, and construction
services. (Assignment Sheet #4)
16. Complete a feasibility study of a

selected site by estimating
construction. (Assignment Sheet #5)
17. Construct a cage for fish culture.
(Job Sheet #1)
UNIT VII: WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT

2. Compounds and elements and
their chemical formulas and
symbols
1. The importance of oxygen in

water quality management
4. The role of temperature in oxygen
management
5. Natural sources of water

temperature variation and their
effects
6. Types of thermometers for

measuring water temperature
7. Facts about temperature
management techniques
8. Causes of DO (dissolved oxygen)

loss
9. Signs of DO deficiency
10. Facts about the prevention of DO
depletion
11. Guidelines for measuring DO

12. DO measuring equipment and its
description
13. Methods of correcting DO

deficiency
14. Types of mechanical aerators

15. Facts about turbidity remedies
xiv
16. The importance of nitrogen

compounds in water quality
management
17. pH and water quality

18. Methods of managing the pH
cycle
19. The purposes of liming

20. General guidelines for water
chemistry management
21. Aquatic plant control methods
22. Calcuiate dosages for chemical
treatments. (Assignment Sheet #1)
O. Analyze facility aerator needs.

24. Use a Secchi disc to measure

turbidity. (Job Sheet #1)
25. Use an 02 meter to measure DO

(Job Sheet #2)
26. Use a water analysIs kit to test
water quality parampters. (Job
Sheet #3)
27. Predict low DO levels, using Secchi
disc, projection, and chart methods.
(Job Sheet #4)
UNIT VIII: FISH HEALTH MANAGEMENT

2. Skin and tissue conditions
3. Severity of disease or condition
4. Behavior or appearance of sick
fish
5. The role of stress in fish diseases

6. Common stressors of fish
7. Signs of stress and disease
8. Common pathogenic viruses
9. Common pathogenic bacteria
xv
10. Common pathogenic fungi

11. Common pathogenic protozoan
parasites
12. Common pathogenic crustacean

parasites
13. Common pathogenic worm

parasites
14. General management measures

for preventing disease outbreaks
15. Basic hygiene for disease
prevention and corrective
management
16. Treatment methods and their

administration specifics
17. General guidelines for treatment

of fish diseases
18. Regulations for chemical
application in fish production
19. Solve problems related to common
diseases and conditions of fish.
20. Calculate treatment rates.

21. Prepare a list of local, area or state

specialists to contact in the event of
a disease emergency. (Assignment
Sheet #3)
22. Report on the activities and

precedures observed at a disease
diagnostic laboratory. (Assignment
Sheet #4)
23. Complete record-keeping forms on
fish health management practices.
(Assignment Sheet #)
24. Prepare and package a speciman for
shipment to a diagnostic laboratory.
(Job Sheet #1)
Unit IX: COMMERCIAL CATFISH PRODUCTION

2. The advantages of raising catfish
xvi 17
3. The limitations of raising catfish

4. The phases of fingerling
production
5. Guidelines for s. cking broodfish
6. Managing broodfish in pens

7. Managing broodfish in open ponds
8. Egg, fry, and fingerling

management
9. Stocking rates for fingerling grow-

out
10. Guidelines for obtaining fingerlings

for food-fish production
11. Size options for stocking
fingerlings for food-fish production
12. Food-fish stocking rates
13. Types of commercial catfish feeds
14. Size ano quality of catfish feed

15. Guidelines for feeding food fish
16. Producing catfish in cages
17. Advantages of cage culture
18. Limitations of cage culture
19. Tank and raceway culture of
channel catfish
20. Keep daily, weekly, and monthly
production records. (Assignment
Sheet #1)
21. Calculate stocking rates.
22. Calculate FCR and estimate fish

weights from feed records.
23. Calculate feed requirements and
costs. (Assignment Sheet #4)
24. Make an anticipated loss projection.

xvii 18
JOB TRAINING: What the
Worker Should be Able to Do
(Psychomotor)
RELATED INFORMATION:
What the Worker Should Know
(Cognitive)
I
25. Perform pond sathpling to estimate
average fish weights and standing
crop weight. (Job Sheet #1)
UNIT X: COMMERCIAL TROUT PRODUCTION

2. Trout culture
3. The external anatomy of a
rainbow trout
4. Basic water quality requirements
5. Types of trout farming enterprises
6. Phases of trout production

7. Broodfish maragement
8. Egg management
9. Fry and fingerling management

10. General guidelines for feeding
different sized fish
11. General management guidelines
12. Types of impoundment and
rearing units
13. Raceway design

14. Water use systems
15. Typical stocking/loading rates
16. Flow Index and Density Index

17. Keep trout production records.
18. Calculate raceway carrying capacity
based on flow and density indexes.
19. Predict ammonia loads based on
food consumption, fish load, and
water flow rate. (Assignment Sheet
#3)
20. Artificially spawn trout broodfish.

(Job Sheet #1)
19
Worker Should be Able to Do What the Worker Shr,uld Know
21. Inventory a raceway load. (Job

Sheet #2)
XI: COMMERCIAL BAITFISH PRODUCTION

2. The baitfish industry
3. Marketing options
4. Factors affecting marketing

success
5. Popular baitfish species
6. General characteristics of baitfish
species
7. Guidelines for selection of

broodstock
8. Reproductive and spawning

characteristics of golden shiner,
fathead minnow, and goldfish
9. Propagation methods
10. Methods of pcild preparation for

the propagation and rearing of
baitfisti
11. Predators and their control

techniques
12. Propagation techniques and

stocking rates for goiden shiners
and goldfish
13. Free-spawning and fry transfer

methods of propagating fathead
minnows -
14. Fertilization techniques for

plankton production
15. Feeding practices
16. Basic harvesting equipment needs
17. General guidelines for harvesting

baitfish to holding troughs
18. Harvesting methods
19. Guidelines for maintaining baitfish
in holding troughs
.xix
20
20. Grading procedures and grading

equ!;;ment
21. Guidelines for transporting fish to

long-distance markets
22. Guidelines for transporting fish to
short-distance markets
23. Survey baitfish dealers to evaluate
local supply and demand.
24. Visit a baitfish farm and report on
the operation. (Assignment :3heet
#2)
25. Trap, count or weigh, and grade a

sample of baitfish. (Job Sheet #1)
26. Make a spawning mat. (Job Sheet
#2)
27. Bring baitfish eggs into hatching

area and watch them hatch. (Job
Sheet #3)
XII: COMMERCIAL CRAYFISH PRODUCTION

2. Crayfish aquaculture
3. Crayfish body parts and their
functions
4. Species selection
5. Red Swamp and White River
crayfishes
6. The reproduction and life cycie of

crayfish
7. Crayfish pond types

8. Open pond design
9. Open pond management cycle
10. Recirculating ponds
11. Water quality requirements for
crayfish
12. Start-up stocking rates
XX
21
o JOB TRAINING: What the
Workar Should be Able to Do
(Psychomotor)
(Cognitive)
13. Feeds and feeding practices

14. Harvesting crayfish
15. Handling and shipping crayfish

16. Identify crayfish species and sexes.
17. Identify the external and interna!
parts of a crayfish. (Assignment
Sheet #2)
18. Research techniques for soft-shell
crayfish production, and report co the
class. (issignment Sheet #3)
19. Construct a crayfish trap. (Job

Sheet #1)
XIII: OTHER COMMERCIAL SPECIES

e 2.
3.
The commercial culture of tilapia
Methods of managing tilapia to
control overpopulation
4. The culture of largemouth bass
5. The culture of bluegill and hybrid
sunfish
The culture of crappies

7. Description and uses of common
and Chinese carps
8. The commercial production of
striped and hybrid striped bass
9. Marine species that can be
cultured in freshwater
alligators
bullfrogs
12. The commercial culture of hobby

and ornamental fish
--xxi 22
13. Interview local hobby and ornamental

fish retailers to determine area
supply and demand. (Assignment
Sheet #1
14. Visit a facility that cultures a species

discussed in this unit, and report on
the operation. (Assignment Sheet
#2)
XIV: HARVESTING AND HAULING

2. Advantages of total and partial
harvest
3. Limitations of total and partial

harvest
4. Guidelines for quality control
5. Correct uses of harvesting

equipment
6. Correct uses of grading equipment
7. Pre-harvest guidelines
8. Harvesting techniques and

procedures
9 Pond-to-shed transport procedures
10. Holding practices
11. Grading practices
12. Hauling equipment
13. Loading procedures and rates

14. Hauling and water quality
15. Chemicals, their correct

descriptions and rates
16. Unloading procedures
17. Guidelines for the care of nets

18. Calculate loading rates. (Assignment
Sheet #1)
19. Observe and report on a commercial

harvest. (Assignment Sheet #2)
23
o JOB TRAINING: What the
Worker Should be Able to Do
(Psychomotor)
(Cognitive)
20. Survey your area and state for laws

and regulations concerning interstate
and intrastate shipping. (Assignment
Sheet #3)
21. Check water temperature and other
shipping parameters. (Job Sheet
#1)
22. Grade fish. (Job Sheet #2)

23. Package fish in a plastic bag. (Job
Sheet #3)
24. Disinfect fish transport tanks and
equipment. (Job Sheet #4)
XV: BUSINESS MANAGEMENT

2. Reasons for keeping records
3. Basic kinds of records
4. Production credit and consumption
credit
5. Guidelines for building and

maintaining a good credit standing
6. The three C's of good credit
7. Factors that a lender looks for in
a borrower
8. Factors that a borrower looks for
in a lender
9. Indicators of good loan repayment
ability
10. Indicators of poor loan repayment
ability
11. Major types of credit extended by
businesses
12. Types of loans issued by banks
and other lending institutions
13. Sources of credit for aquacultural
enterprises
14. Methods of computing interest
15. True annual interest rates
24
16. Essential cormonents of all

budgets
17. Budgeting principles
18. Prepare an equipment cost
comparison report. (Assignment
Sheet #1)
19. Estimate fixed costs. (Assignment

Sheet #2)
20. Develep an enterprise budget to
determine actual costs and expected
returns. (Assignment Sheet #3)
21. Develop a cash flow projection.

22. Use a ::omputer to evaluate an
aquacultural operation. (Assignment
Sheet #5)
23. Interview a local lender and report
24.
on attitudes about aquaculture
capital. (Assignment Sheet #6)
Complete a checklist to determine

individual potential in the aquaculture
e
industry. (Assignment Sheet #7)
25
tb
xxiv
USE OF THIS PUBLICATION
Instructional Units
Aquaculture contains fifteen units of instruction. Each instructional unit includes

some or all of the basic components of a unit of instruction, performance objectives,
suggested activities for teachers and students, information sheets, assignment sheets, job
sheets, visual aids, tests, and answers to the tests. Units are planned for more than one
lesson or class period of instruction.
Careful study of each instructional unit by the teacher will help to determine.
A. The amount of material that can be covered in each class period

B. The skills which must be demonstrated
1. Supplies needed
2. Equipment needed
3. Amount of practice needed
4. Amount of class time needed for demonstrations
C Supplementary materials such as pamphlets or filmstrips that must be ordered

D. Resource people who must be contacted
Objectives
Each unit of instruction is based on performance objectives. These objectives state

the goals of the course, thus providing a sense of direction and accomplishment for the
student.
Performance objectives are stated in twc forms. unit objectives, stating the subject
matter to be covered in a unit of instruction, and specific objectives, stating the student
performance necessary to reach the unit objective.
Since the objectives of the unit provide direction for the teaching-learning process,
it is important for the teacher and students to have a common understanding of the intent
of the objectives. A limited number of performance terms have been used in the
objectives for this curriculum to assist in promoting the effectiveness of the communication
among all individuals using the materials.
Reading of the objectives by the student should be followed by a class discussion

to answer any questions concerning performance requirements for each instructional unit.
Teachers should feel free to add objectives which will fit the material to the needs
of the students and community. When teachers add objectives, they should remember to
supply the needed information, assignment and/or job sheets, and criterion tests.
o
xxv 26
Suggested Activities for the Instructor
Each unit of instruction has a b,:ggested activities section outlining steps to follow
in accomplishing specific objectives. Duties of instructors will vary according to the
particular unit, however, for best use of the material they should include the following.
provide students with objective sheet, information sheet, assignment sheets, and job
sheets, praview filmstrips, make transparencies, and arrange for resource materials and
people, discus unit and specific objectives and information sheet, give test. Teachers are
encouraged to use any additional instructional activities and teaching methods io aid
students in accomplishing the objectives.
Information Sheets
Information sheets provide content essential for meeting the cognitive (knowledge)
objectives in tne unit. The teacher will find that the information sheets serve as an
excallent guide for presenting the background knowledge necessary to develop the skill
specified in the unit objective.
Students should read the information sheets before the information is discussed in
class. Students may take additional notes on the information sheets.
Transparency Masters
Transparency masters provide information in a special way. The students may see
as well as hear tae material being presented, thus reinforcing the learning process.
Transparencies may presen: new information or they may reinforce information presented
in the information sheets. They are particularly effective when identification is necessary.
Transparencies should be made and placed in the notebook where they will be
immediately available for use. Transparencies direct the class's attention to the topic of
discussion. They should be left on the screen only when topics shown are under
1 discussion.
Assignment Sheets
Assignment sheets provide paper and pencil activities to aid the student in practicing
and developing the knowledge necessary for skill development. These may be given to
the student for completion in class or used for homework assignments. Answer sheets are
provided which may be used by the student and'or teacher for checking student progress.
Job Sheets
Job sheets are an important segment of each unit. The instructor should be able
to demonstrate the skills outlined in the job sheets. Procedures outlined in the job sheets
give direction to the skill being taught and allow both student and teacher to check student
progress toward the accomplishment of the skill. Job sheets provide a ready outline for
students to follow if they have missed a demonstration. Job sheets also furnish potential
employers with a picture of the skills being taught and the performances which might
reasonably be expected from a person who has had this training.
xxvi
27
Practical Tests
Practical tests provide the instructor with an evaluation instrument
job sheets. for each of the
Test and Evaluation

Written and performance tests have been constiucted to measure student
achievement of each objective listed in the unit of instruction.
be pulled out and used as a short test to determine stuaent Individual test items may
achievement of a particular
objective. This kind of testing may be used as a daily quiz and will help
the teacher spot
difficulties encountered by students in their efforts to accomplish the unit
objective. Test
items for objectives added by the teacher should be constructed and
added to the test.
Test Answers
Test answers are provided for each unit. These may be used
by the teacher and/or
student for checking student achievement of the objectives.
28
xxvii
AQUACULTURE
Alphabetical List of References
Used in Developing this Text
1. Avery, Jimmy L. "Production Practices of Commercial Catfish Farming," in
Proceedings of the Louisiana Aquaculture Conference, 1988, Robert C. Reigh, ed.
Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, 1988.
2. Beem, Marley. "Building Cages for Fish Farming," Extension Extra. 12002, F & F
9.1. South Dakota State University Cooperative Extension Service. May, 1987.
3. Beem, Marley and Glen Gebhart. "Cage Culture cf Rainbow Trout," Langston
University Extension Facts. Langston, Oklahoma: Langston University with support
of the USDNCooperative State Research Service, n.d.
4. Beem, Marley, and Steven Anderson. Catfish Farming. Fact Sheet No. 9002.
Stillwater, Oklahoma: Oklahoma State Cooperative Extension Service, n.d.
5. Beem, Marley, and Steven Anderson. "Catfish Farming," No. 9002.1 Stillwater,
Oklahoma: Oklahoma Cooperaton Extension SeMce/Oklahoma State University, n.d.
6. Belusz, Larry. Fish Farming Techniques. Columbia, Missouri: The Instructional

Materials Laboratory, University of Missouri, 1987.
7. Black, Joe B. and Jay V. Huner. "Breeding Crayfish," Carolina Tips, Vol. 42, No.
4. Burlington, North Carolina, April 1, 1979.
8. Boyd, Claude E., et al. Water Quality in Channel Catfish Ponds (A Report from the
Water Quality Subcommittee of Regional Research Project S-168). Southern
Cooperative Series Bulletin 290. Mississippi State, Mississippi: Agricultural and
Forestry Experiment Station, 1983.
9. Boyd, Claude E., and Frank Lichtkoppler. Water Quality Management in Pond Fish
Culture. Auburn, Alabama: Auburn University International Center for Aquaculture,
Agricultural Experiment Station, 1979.
10. Carroll, Cecil. Cage Fish Farming Handbook. El Reno, Oklahoma: Carroll's Fish
Farm, 1987.
11. Catfish Aquaculture: A Decision-Making Guidebook. Baton Rouge, Louisiana:

Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, Louisiana State University Agricultural
Center, 1987.
12. Catfish Farming. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983.
13. Coche, A. G. Soil and Freshwater Fish Culture. Rome: Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, 1985.
14. Coche, A. G., Water for Freshwater Aquaculture. Rome: Food and Agriculture
15. Cramer, Lawrence A. "Tax Tips for Aquaculture Investors and Producers," in
Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 1988.
xxix
16. "Crawfish in Louisiana," Agricultural Notes #86-001. Baton Rouge, Louisiana:
Center for Small Farm Research, College of Agriculture, Southern University, n.d.
17. "Crawfish: Louisiana at Its Best," Pamphlet, Lafayette, Louisiana: Louisiana

Crawfish Farmers Association, n.d.
18. Cul ley, Dr. Dudley D. "Water Quality and Soft-Shell Crawfish Production" Paper.
Forestry, Wildlife, and Fisheries, [no pub., n.d.].
19. De La Bretonne, Lawrence W. Jr., and Robert P. Romaire. "Commercial Crawfish

Cultivation Practices: A Review." Journal of Shellfish Research, Vol. 8, No. 1, 1989.
20. Dupree, Harry K., and Jay V. Huner. "Pond Culture Systems" in Third Report to
the Fish Farmers: The Status of Warmwater Fish Farming and Progress in Fish
Farming Research. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984.
21. Dupree, Harry K., and Jay V. Huner. "Pond Management" in Third Report to the
Fish Farmers. The Status of Warmwater Fish Farming and Progress in Fish Farming
Research. Washington, D.C.: Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984.
22. Dupree, Harry K., and Jay V. Huner. "Propagation of Black Bass, Sunfishes,
Tilapias, Eels, and Hobby Fish," in Third Report to the Fish Farmers: The Status
of Warmwater Fish Farming and Progress in Fish Farming Research. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984.
23. Dupree, Harry K., and Jay V. Huner. Third Report to the Fish Farmers. The Status
24. Dupree, Harry K., and Jay V. Huner. "Transportation of Live Fish," in Third Report
to the Fish Farmers. The Status of Warmwater Fish Farming and Progress in Fish
Farming Research. Washington, DC: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984.
25. Dupree, Harry K., and Jay V. Huner, "Warmwater Fish Farming. A Thriving Industry"
in Third Report to the Fish Farmers. The Status of Warmwater Fish Farming and
Progress in Fish Farming Research. Washington D.C.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, 1984.
26. Fore, John. "Soft-Shell Crawfish," Pamphlet. Denham Springs, Louisiana:

Louisiana Soft-Shell Crawfish Association, Louisiana Crawfish Promotion Board, and
Louisiana Seafood Promotion and Marketing Board, n.d.
27. Fritz Aquaculture Catalog 1987. Dallas, Texas; Fritz Aquaculture, 1987.
28. Guidice, John J., D. Leroy Gray, and J. Mayo Martin. Manual for Bait Fish Culture
in the South. Stuttgart, Arkansas: University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension
Service and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982.
29. Garrard, Anthony B., Mary J. Fuller, and Mark E. Keenum. Economic Analysis of
Small-scale Processing for Mississippi Farm-Raised Catfish. Mississippi Agricultural
& Forestry Experiment Station, June 1988.
XXX
30
30. Hepher, Balfour and Yoei Pruginin. Commercial Fish Farming. New York: John
Wiley & Sons, 1981.
31. Hoffman, Glenn L., and Andrew J. Mitchell. Some Parasites and Diseases of
Warmwater Fishes, Fish and Wildlife Leaflet 6. Stuttgart, Arkansas: Fish Farming
Experiment Station/U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1986.
32. Huet Marcel. Textbook of Fish Culture: Breeding and Cultivation of Fish.
Translated by Henry Kahn. Surrey, England: Fishing News Books Ltd., 1970.
33. Huner, Jay V., and Harry K. Dupree. "Methods and Economics of Channel Catfish
Production, and Techniques for the Culture of Flathead Catfish and Other Catfishes,"
in The Third Report to the Fish Farmers: The Status of Warmwater Fish Farming
and Progress in Fish Farming Research, Harry K. Dupree and Jay V. Huner, eds.
Washington, DC: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984.
34. Huner, J. V., and Harry K. Dupree. "Propagation of Aquatic Animals Other than
Fish: Crayfish, Prawns, Bullfrogs, and Alligators," in Third Report to the Fish
Farmers: The Sttus of Warmwater Fish Farming and Progrces in Fish Farming
Research. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1334.
35. Huner, J. V., and J. E. Barr. Crawfish in the Classroom. Baton Rouge: Louisiana
Department of Education and Louisiana Sea Grant College Program, n.d.
36. Huner, J. V., and Vernon A. Pfister. "Feasibility of Stocking Juvenile Crawfish in
Small Ponds," from review in Crawfish Tales. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Center for
Small Farm Research, College of Agriculture and Home Economics, Southern
University, November 1987.
37. Huner, Jay V., Harry K. Dupree, and Donald C. Greenland. "Harvesting, Holding,
and Grading Fish," in Third Report to the Fish Farmers: The Status of Warmwater
Fish Farming and Progress in Fish Farming Research, Harry K. Dupree and Jay V.
Huner, eds. Washington, DC: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984.
38. Inland Aquaculture Engineering. Rome. United Nations Development Program, Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1984.
39, Jensen, Gary L. Commercial Production of Fann-Raised Catfish. Baton Rouge,

Louisiana: Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service,touisiana Agricultural Experiniont
Station, 1988.
40, Jensen, Gary L., and Joseph D. Bankston. Guide to Oxygen Management and
Aeration in Commercial Fish Ponds. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana
Cooperative Extension Service/Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, 1988.
41 Jensen, Gary L. Handbook for Common Calculations in Finfish Aquaculture. Baton

Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service/Louisiana State
University Agricultural Center, 1987.
42. Keenum, Mark E., and John E. Waldrop. Cash Flow Analysis of Farm-Raised
Catfish Production in Mississippi. Mississippi Agricultural & Forestry Experiment
Station, August 1988.
A
43 Killcreas, Dr. Wallace, et. al. A Records Program for Catfish and Shrimp Production,
Financial Data and Management Decisions for IBM PC and Compatible
Microcomputers. Mississippi Agricultural & Forestry Experiment Stafion, September
1985.
44. Kincaid, -H, L., W. R. Bridges, A. E. Thomas, and M. J. Donahoo. "Rearing Capacity
of Circular Containers of Different Sizes for Fry and Fingerling Rainbow Trout," The
Progressive Fish Culturist, Vol. 38, No. 1, January 1976.
45. Klontz, George W., Philip C. Downey, and Richard L. Focht. A Manual for Trout and
Salmon Production. Murray, Utah: Sterling H. Nelson and Sons, Inc., Murray
Elevators Division, 1979, rev. 1985.
46. Lee, Jasper S. Catfish Farming. A Reference Unit. Jackson, Mississippi. Division
of Vocational and Technical Education, Mississippi State Department of Education,
1971.
47. Marriage, L. Dean, Audrey E. Borell, and Paul M. Scheffer. Trout Ponds for
Recreation. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976.
48. McLarney, William. The Freshwater Aquaculture Book. A Handbooll for Small Scale
, Fish Culture in North America. Point Roberts, Washington. Hartley and Marks, Inc.,
1984.
49. Meigs, Frank E., Ill. "Financing Options for Aquaculture," in Proceedings of the
Louisiana Aquaculture Conference, 1988, Robert C. Reigh, ed. Baton Rouge,
Louisiana, 1988.
50. Meyer, Fred P., J. W. Warren, and T. G. Carey. A Guide to Integrated Fish Health
Management in the Great Lakes Basin. Ann Arbor, Michigan. Great Lakes Fishery
Commission, 1983.
51. Meyer, Fred P. Treatment Tips. How to Determine Chemical Treatments Y7 Fish
Farming. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979.
52. Moore, Brenda Rogers. "Parasites and Diseases in Pond Fish" in Third Report to
the Rsh Farmers. The Status of Warmwater Fish Farming and Progress in Fish
53. Morgan, Ann Haven. Field Book of Ponds and Streams. New York: G. P.
Putnam's Sons, 1930.
54. Piper, Robert G., et. al., Fish Hatchery Management. Washington, D.C.. United
States Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982.
55. Plumb, John A., ed. Principal Diseases of Farm Raised Catfish. Revised edition.
Auburn University, Alabama: Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, 1985.
56. Pond Management in Oklahoma. Oklahoma City. Fish Division, Oklahoma

Department of Wildlife Conservation, 1984.
57. PondsPlanning, Design, Construction. Handbook 590. Washington, D.C.. U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Soil and Conservation Services, June 1982.
32
_
58. Post, George. Textbook of Rsh Health. Neptune City, New Jersey: T.F.H.
Publications, 1987.
59. Reigh, Robert C., ed. Proceedings of the Louisiana Aquaculture Conference 1988.
Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Agriculture Center, Louisiana
Cooperative Extension Service, 1988.
60. Romaire, Robert P. "Overview of Harvest Technology Used in Commercial Crawfish

Aquaculture." Journal of Shellfish Research, Vol. 8, No. 1, 1989.
61. Romaire, R. P., and C. E. Boyd. Predicting Nighttime Oxygen Depletion in Catfish
Ponds. (Bulletin 505.) Auburn, Alabama: Alabama Experiment Station, Auburn
University, n.d.
62. Sadler, Tom. "A Producer Looks at Catfish Farming," in Proceedings of the
Louisiana Aquaculture Conference, 1988. Robert C. Reigh, ed. Baton Rouge,
Louisiana: Louisiana State University Agriculture Center, Louisiana Cooperative
Extension Service, 1988.
63. Saigo, Roy H., and Barbara Woodworth Saigo. Botany. Principles and ripplications.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1983.
64. Scheffer, Paul M. and L. Dean Marriage. Trout Farming. Leaflet 552. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975.
65. Schnick, Rosalie A., Fred P. Meyer, and D. Leroy Gray. A Guide to Approved
Chemicals in Fish Production and Fishery Resource Management. Little Rock,
Arkansas: Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service/U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
1989.
66. Schubert, Dr. Gottfried. Fish Diseases: A Complete Introduction. Neptune City,
New Jersey: T.F.H. Publications, Inc., 1987.
67. Sedgwick, S. Drummond. Trout Farming Handbook. London, England. Seeley,

Service, & Co., 1978.
68 Some Parasites and Diseases of Warmwater Fisnes. Fish and Wildlife Leaflet 6,
Revision of Resource Publication 127. Stuttgart, Arkansas: Fish Farming
Experimental Station, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, April 1976.
69. "Standard Cuts and Forms of Farm-Raised Catfish." Fact Sheet. Jackson,
Mississippi: Catfish Farmers of America, n.d.
70. Stevenson, John P. Trout Farming Manual. Farnham, Surrey, England. Fishing
News Books Limited, 1980.
71. Steward, Jim, and Dr. Raleigh Jobes. Farm & Ranch Business Management.
Moline, Illinois: Deere & Company, 1985.
72. Swift, Donald R. Aquaculture Training Manual. Surrey, England. Fishing News
Books, Ltd., 1985.
73 The Fish Book: NEBRASKAland Magazine. Lincoln, Nebraska. Nebraska Game and
Parks Commission, 1987.
xxxiii
74. Torrans, Les. Blue Tilapia Culture in Arkansas. Pine Bluff, Arkansas: University
of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service, 1988.
75. Van Ramshorst, Dr. J. D., ed. Aquarium Encyclopedia of Tropical Freshwater Fish,
Tucson, Arizona, 1981.
76. Wellborn, Thomas L. Jr. Catfish Farmer's Handbook. Mississippi State

University/Mississippi Cooperative Extension Service, 1987.
77. White, David, et. al. WATERQ: A Microcomputer Program for Pond Water
Management. Mississippi Agricultural & Forestry Experiment Station, October 1988.
78. Williams, Kenneth. Economic Evaluation of Small Scale Catfish Production.

Langston, Oklahoma: Langston University/Kerr Center for Sustainable Agriculture,
1987.
79. World Book Encyclopedia. Vol. 6, "Ecology," Vol. 7, "Fish," Vol. 15, "Pond," and Vol.
21, "Water." Chicago: World Book-Childcraft International, Inc., 1981.
34
AQUACULTURE
Tools, Equipment, and Materials Lists

Basic hand tools Special equipment/instruments
Screwdriver Small open boat
Awl Compass
Rule Available aerator(s)
Wire cutters Dissoived oxygen meter
Tin snips Water analysis kit
Pliers
Shovel Record keeping supplies
Harvesting equipment Pen/pencil
Notebook
Ten-foot minnow seine Graph paper
Hundred-foot seine with small mesh
Other seines as facilities demand Miscellaneous equipment
Hanging scales with 50-pound capacity
graduated in ounces Eyebolts
Tripod or bar to hang scales fan Supply of light rope
Buckets Corks or bottle stoppers
Dip nets
Fish food Processing materials
Catfish cleaning equipment Running water and drain board
Dissection needles
Tub or vat to hold fish Nine percent solution of sodium chloride
Fish cleaning board with clip Tweezers with sharp points
Skinning hook Sharp knife
Skinning pliers Small scissors with pointed blades
Gutting knife Spatula
Butcher knife or band saw Plastic freezer bag
Filet knife Marking pen
Ice and ice bath container
Cage and trap-building materials Water brush
Rubber gloves and apron
Roll of 3-foot wide chicken wire or Freezer for fish storage
plastic-coated wire Paper towels
Heavy duty fishing line (3 feet)
Large fishing weights Shipping materials
Large fishing bobber or buoy
Twenty feet of 16-gauge, plastic-coated Transport box with styrofoam liner
welded wire 48-inches wide with a 1/2 Plastic bags of different sizes and
inch by 1 inch mesh weights
Stainss steel C-clamps (36) Supply of pure oxygen
Five styrofoam squares, 12 x 6 x 6 Rubberbands
inches Crushed or artificial ice
Plastic-coated bell wire (50 feet) Dry ice
Plastic paint or rust-proof paint Shipping labels
Small paint brush Supply of Forma lin
Strapping maierial Clean glass containers
Cinder block & length of rope for anchor Aluminum foil
xxxv a5
--a
Inspection/evaluation equipment Baitfish production equipment
Plankton net or nylon stocking Lift seine/fulcrum and boom

Microscope, slide, and cover slips 16 percent protein bait feed
Methyl cellulose to retard plankton Scales
movement Buckets
Eyedropper or pipette Floating grader with appropriate bar
Glass quart jars with screw-on lids (2) space
Glass jars to use as specimen containers Eight feet woven steel-welded wire with
Sieve with 2mm openings for soil tasting 2x4-inch mesh
Plastic sheeting Steel tape
Water thermometer One dozen hog rings
Quantity of Spanish moss, Astroturf or
Secchi disc construction materies Spandex for spawning mat
Flat black and flat white paint that will

adhere to metal
Foot square piece of sheet metal
Eyebolt
Lead weight with hole in center
Five feet of calibrated line
Trout production equipment
Spawning bench
Spawning pan
Anesthetic
Dip nets
Cotton gloves
e
Balance scale sensitive to 1 gram
Measuring cup
Feather for stirring
Trout incubator
Male and female broodfish
Live box 3' x 3' x 2' high
Crowding screen
Measuring board graduated in millimeters
Metric balance beam
Spring scale
xxxvi 36
AQ-1
INTRODUCTION TO AQUACULTUI1E
UNIT I
UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completion of this unit, the student should be able to discuss types of aquaculture
enterprises and list factors to consider before starting an aquaculture operation. The
student should also be able to complete a survey of local aquaculture production. These
competencies will be evidenced by correctly completing the procedures outlined in the
assignment sheets and by scoring a minimum of 85 percent on the unit test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After completion of this unit, the student should be able to:
1. Match terms related to introduction to aquaculture with their correct definitions.
2. Select facts about aquaculture.
3. Select facts about the historical background of aquaculture.
4. Match types of aquaculture environments with their descriptions.
5. Select facts about types of aquaculture enterprises.
6. Select from a list species of economic importance.
7. Complete statements about factors to consider before starting an aquacultural

enterprise.
8. Select facts abouflimiting factors in joint aquaculture/agriculture operations.
9. Complete statements about physical and fiscal risks associated with

aquaculture.
10. Complete statements about advantages of aquaculture.
11. List sources of information about aquaculture.
12. -Survey local aquaculture production. (Assignment Sheet #1)
13. Visit a support facility and interview the operator(s). (Assignment Sheet #2)
14. Survey local market outlets for types of fish sold. (Assignment Sheet #3)
15. Interview a local producer. (Assignment Sheet #4)
37
AQ-3
INTRODUCTION TO AQUACULTURE
UNIT I
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
A. Read unit, make your own notes, and plan your teaching strategy.
B. Assist students in completing Assignment Sheet #4 by arranging for a local

fish farmer to visit the class and talk about how he or she became interested
in and got started in fish farming.
C. Contact a local support facility (processor, hauler, etc.) and prepare the
operator for visits by the students as they complete Assignment Sheet #2.
D. During the first class period, introduce yourself, explain your class attendance
and assignment rules, and provide your students with an overview of the
course. Provide each student with a binder, or have students buy binders in
which to keep their lesson components and homework assignments.
E. Provide students with objective sheet. Discuss unit and specific objectives.
F. Provide students with information sheet. Discuss each section of the

information sheet, adding information from your experience and resources
specific to the situations of the students in your class. Be sure to discuss
local names for species introduced in Section VI.
G. Provide students with assignment sheets. Discuss assignment sheets and

schedule due dates.
H. Give unit test. Critique in class.
AVAILABLE VIDEO MATERIALS
A. The American Azzociation for Vocational Instructional Materials, AAVIM, haa

available a 30-minote VHS video entitled "Aquaculture: Farming the Water."
The production focuses on all phases of catfish production and serves to
reinforce and illustrate much of the material in this text. Cost of the tape is
$43.95 which includes $4.00 for shipping and handling. Call 1-800-228-4689
for information or write to:
AAVIM
Ref: V-525
120 Engineering Center
Athens, GA 30602
1
8
4
B. The Clear Springs Trout Company of Buhl, Idaho is the largest trout producer
in the world, and they have an excellent videotape that displays their
impressive operation. Their facilities are located along the Snake River in the
Magic Valley area of southern Idaho, and the operation includes everything
from the management of broodfish to processing and delivery. The tape is
especially recommended for Unit X of this text, "Commercial Trout Production."
The video is VHS format and runs just over 15 minutes. Cost of the tape is
minimal, and there is an educational discount for schools or organizations
teaching aquaculture programs. Write for information to:
Clear Springs Trout Company

Attn: Marketing Department
P.O. Box 712
Buhl, Idaho 83316
REFERENCES USED IN DEVELOPING THIS UNIT
A. Belusz, Larry. Fish Farming Techniques. Columbia, Missouri: The

Instructional Materials Laboratory, University of Missouri, 1987.
B. Dupree, Harry K., and Jay V. 'rluner. "Warmwater Fish Farming: A Thriving
Industry" in Third Report to the Fish Farmers: The Status of Warmwater Fish
Farming and Progress in Fish Farming Research. Washington D.C.: U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984.
C Catfish Aquaculture: A Decision-making Guidebook. Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service/Louisiana State University Agricultural
Center, 1987.
Reigh Robert C., ed. Proceedings of the Louisiana Aquaculture Conference,
r 98. 2.9ton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Agricultural Center,
1988.
39
AQ-5
UNIT I
INFORMATION SHEET
I. Terms and definitions
A. Acclimate To gradually accustom fish to a different environment (different

water temperature and water chemistry)
B. Aeration Process of supplying additional oxygen to water; adjusting water

chemistry
C. Aquatic Growing or living in or upon water
D. Fee-fish pond Pond stocked for sport fishing; the pond operator charges
a fee for fishing
E. Detritus Debris from plants and animals
F. Levee Earth dike used to enclose water
G. Marine Of the sea or ocean
H. Noxious Harmful or undesirable
I. Polyculture System where more than one kind of aquatic organism is

grown in one pond or rearing unit
J. Propagate To cause a plant or animal to reproduce; to raise or breed
K. Turbidity Muddy or cloudy water caused by plankton or suspended

particles of soil
L. Intensive production Raising fish in densities higher than could be.

supported in the nahiral environment, requires feeding fish formulated feeds
M. Extensive production Raising of fish in earthen ponds; the fish feed

primarily on natural feeds
N. Plankton Microscopic plants and animals
0. Fry Stage of a fish's life from the time it hatches until it reaches 1 inch in
length
P. Fingerling Fish from 1 inch to 8 inches long
Q. Stocker Fish 8 inches or over
R. Hybrid Fish resulting from a cross between parents that are genetically
unlike
40
6
INFORMATION SHEET
II. Aquaculture
op
A. Aquaculture is the commercial raising of animals and plants that live in water,
it may also be referred to as fish farming or fish culture, though animals other
than fish may be farmed.
(NOTE: Worldwide, fish farming produces at least 90 species of fish, 13

species of shrimps, prawns, and crayfishes, a wide variety of shellfish and
marine plants, as well as such aquatic animals as frogs and alligators.)
B. Aquaculture and agriculture share a common goal: to increase stock or crop
production above the level that would be produced naturally per unit of land
or water area.
C. Aquaculture involves cultivation of water so that a marketaole crop of fish or

other commodity is efficiently and profitably produced.
D Aquaculture involves careful management of the conditions in which fish and

other aquatic plants and animals grow.
III. Historical background of aquaculture

A. Aquaculture is about 3,000 years old and was first practiced in China and
other Asian countries to feed fish-hungry populations.
B. While the majority of food fishes are still obtained by the capture of wild
fishes, about 33 countries produce 90 percent of the farmed produce, with
75 percent grown in Asian countries.
(NOTE: Aquaculture is one of the most dynamic and promising forms of

farming in the world. It produces 50 percent of fish consumed in Israel, 30
percent of fish consumed in China, 30 percent of fish consumed in India, and
1.8 perccmt of fish consumed in the U.S.)
C. Commercial food-fish farming in the U.S. began in the 1920s; before that,
emphasis was on baitfish and ornamental fish production, as well as raising
recreational species (larger.iouth bass, sunfish, catfish) for pond stocking.
D United States' aquaculturists now provide American consumers with nearly
all their rainbow trout, channel catfish, and crayfish, and with 40 percent of
the oysters they consume.
(NOTE: Channel catfish and trout are the major farmed fishes in the U.S.,
but crayfish and salmon production are increasing steadily. Louisiana leads
in crayfish production; Mississippi is the major producer of catfish; and Idaho
continues to produce most of our trout. Virginia, Louisiana, Maryland, Oregon,
and Washington are the leading oyster-producing states.)
41
AQ-7
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pfterilurbici,.-freshwaikirwitfrAern-peraturestehilfeen :atitt;90F:_,
(NOTE: Withthe eX:ctepticin -a froid- ctiltpre, Ifils-MaNal',-.cfc,faltAately Witty -

warn-4*W ovaduitural
EXAMPLES: `Catfith,-Crayfiah, :Cart),:ha*.iffish,COlti4-felS;;SpOit.fishet:
B. Catf*ter COihrhertial:'raiSing:!Of--stotkihatthriifesiocol,.
clear frpshviateir*itlifeinparatures:.Q5T and uh-dSt
EXAMPLES:: tiOuf,.. Salmck.culttget
C. -Markt:NOl fac_himerciaLtaisintricf;stOck- lhal, -trivets- ier sat -Water: of

vatioife---faMperattifes;.41*-called=iim-rin.0---014cythee..
EXAMPLES:- 'Shrimp, -OySter, -seaweef cultuLs
"tood4WOOduCtiCtii,
.
Typet- of -6quaciltyraVeilferpifte*- T
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a SPeolfio;s4S-ihti*iii§ht.a.h&Cah-li,e,---01_10:1,--*NniarOiphatiMPtiorir
ehterpriSeS bay-.piCO:eta-anci-selkheir -prokkottfliethelviaAi
,
Mika- often, fish produced lriti;Solff*ptcCeStih6:Iplofitof. :.(Ftgotki)-
.
EXAMPLE: Moti,AE. 1-
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1
43:
INFORMATION SHEET
ei VI. Species of economic importance
POINT OF INTEREST: It is projected that the major warmwater species farmed

during the next 10 years will continue to be channel catfish and crayfish;
however, polyculture involving Chinese carps and the culture of tilapias, common
carp, and Buffaloes will become increasingly important.
A. Baitfishes/feeder fishes
1. Fathead minnow
2. Golden shiner
3. Goldfish
B. Recreational fishes
1. Largemouth bass
2. Catfish
3. Bluegill sunfish
4. Crappie
5. Hybrid sunfish
C. Trout and salmon
1. Rainbow trout
2. Coho salmon
3. Atlantic salmon
D. Chinese carps
1. Silver carp
2. Bighe'ad carp
3. Grass carp
E. Hybrids
1. Hybrid striped bass
EXAMPLE: Striped bass (F) x white bass (M)
44
10
INFORMATION SHEET
2. Hybrid sunfish
EXAMPLE: Green sunfish (F) x bluegili (M)
F. Crayfish
(NOTE: Crayfish are also called crawfish and crawdads.)
1. Red Swamp
2. White River
G. Catfish
1. Channel catfish
2. Blue catfish
VII. Factors to consider before starting an aquaculture enterprise
A. Capital
1. The amount of start-up money needed depends on the size and type
of proposed aquaculture operation.
2. A planned budget must include money for feed, labor, stock, land (if
not already owned), pond construction (if none exist), water supply
development and pumping costs (if wells are needed), and additional
equipment.
3. Any aquaculture enterprise diverts money and time from other farming
operations.
B. Labor
1. The amount of labor required varies with the season, the production
method, and the type of enterprise.
EXAMPLES: Extensive versus intensive production; fingerling enterprise

versus a fee-fish enterprise; harvesting in the summer heat
versus harvesting in the fall.
2. Trained or skilled farm labor is often required to assist with pond

treatment for disease or aquatic weed control, and to assist with facility
upkeep and harvesting.
3. Routine monitoring of water quality requires round-the-clock attention in

intensive production.
45
AQ-11
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Land
1. The amount of land required is determined by the type of operation

and production method used.
EXAMPLE: Raceways and tanks require less space but more water
than pond systems. Fingerling producers require fewer acres
and less water than do food-fish producers.
2. Sufficient acreage must be available to reduce the iixed per-unit costs

of production for such things as water wells, boats, pumps, and motors.
3. If existing ponds are not available, the potential aquaculturist should

investigate alternative uses of land needed for ponds, levees, access
roads, and service areas to determine if greater profit can be obtained
from other agricultural enterprises.
D. Water
1. A dependable source of clean, chemically suitable- water is essential.
2. Water volume needs vary: for pond culture, 15 to 25 gallons per minute
per surface acre are typically needed; raceway water supply should be
capable of providing three changes per hour through each unit, and no
less than one change per hour through the entire system.
3. An alternative water supply may be necessary to make up for

evapotation and seepage in ponds, as well as to provide for normal
household use, fire protection, irrigation or livestock watering.
4. A limited water supply means lower production unless the producer

applies intensive management efforts to each unit of available water.
E. Equipment
1. Some fish farming equipment can be used for other crops, but other
equipment is specialized to the aquaculture enterprise.
EXAMPLES: Tractors, utility buildings, mowers, and compressors have

obvious multiple uses; seines, fish cages, fish hauling
tanks, and most aeration equipment are used only for
aquaculture crops.
2. Multiple use of equipment spreads costs over several operations.
F. Markets
1. Appropriate markets must be located before the potential aquaculturist

chooses or invests in an enterprise.
46
12
INFORMATION SHEET
2. Distance from the market and the number of producers in the area
4)
affect profitability of the enterprise.
EXAMPLE: A large number of local growers in an area will flood the

market, lowering the demand for and price of the product.
G. Legal requirements may restrict or prohibit an enterprise.
EXAMPLES: 1. There may be restrictions on the kinds of fish imported or

raised.
2. You may be required to have a disease inspection certificate

for certain species of fish.
3. You may be required to obtain permits to buy, sell, or grow

certain fishes and aquatic plants.
4. You may be required to obtain your stock from a

commercial source; stock captured from public waters may
be prohibited for commercial purposes.
5. State and local sanitation, health, and grading requirements

may be imposed.
6. Wildlife Conservation Laws prohibit the killing of some

predators, such as egrets, herons, diving birds, pelicans;
and a permit is required to hunt or trap others.
7. Laws protecting wetlands may penalize the producer who

converts wetlands to farm use; permits are also required.
VIII. Some limiting factors in aquaculture/agriculture operations
A. Levees and ditches occupy much land, and few alternate uses of these
structures exists.
B. Planting and harvesting schedules must be adjusted to both fish and field
crops: One crop may be reduced if it cannot be sown (or stocked) or
harvested during the optimum period.
C. Facility layout must be planned so that pesticides used on land crops do not
drift or run off to pond cultures and kill fish.
D. Rotation of fish and field crops
1. Pond and field sizes may be compromised: Desirable pond sizes are
usually less than 50 acres, and desirable field sizes are generally 50
acres or larger.
2. A farmer should not plant certain crops that require pesticides that may
later kill stocked fish.
47
si
AQ-13
INFORMATION SHEET
IX. Physical and fiscal risks associated with aquaculture
A. Stock loss may occur because of disease, poor water quality, or pesticide
contamination of a pond.
(NOTE: Most fish diseases are stress related and are often triggered by poor
water quality such as low oxygen levels. The fish farmer can lose an entire
. pond of fish overnight because of oxygen depletion. Small daily losses from
parasitic or bacterial infectbns can also mount up and eat away profits. Poor
quality feed can also trigger losses, especially with cage-raised fish.)
B. The amount of water available for both production purposes and for supplying
emergency and supplementary needs may be undependable or limited.
C. Power failure may cause stock loss.
D. Poor quality stock may lead to disease or an unmarketable product.
E. The market may fluctuate or fail.
X. Advantages of adding an aquaculture enterprise to an existing agriculture

operation
A. A start-up aquacultural enterprise can be added to an agricultural enterprise

with existing pond for relatively little capital investment.
B. The addition of an aquaculture enterprise allows for multiple use of land and
water.
1. Agricultural and aquacultural crops can be rotated or double cropped.
EXAMPLES: Rotating crayfish and rice; double cropping fish and corn,
milo, wheat, or soybeans
2. Badly eroded land or land from which the topsoil has been removed
can be reclaimed by farming fish.
(NOTE: Detritus from fish production adds organic material to the soil,
as wel' as nitrogen, phosphate, and other essential plant growth
elements. Several studies have shown that 2 or 3 years of fish
production can improve land as much as 10 years of row crop
production, and the cost is significantly less.)
3. The cost of an irrigation reservoir can be shared by both agriculture

and aquaculture crops.
(NOTE: In a properlt, constructed reservoir, extra water could be

released by gravity flow to the surrounding fields. The higher income
from fish production would enable the farmer to pay for the earthwork
and pumps, and later return the field to row crop production.)
48
14
INFORMATION SHEET
4. Water from deep wells can usually be improved by running it through

fish ponds because the temperature is raised and nutrients are added.
5. In some areas croplands that have been leveed for crop production and
fish farming can be easily flooded during the winter to attract waterfowl;
the farmer can then lease the land for wildlife hunting if desired to
supplement income.
C. The addition of an aquaculture enterprise spreads the cost over several

operations by multiple use of some equipment and machinery.
XI. Sources of information
(NOTE. Information is needed at different points in the development of a productive

and profitable aquaculture program. Various publications, persons, and organizations
can provide ass;stance. Time and money spent planning will return many uollars
in the future operation of an aquaculture program. Below is a general listing of
sources of information. For specific names and addresses, consult, Third Report to
the Fish Farmers, published by the U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife
Service.)
A. Reference books, trade books, educational videotapes, government and other

publications
B. Universities, colleges, and vocational programs
C. University and public libraries with computer programs
D. State and national fish farming associations
E. Agricultural experiment stations
F. Federal and state agencies
1. U.S. Department of Agriculture
2. U.S. Soil Conservation Service
3. U.S. Department of Commerce
4. National Marine Fisheries Service
5. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
6. County Cooperative Extension Service
7. State Geological Survey
8. Sea Grant
9. U.S. Corps of Engineers
49
AQ-15
INFORMATION SHEET
G. Regulatory agencies
1. State fish and game departments
2. State natural resources departments
3. State and federal environmental protection agencies
4. State health boards
H. Professional consultants
I. Fish farmers
J. Processors
K. Feed distributors
L. Merchandisers
AQ-17
UNIT I
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1 SURVEY LOCAL AQUACULTURE PRODUCTION
Before making the decision to begin an aquacultural enterprise, you should take time to
evaluate local aquaculture production. You may want to start by looking in the yellow
pages of the phone directory to find listings of fish farmers, processors, haulers, etc. Talk
to the county cooperative extension agent or state fish and game agenq; get in touch with
teachers or administrators at a nearby university, college, or vocational-technical school
However you approach this assignment, put yourself in touch with the full scope of the
aquaculture activity in your area by finding the answers lo the following questions.
1. How many fish farmers are there in your area"
2. What species are farmed in your area?
3. What is the primary species farmed"
4. What types of aquaculture! enterprises (recreational, baitfish, food-fish, etc.) are
represented in your area"
5. Which of these enterprises is most prevalent'?
6. How many area suppliers are there for obtaining the species you plan to culture"
7. How many fish processors are there in your area?
8. How far is the nearest processor from your proposed aquaculture enterprise?
9. How many live-fish haulers are there in your area"
10. How many feed distributors are there in your area"
11. Is feed available in bulk quantities"
12. How many suppliers of aquaculture equipment"
13. Are there fee-fish ponds in your area? How many"
14. Are there laboratory facilities available for periodic feed analysis and disease
diagnosis"
51
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
15. How far are these facilities from your proposed aquaculture enterprise?
52
AQ-19
UNIT I
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2 VISIT A SUPPORT FACILITY AND

INTERVIEW THE OPERATOR(S)
For this assignment, visit one of the support facilities hauler, processor, merchandiser,
equipment supplier located in Assignment Sheet #1. Interview the operator(s) to find out
as much as possible about the services that the facility could provide to your proposed
aquaculture enterprise. Use the questions below as an interview aid.
General
1. How long have you been in this business?
2. How many customers do you have locally?
3. What services do you provide, and what are the charges for these services?
Processors
1. How are prices established? Do you contract with your producers? What is your
present per-pound price? How has this price fluctuated in the past 12 to 24
months?
2. What special considerations are required of the producer in terms of market size,
weight, off-flavor testing, quality control?
3. How are the products packaged?
4. Who are your wholesale and retail markets? Are they live markets or fresh-killed
markets?
5. What are your hours, slack periods, rush season, etc.?
6. Do you send a truck to pick up fish?
7. Do you have distance pick-up limits, and if so, what are they?
Haulers
1. What size are your hauling trucks and how are they equipped?
2. Do you use polyethylene bags or tanks?
3. What size trucks do you use? Pickup? 2112 ton? Larger?
4. Do you use aerators or agitators to ensure adequate oxygen during transport?
5. Are your trucks equipped with a back-up power source?
6. What is the source of water for your tanks? How do you maintain water chemistry?
Water temperature? Do you use an anti-bacteria: in your haul water to prevent
disease when transporting stockers?
1
53
20
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
7. How does your hauling procedure vary between summer and winter?
8. Are you bonded? How do you handle stock loss?
9. What special considerations must the producer take just prior to harvest? When to
stop feeding? When to stop medications?
10. What are your charges per loaded mile?
11. Do you have minimum load limits?
12. Whom do you haul to?
54
AQ-21
UNIT I
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3 SURVEY LOCAL MARKET OUTLETS

FOR TYPES OF FISH eoLD
Before deciding what spedes you want to culture, it is wise to survey the local market
outlets to determine the types of fish sold and to learn about consumer and customer
demand in your market area. Where will your proposed enterprise fit in? Is there a market,
a demand for the species you want to culture?
Check the following markets for species bought and sold:
1. Processors
2. Individuals (fresh use and freezer)
3. Restaurants
4. Grocery stores
5. Businesses (annual picnics or special events)
6. Ethnic groups (special holiday or yearly seasonal orders)
7. Church groups, fraternal orders, police (hold fish fries two or three times a year)
8. Taverns (selling food and liquor)
9. Farmer's markets (sold live or processed)
10. Fee-fish ponds
11. Sports groups
12. Other fish farming enterprises
Analyze your findings:
1. What are the most popular species sold in your area?
2. Is there a market for the species you plan to farm?

3. Is there a demand for the species you plan to farm?
4. Is the market "glutted"too many producers for the demand?
5. Is there a demand for a species not widely marketed in your area?
55
AQ-23
UNIT I
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #4 INTERVIEW A LOCAL PRODUCER
Commercial fish farming is generally more complicated than the potential fish farmer first
believes. The producer must be a combination business and sales person, as well as a
biologist, lawyer, manager, and (possibly most of all) a hard worker.
Your instructor will invite a local producer to speak to the class. Interview the producer.
Fin :. out as much as you can about the producer's aquaculture operation and satisfaction
with the enterprise and the species being cultured. Ask about all phases of the farming
operation.
1. How did this producer become interested?
2. Is the enterprise used as supplementary or primary income?
3. What problems has the producer encountered in setting up proper facilities, buying
stock, maintaining water chemistry, preventing disease, dealing with seasonal
changes, harvesting, marketing the product?
4. About how much does the producer budget annually for feed?
5. What kinds and brands of equipment and feed does the producer use?
6. What facilities are needed?
7. How much investment was required?
8. What sources of technical information does the producer have?
9. What sources of financial assistance did/does the producer use?
10. ..:How far is the producer from markets?
11. What legal regulations are involved? .r..
12. Does the producer process on-site or use a processor?
13. What were the initial costs? The annual fixed costs?
14. What type of record keeping system does the producer use?
15. Has the producer had any problems with poaching?
16. Has the producer had any migratory bird problems?
17. How does the producer deal with diseases and stock losses?
56
AQ-25
UNIT I
TEST
NAME SCORE
1. Match terms related to introduction to aquaculture with their correct definitions. Write
the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. Harmful or undesirable 1. Turbid
b. Of the sea or ocean 2. Propagate
c. Earth dike used to enclose water 3. Polyculture
d. Muddy or cloudy water caused by 4. Detritus

plankton or suspended particles of soil
5. Fee-fish pond
e. To cause a plant or animal to repro-
duce; to raise or breed 6. Acclimate
f. Growing or living in or upon water 7. Aeration
g. Debris from plants or animals 8. Noxious
h. Pond stocked for sport fishing; the pond 9. Marine

operator charges a fee for fishing
10. Levee
i. To gradually accustom fish to a dif-
ferent environment (different water 11. Aquatic
temperature or water chemistry)
12. Intensive production
______I. Process of supplying additional oxygen
to water; adjusting water chemistry 13. Extensive Prtduction
k. System in which more than one kind of 14. Plankton

aquatic organism is grown in one pond
or rearing unit 15. Fry
I. Microscopic plants and animals 16. Fingerling
m. Fish resulting from a cross between 17. Stocker

parents that are genetically unlike
18. Hybrid
n. Fish from 1 inch to 8 inches long
o. Raising fish in densities higher than

could be supported in the natural
environment; requires feeding fish
formulated feeds
57
26
TEST
o. Stage in a fish's life from the time it

hatches until it reaches 1 inch in length
q. Fish 8 inches or over
r. Raising fish in earthen ponds; the fish

feed primarily on natural feeds
2. Complete statements about aquaculture. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. Aquaculture is the of animals and plants that live in water.
1. commercial raising
2. commercial fishing
3. commercial trapping
4. commercial processing
b. Aquaculture may also be called
1. aquarium culture
2. fish farming
3. fish culture
4. both 2 and 3
c. Aquaculture and share a common goal: to increase slock or

crop production above the level that would be produced naturally per
unit of land or water area.
1. monoculture
2. horticulture
3. agriculture
4. polyculture
d. Aquaculture involves the cultivation of so that a marketable crop

of fish or other commodity is efficiently and profitably produced.
1. water
2. soil
3. desert land
4. mountain areas
e. Aquaculture requires careful of the conditions in which fish and

other aquatic plants and animals grow.
1. assessment
2. management
3. estimation
4. evaluation
58
AQ-27
TEST
3. Select facts about the historical background of aquaculture. Write the correct
numbers in the blanks.
a. What country first practiced aquaculture?
1) India
2) Japan
3) China
b. About how old is the practice of aquaculture?
1) 3,000 years
2) 4,000 years
3) 5,000 years
c. How are the majority of food fishes obtained?
1) Fish farming
2) Capture of wild fishes
3) Sport fishing
d. What percent of food fishes do the world's 33 fish-farming countries

produce?
1) 75%
2) 90%
3) 53%
e. When did commercial food-fish farming begin in the United States?
1) 1920s
2) 1930s
3) 1940s
f. What was the aquacultural emphasis in the U.S. before food-fish farming
became the primary enterprise?
1) Mariculture of oysters
2) Fee-fishing
3) Baitfish and ornamental fish
____g. United States' aquaculturists now provide American consumers with

nearly all of what three species of fish?
1) Coho salmon, blue catfish, bait minnows

2) Rainbow trout, channel catfish, crayfish
3) Largemouth bass, sunfish, Chinese carp
59
28
TEST
h. What percent of the oysters Americans consume is provided by

aquacultural enterprises?
1) 20
2) 30
3) 40
4. Match types of aquaculture environments with their descriptions. Write the correct
a. Commercial raising of stock that thrives 1. Coldwater

in often turbid freshwater with temper- aquaculture
atures between 70°F and 90°F.
2. Warmwater
b. Commercial raising of stock that thrives aquaculture
in salt water of various temperatures.
3. Mariculture
c. Commercial raising of stock that thrives
in cool, clear freshwater with tem-
peratures 65°F and under.
. ..,..,- ,
5. Select facts about types of aquamilfure enterprises. Write the correct numbers in
the blanks.
.a. What is the typical market for large-scale producers of food fish?
1) Processing plants
2) Haulers
3) Retail markets
b. Which enterprises supply the food-fish producer with stock?
1) Broodfish producers
2) Fee-fish producers
3) Fingerling or stocker producers
c. Do broodfish producers breed fish?
1) Yes
2) No
3) Only for hybrid production
d. Which of the following enterprises does NOT generally buy fingerlings?
1) Food-fish producers
2) Fee-fish producers
3) Broodfish producers
60
AQ-29
TEST
e. How do fingerling farmers produce their product?
1) Buy fry and raise them in rearing ponds until they reach market
size
2) Buy eggs, hatch eggs, and raise fry in rearing ponds until they
reach marketable size
3) Manage broodfish, hatch eggs, and care for young until they reach
market size
f. Which of the following is the primary use for stocker fish?
1) Stocking recreational ponds

2) Stocking farm ponds
3) Stocking ponds for fast grow-out/early market size
Stocker production is the least common type of fish farming enterprises.

Which other aquaculture enterprise usually includes this enterprise?
1) Fee-fish production
2) Fingerling production
3) Food-fish production
h. What is fee-fish production?
1) The raising of fish for stocking fee-fish lakes or farm fee-fish

ponds
2) The raising of fish on a commission or fee basis for a fingerling
or stocker producer
3) The raising of fish for a set fee or contract negotiated in advance
of the operation
i. What is the most common species raised by baitfish producers?
1) Crayfish
2) Minnows
3) Goldfish
Which of the following would be the most likely species raised by an

ornamental or hobby fish producer?
1) Angelfish
2) Golden shiner
3) Orangespotted sunfish
61.
30
TEST
6. Select from the following list species of economic importance. Write an "X" in the
blank before each species of economic importance.
a. Common shiner s. Sockeye

salmon
b. Fathead minnow
t. Brook trout
c. Golden shiner
u. Atlantic salmon
d. Bigmouth shiner
v. Rainbow trout
e. Goldfish
w. Coho Salmon
f. Largemouth bass
x. Chinese carp
g. Smallmouth bass
y. Silver carp
h. Channel catfish
z. Walleye pike
i. Bluegill sunfish
aa. Bighead carp
______L Rock bass
bb. Grass carp
k. Orangespotted sunfish
cc. Red River
I. Builhead crayfish
m. Blue catfish dd. Red Swamp

crayfish
n. Crappie
ee. Smallmouth
o. White perch Buffalo
____p. Hybrid striped bass ff. White River

crayfish
_sq. Hybrid sunfish
gg. Gizzard shad
r. Brown trout
7. Complete statements about factors to consider before starting an aquaculture

enterprise. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. The amount of start-up money needed depends on the .
1) size and type of proposed aquaculture operation

2) season of the year that crop will be harvested
3) cooperation of the proposed lending institution
62
,
AQ-31
TEST
b. A must include money for feed, labor, stock, land, pond

construction, water supply development and pumping costs, and
equipment.
1) weekly audit
2) planned budget
3) credit report
c. Any aquaculture enterprise diverts from other farming operations.
1) money and time

2) hired labor
3) equipment
d. The amount of labor needed varies with the , the production

method, and the type of enterprise.
1) water quality
2) processor
3) season
e. In intensive production, water is routinely monitored .
1) once a week
2) three times a day
3) rcund-the-clock
f. The amount of land required is determined in part by the type of

operation and the .
1) production method used

2) species cultured
3) purity of water source
____ Sufficient acreage must be available to the fixed per-unit costs

of production for such things as water wells, boats, pumps, and motors.
1) complement
2) increase
3) reduce
h. Water volume typically needed for pond culture is gallons per

minute.
1) 10 to 15
2) 15 to 25
3) 20 to 35
63
Raceway water supply should be capable of providing changes
per hour through each unit, and no less than change(s) per hour
through the entire system.
1) 3; 1
2) 4; 2
3) 2; 1
spreads costs over several operations, increasing the efficiency

of the overall farm program by avoiding duplication.
1) Staggered stock purchase

2) Shared pond use
3) Multiple equipment use
k. affect profitability of the enterprise.
1) Legal requirements and restrictions

2) Personal preference and self-satisfaction
3) Number of producers and distance from market
8. Select facts about limiting factors in joint aquaculture/agriculture operations. Write

a. What are the main disadvantages of the levees and ditches needed to
contain water?
1) They do not have many alternate uses and they occupy much
land.
2) They erode with wind and wave action and need periodic
rebuilding.
3) They provide a habitat and shelter for aquatic animals that prey
on fish.
b. How may planting and harvesting schedules limit aquaculture/agriculture

operations?
1) They must be adjusted so that both agriculture and aquaculture

crops can be sown (stocked) or harvested during the optimum
period.
2) There may be insufficient farm labor to sow (stock) or harvest
both aquaculture and agriculture crops.
3) Custom harvesting of both aquaculture and agriculture crops
cannot be accomplished simultaneously because some of the
same equipment must be used.
64
AQ-33
TEST
c. Farmer A says that when fish and fieid crops are rotated, the farmer
cannot plant certain crops that require pesticides that will later kill
stocked fish. Farmer B says that pond and field sizes will be
compromised because field sizes generally require more acres than
ponds.
Who is right?
1) Farmer A
2) Farmer B
3) Both A and B
9. Complete statements abovt physical and fiscal risks associated with aquaculture.
Write the correct numbers i:1 the blanks.
a. Stock loss may occur because of , or pesticide contamination of

a pond.
1) pond size, shallow water

2) disease, poor water quality
3) aquatic plants, benthic organisms
b. The amount of water available for both production purposes and for
supplying emergency and supplementary needs may tie undependable
Or .
1) overabundant
2) unavailable
3) limited
c. may cause stock loss.
1) Power failure
2) Aeration
3 Pond depth
d. Poor quality stock may lead to disease or .
1) an underpriced product
2) an off-flavor product
3) an unmarketable product
e. The market may .
1) expand or grow
2) stabilize
3) fluctuate or fail
65
34
TEST
10. ^^Ps.;-..lete statements about the advantages of aquaculture. Write the correct number
in each blank
a. A start-up aquacultural enterprise can be added to an agricultural

enterprise with existing pond for capital investment.
1) a major
2) relatively little
3) no
b. The addition of an aquacJIture enterprise allows for multiple use of
1) land and water

2) equipment and machinery
3) both 1 and 2
c. Agriculture and aquaculture crops can be .
1) grown simultaneously
2) rotated or double cropped
3) controlled with the same pesticides
d. Badly land or land from which the has been removed

can be reclaimed by farming fish.
1) polluted; clay
2) dried out; subsoil
3) eroded; topsoil
e. The cost of an can be shared by both agriculture and aquaculture

crops.
1) irrigation reservoir
2) aeration system
3) overflow pipe
f. Water from deep wells can usually be improved by running it through

fish ponds because the temperature is raised and are added.
1) bacteria
2) parasites
3) nutrients
In some areas, croplands that have been leveed for crop production and
fish farming can be easily flooded during the winter to .
1) kill crop pests

2) attract waterfowl
3) create an ice-skating rink
68
A0-35
TEST
11. List 8 sources of information about aquaculture.
c.
d.
e.
f.
9.
(NOTE. If the following activities have not been accomplished prior to the test, ask your
instructor when they should be completed.)
12. Survey local aquaculture production. (Assignment Sheet #1)
13. Visit a support facility and interview the operator(s). (Assignment Sheet #2)
14. Suniey local market outlets for types of fish sold. (Assignment Sheet 43)
15. Inteniiew a local producer. (Assignment Sheet #4)
67
AQ-37
INTRODUC11ON AQUACULTURE
UNIT I
ANSWERS TO TEST
1. a. 8 g. 4 m. 18
b. 9 h. 5 n. 16
0. 10 L 6 a. 12
d. 1 J. 7 p. 15
e. 2 K. 3 q. 7
f. 11 I. 14 r. 13
2. a. 1
b. 4
C. 3
d. 1
e. 2
3. a 3
b. 1
C. 2
d. 2
e. 1
f. 3
g. 2
h. 3
4. a. 2
b. 3
C. 1
5. a. 1
b. 3
C. 2
d. 3
0. 3
f. 3
g. 2
h. 1
I. 2
j. 1
6. b, c, e, f, h, i, m, n, p, q, u, v, w, x, y, aa, bb, dd, ff
68
38
ANSWERS TO TEST
7. a. 1
b. 2
C. 1
d. 3
e. 3
f. 1
g. 3
h. 2
I. i
j. 3
k. 3
8. a. 1
b. 1
C. 3
9. a. 2
b. 3
C. 1
d. 3
e. 3
10. a.
b.
2
1
6
C. 2
d. 3
e. 1
f. 3
g. 2
11. Ansr.er should include any eight of the following:
a. Reference books, trade books, educational video tapes, government and other
publiceons
b. Universities, colleges, and vocational programs
c. University and public libraries with computer programs
d. State and national fish farming associations
e. Agricultural experiment stations
f. Federal and state agencies
g. Regulatory agencies
h. Professional consultants
i. Fish farmers
j. Processors
k. Feed distributors
I Merchandisers
12-15. Evaluated to the satisfastion of ihe instructor
69
AQ-39
THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT

UNIT II
UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completion of this unit, the student should be able to discuss water chemistry and
the roles of aquatic plants and animals in pond ecology. The student should also be able
to identify plankton and benthic organisms as sources of aquatic food available for fish. These
competencies will be evidenced by completing the assignment sheets and by scoring a minimum
of 85 percent on the unit test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After completion of this unit, ihe student should be able to:
1. Match terms associated with the aquatic environment with their correct
definitions.
2. List important variables affecting the ecological balance of a pond.
3. Select facts about the links in the aquatic food chain.
4. Complete statements concerning the oxygen cycle in pond ecology.
5. List factors affecting oxygen production in pond water.
6. Select facts about the effects of seasonal temperature changes on pond water.
7. Select from a list true statements about the positive roles of plankton and benthic
organisms in pond ecology.
8. Select from a list true statements about the negative roles of plankton and benthic
organisms in pond ecology.
9. Solve problems concerning carbon dioxide in the aquatic environment.
10. Solve problems concerning water acidity (pH) in pond ecology.
11. Select from a list true statements about water alkalinity and hardness.
12. Solve problems concerning ammonia and ammonia byproducts in pond ecology.
13. Select facts about hydrogen sulfide in the aquatic environment.
70
40
OBJECTIVE SHEET
14. Match aquatic plants with their descriptions.
15. Complete statements about sources of water pollution.
16. Collect pond plankton and examine under a microscope. (Assignment Sheet
#1)
17. Observe the effects of sunlight on collected samples of pond water. (Assignment
Sheet #2)
18. Seine a pond; examine findings and discuss the fish food chain. (Assignment
Sheet #3)
19. Coller:t a pond bottom sample, examine and discuss findings. (Assignment
Sheet #4)
20. Prepare a list of food sources a sample pond offer$ its fish populations,
identify benthic organisms and other elements in the food chain. (Assignment
Sheet #5)
21. Survey the aquatic plants and marginal ecology of a sample pond; discuss
the ecological impact on fish populations and the aquatic environment.
71
AQ-41

UNIT II
B. Invite a marine biologist to speak to the class before students complete assignment
sheets.
C. Make copies of Handouts #1-#3.
D. Make and review transparencies.
E. Review the assignment sheets carefully, and make changes that reflect or emphasize
local or area conditions.
F. Provide students with objective sheet. Discuss unit and specific objectives.
G. Provide students with information sheet. Discuss ihformation sheet, adding information
from your experience and resources specific to the situations of the students in your
class.
A
H. Demonstrate to students the proper method for setting up and using a microscope.
I. Provide students with assignment sheets. Discuss assignment sheets and schedule
due dates.
J. Give unit test. Critique in class.
A. Belusz, Larry. Fish Farming Techniques. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri,

The Instructional Materials Laboratory, 1987.
B. Dupree, Harry K., and Jay V. Huner, "Pond Management" in Third Report to the Fish
Farmers. The Status of Warmwater Fish Farming and Progress in Fish Farming
Research. Washington, D.C.: Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984.
C. Morgan, Ann Haven. Field Book of Ponds and Streams. New York: G.P. Putnam's
Sons, 1930.
D. Plumb, John A., ed. Principal Diseases of Farm Raised Catfish. Revised edition.
Auburn University, Alabama: Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, 1985.
E. Saigo, Roy H., and Barbara Woodworth Saigo. Botany. Principles and Applications.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1983.
F. Schubert, Dr. Gottfried. Fish Diseases. A Complete lntroductiorh Neptune City, New
Jersey: T.F.H. Publicadons, Inc., 1987.
72
42
G. Some Parasites and Diseases of Warmwater Fishes. Fish and Wildlife Leaflet 6,
Revision of Resource Publication 127. Stuttgart, Arkansas: Fish Farming Experimental
Station, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, April 1976.
H. The Fish Book, NEBRASKAland Magazine. Lincoln, Nebraska: Nebraska Game

and Parks Commission, 1987.
I. World Book Encyclopedia. Vol. 6, "Ecology," Vol. 15, "Pond," and Vol. 21, "Water."
Chicago: World Book-Childcraft International, Inc., 1981.
73
AQ-43

UNIT II
INFORMATION SHEET
A. Population Group of the same species (kind) of organism that lives in an

area
B. Community Group of animal and plant populations living together in the

same environment
EXAMPLE: Ponds may contain populations of bass, sunfish, and catfish;

populations of different plant species; and populations of
crayfish, insects, and other invertebrates. All of these populations
make up a community.
C. Ecosystem Communities of plants and animals and their climate, soil, and
water environments
D. Organic Related to or derived from living organisms
E. Microbe Microscopic organism
EXAMPLES: Bacteria, fungi
F. Detritus Organic debris
EXAMPLES: Dead plants, uneaten feed, feces, soil particles
G. Phytoplankton Microscopic aquatic plants
EXAMPLES: Blue-green algae, green algae, diatoms, phytoflagellates

(chlorophyll-producing organisms with a whip-like part for
movement)
H. Zooplankton Microscopic aquatic animals
EXAMPLES: Water fleas, copepods, and rotifers
I. Benthos Organisms living on or in the bottom sediment of a pond
EXAMPLES: Insect larvae, true worms, clams, snails, microbes
J. Fish food chain Transfer of energy from one living thing to another in the
form of food
74
44
INFORMATION SHEET
K. Photosynthesis Process by wHch plants use sunlight to produce organic

substanceschiefly sugars and oxygenfrom carbon dioxide and water
L. Larva An insect or animal that at birth or hatching is unlike its parent and
must change to another form before assuming adult characteristics
M. Nymph The larva of various insects, especially dragonfly and mayfly larvae
N. Stratification The layering of temperature and oxygen in a pond
0. Thermocline Zone separating waters of varying densities
EXAMPLE: Warm water is less dense (lighter) than cool water
P. ppm Parts per million; the addition of 1 pound of a substance to 999,999

pounds of water so that the dissolved substance and the water weigh a total
of 1 million pounds
H. Variables affecting the ecological balance of a pond
POINT OF INTEREST: No living thingplant or animallives alone; each organism

depends in some way upon certain other organisms and upon inorganic elements
in the environment. The ecological balance of a pond depends on a large number
of variables, the dozen most important of which are listed in this objective. Water
chemistry and climate are the two most important variables for aquaculturists of
both pond and container cultures.
A. Water source
B. Water chemistry
C. Water depth
D. Climate
EXAMPLES: Temperatures, length of daylight, intensity of sunlight, season

of year
E. Size of pond (area covered with water)
F. Age of pond
G. Geographical and topographical location of pond
H. Plankton and benthic populations
75
AQ-45
INFORMATION SHEET
I. Fish populations
J. Algae and rooted plant populations
K. Predator and competitor populations
L. Soil type and composition
III. The aquatic food chain (Transparencies 1 and 2)

A. Primary producers (phytoplankton, algae, and other aquatic plants) form the
first link in an aquatic food chain; through photosynthesis, plants use sunlight
to make organic molecules or food energy.
EXAMPLE: Phytoplankton
B. Primary consumers (zooplankton, insect larvae, fry and other small organisms)
cannot produce organic molecules from inorganic ones, so obtain their energy
by eating primary producers and other primary consumers.
EXAMPLE: Zooplankton feed on phytoplankton
C. Secondary consumers (medium-sized fish, crayfish, reptiles, other vertebrates)

eat the primary consumers.
EXAMPLE: Crayfish eat zooplankton
D. Tertiary consumers (larger fish, a bird, raccoon, man) may then eat the
secondary consumer, and so the chain grows until the last consumer in the
chain dies.
EXAMF_E: A bass eats the crayfish and later dies.

E Decomposers (microbes and benthic organisms) convert animal wastes and
dead animals and plants into chemical substances that primary producers use
to produce food, thus joining the first and last links in the food chain.
EXAMPLE: Microbes and other decomposers break down the dead bass and
produce nutrients which the primary producerphytoplankton--needs
to produce food.
76
INFORMATION SHEET
IV. Natural oxygen cycle in pond ecology

A. Fish need oxygen to live, they take dissolved oxygen (DO) from the water
and give off carbon dioxide as a waste product of respiration. (See Table 1
below.)
TABLE 1
Effects of DO on Fish
Dissolved
Oxygen, ppm
0.3
-- Small fish survive short exposure.
Lethal if exposure prolonged.

1.0
2.0
- 1
Fish survive, but growth is slow and disease outbreaks are likely
3.0
with prolonged exposure.
4.0
5.0 1 Desirable range
From Fish Farming Techniques by Larry Belusz. Reprinted with permission.
B. While pond water absorbs some oxygen directly from the air, the major source
of DO in fish culture ponds is from photosynthesis by aquatic plantsprimarily
phytoplankton. (See Table 2.)
(NOTE: The fast flowing water in raceway cultures is aerated as it flows and
drops from one raceway unit to another. The amount of oxygen diffused and
absorbed from the overlying air into an undisturbed pond is not significant, but
wind and wave action increase aeration.)
77
AQ-47
INFORMATION SHEET
TABLE 2
Sources and ranges of DO gains and losses in ponds
Source Range (ppm)
Gains
Photosynthesis by phytoplankton 5-20
Diffusion 1-5
Losses
Plankton respiration 5-15
Fish respiration 2-6
Respiration by organisms in the mud 1-3
Diffusion 1-5
From Fish Farming Techniques by Larry Belusz. Reprinted with permission.
C. During daylight, phytoplankton take carbon dioxide gas from the water and
produce oxygen; oxygen is also required for respiration.
D. When sunlight is not available for photosynthesis, no oxygen is produced, and

carbon dioxide accumulates in the pond water through the respiratory process.
E. Therefore, at night and when it is overcast and dark, both fish and plants
compete for the DO in the water.
V. Factors affecting oxygen production in pond water

A. Number. of aquatic-plants and phytoplankton in pond
B. Number, size, and species of fish (and other aquatic animals) in pond
C. Number of hours of daylight
D. Intensity of sunlight
(NOTE: Oxygen production begins slowly at sunrise, increases as the day

progresses, peaks in mid-afternoor decreases with the lowering intensity of
sunlight, and falls to zero at darkr ,ss.)
E. Water temperature
(NOTE: The higher the water temperature, the lower the amount of DO water
can hold. See Table 3.)
78
INFORMATION SHEET
TABLE 3
Approximate Oxygen Solubility in Pure Water at Different
Temperatures and 1 Atmosphere Pressure
Parts Parts
per Million per Million
Degrees F (PPm) Degrees F (PPm)
32 14.1 64 9.2
40 12.5 70 8.6
46 11.5 76 8.2
52 10.5 82 7.7
58 9.8 88 7.4
F. Altitude and wind
G. Water depth
(NOTE: Oxygen production decreases with increasing water depth because

the intensity of sunlight decreases as it passes downward through the water.)
H. Water clarity
(NOTE: Suspended microscopic plants and animals, silt, stains, detergent

foams, dense mats of floating algae, and debris all reduce light penetration
and thus oxygen production.)
I. Water source
(NOTE: Well water and spring water may be lacking in DO.)
J. Amount of detritus in pond
(NOTE. Excessive accumulations of organic matter in pondsusually due to

heavy feedingdeplete pond DO because oxygen in the sediment is used
up in decomposition.)
79
AQ-49
INFORMATION SHEET
VI. Seasonal temperature changes and pond water

1
POINT OF INTEREST. The seasons of the year trigger a cycle of changes in water i
mostly brought about by changes in temperature that cause a layering effect and '
affect DO distribution in a pond. This cycle is caused because as water bPr:ces 1
cooler, it becomes denser [heavier] until it reaches greatest density at 39°F, but
as it cools still further, it becomes less dense. If this unique charactedstic of water
were not true, ponds would begin freezing at the bottom.
A. Winter
1. The pond is frozen over, and water temperature just below the ice is
32°F.
2. Beneath the ice, dead plants and animals continue to decay, the
process gradually removes oxygen from the watei and increases other
gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and hydrogen sulfide.
3. If the pond surface is frozen for an extended pedod, the fish may die
in what is commonly called winterkill.
B. Spring
1. As temperatures increase, the ice malts, and the pond water begins
to warm.
2. As it warms from 32°F, it becomes denser (heavier) and begins to

sink, setting up currents that cause the highly oxygenated surface
water to mix with the stagnant waters below.
3. When the upper water reaches 39°F, the pond is uniform in temperature
from top to bottom.
4. Spring winds create waves that mix the pond and oxygenate it from
top to bottom while at the same time releasing harmful gases into the
air: this process is called spring overturn.
C. Summer
1. The surface water becomes warmer and lighter, making it harder to

mix with the cooler, heavier water below.
2. Thermal stratification takes place: Warm surface water lies on top of

the cooler, deeper water, preventing the mixing of upper and lower
waters.
50
INFORMATION SHEET
3. Early in this process, lower depths have adequate DO, but as dead
plants and animals sink to the bottom, oxygen is used in decomposition,
and with no oxygen-doh surface waters to replenish the supply, an area
of very low or no oxygen develops. (See Figure 1 below.)
(NOTE; Depending on the pond, the depth at which low oxygen develops
can range from just a few to several feet deep, but the layering of
temperature and oxygen is usually more pronounced in deep ponds.)
FIGURE
Warm
Temperature
Rapid
Temperature
Change
Thermodne
Cold Temperature
High
Oxygen
Decreasing
Oxygen
/
. . . . .
. . . .
. . . .
Oxygen Depletion . .*.
.
From Fish Farming Techniques by Larry Belusz. Used with permission.
D. Fall
1. Cooler weather causes surface waters to cool and become heavier;

the cool water sinks, and the process of mixing starts over again.
2. By late fall the temperature reaches 39°F again from top to bottom,
and the pond experiences the second overturn of the year, the fall
turnover, thus the pond enters winter with a good supply of oxygen
at all depths.
AQ-51
INFORMATION SHEET
VII. Positive roles of plankton and benthic organisms in pond eculogy

A. Phytoplankton
1. Produce oxygen for fish and other organisms;
2. Serve as main source of food for zooplankton and some fish;
3. Produce blooms that, help shade out uowanted rooted aquatic plants.
B. Zooplankton
1. Are a vital food source for fry of all species of fish;
2. Feed on phytoplankton and help keep it in balance.
C. Benthos
1. Co: t dead plant and animal matter into inorganic nutrients recycled
by plants into forms suitable for animals;
2. Supply food and essential vitamins and trace Rlements to fish;
3. Help control accumulations of organic matter in pond bottoms by

converting to safe forms.
(NOTE: If not converted to safe forms, organic matter decomposes

and releases into the pond ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide,
soluble ferrous iron, and other compounds that in high concentrations
may kill fish.)
VIII. Negative roles of plankton and benthic organisms in pond ecology

A. Plankton (phytoplankton and zooplankton)
1. May make the water so turbid that the sun cannot pen( Ate and DO
cannot be produced;
2. May produce an off-flavor;
3. Compete with fish at night for available DO;
4. May die in numbers too great for conversion by decomposers and thus
release noxious compounds into the water, cause high pH and low DO;
5. May be parasitic or disease causing;
6. May prey on eggs and fry.
82
52
INFORMATION SHEET
B. Benthic organisms
1. Compete wit fish for food, DO, and space;

2. May serve as intermediate hosts for disease organisms;
3. May prey on eggs and fry;
EXAMPLES: Snails and crayfish
4. May injure fish, leaving them susceptible to infections.
EXAMPLES: Leeches attached to fish; crayfish injuring fish with

their claws
IX. Carbon dioxide in the aquatic environment

A Besides being a waste product of respiration by plants and animals, carbon
dioxide can be found naturally in all water.
(NOTE: Spring and well water usually have high levels of carbon dioxide,
but rray not contain oxygen.)
B Carbon dioxide reduces the ability of fish to extract oxygen from the water.
C Decomposition raises carbon dioxide levels, and photosynthesis lowers camon
dioxide levels; therefore, carbon dioxide levels rise and fall on a daily basis
in relation to the amount of photosynthesis taking place.
(NOTE: A severe problem can occur after a die-off of phytoplankton because

little photosynthesis takes place and carbon dioxide levels rise.)
D. Normal safe levels of carbon dioxide are in the range of 5 to 10 ppm in
surface waters.
E. Fish can tolerate carbon dioxide levels as high as 20 ppm as long as DO

levels remain high.
X. Water acidity (pH)

A. Water can act either as an acidic or basic solution depending on its pH.
B. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with pH 7 being neutral; therefore, water
with a pH value less than 7 is acidic while water with a pH value above 7 is
basic.
C. The acid and basic death points for fish are about 4 and 11 respectively.
(See Table 4.)
83
AQ-53
INFORMATION SHEET
(NOTE: During afternoon hours, ponds with heavy algal blooms can reach
pH levels above 11 for short periods of time without negative effects on fish.)
TABLE 4
Effects of pH on Fish
Ph
5 ) Acid Death Point

No reproduction
Slow growth
6
7
1
8 Desirable range for fish production
10 -
11 Alkaline death point
C. Water pH is influenced by the amount of carbon dioxide (an acidic substance)

in solution.
D. Phytoplankton and rooted aquatic plants remove carbon dioxide during

photosynthesis; thus, pH rises during the day (water becomes more basic)
and falls at night (water becomes more acid) when the photosynthesis process
is reversed. (See Table 5.)
,
84
54
INFORMATION SHEET
TABLE 5
Daily Rise and Fall of Pond pH
pH
10
9 tt,
N
N.
N
N.
8 Atr
, ,
,,
7 0' 19
6 A.M. Noon 6 P.M. 12. P.M. 6 A.M.
Time of day
Tables 4 and 5 from Fish Farming Ta;hniques by Larry Belusz. Reprinted with permission.
Xl. Water alkalinity and hardness

A. Alkalinity
1. Alkalinity is a measure of calcium carbonate and bicarbonate ions (both

bases) in water to provide an idea of the resistance of that water to changes
in pH.
2. Water with high alkalinity acts as buffer to changes in pH.

3. Water with high alkalinity has higher early morning pH levels because
carbonate and bicarbonate ions buffer the effect of carbon dioxide (an
acid) production by phytoplankton during the night.
B. Hardness
1. Hardness is a measure of the concentration of calcium and magnesium

in water.
85
_
AQ-55
INFORMATION SHEET
2. Because the same rocks that produce carbonate and bicarbonate also
provide calcium and magnesium, the values for alkalinity and hardness
are often expressed as calcium carbonate equivalents.
3. As a rule, the best water for fish production has nearly equal values
of total hardness and total alkalinity.
4. Fish grow reasonably well over a wide range of alkalinities and hardnesses,
but values of 50-300 ppm are optimum.
XII. Ammonia and ammonia byproducts in the aquatic environment (Transparency

#3)
A. Ammonia is present in water as a byproduct of fish metabolism and the

breakdown of organic matter by bacteria.
B. Ammonia nitrogen occurs in water as ionized (NH,) and un-ionized (NH3);

only NH3 is toxic to fish.
C. Levels of NH, increase with increased temperature and pH; NH3 becomes
toxic at levels as low as 0.6 ppm.
D. Sublethal levels of NH3 as low as 0.1 ppm reduce fish growth and cause gill
damage in fishes.
E. Nitrite (NO2) is a breakdown product of ammonia produced through oxidation

by Nitrosomonas bacteria.
F. High levels of nitrite in fish blood hemoglobin reduce the ability of blood to
carry oxygen and cause ft to turn brown, signaling "brown blood" disease.
G. With brown blood disease, fish suffocate even when DO levels are considered
safe.
(NOTE: Nitrite levels as low as 1.5 ppm have been found to be toxic under
certain salinity. In pond cultures, the applization of common salt (chloride) is
effective in reversing the effects of nitrite toxicity.)
H. Nitrate (NO3) is formed as a further breakdown product of ammonia by

Nitrobacter bacteria.
I. Nitrate ;s the least toxic of the nitrogen compounds, fish can tolerate levels
in excess of 500 ppm.
(NOTE. Nitrate is not usually a problem in normal pond ecology or commercial

culture situations.)
86
INFORMATION SHEET
XIII. Hydrogen sulfide in the aquatic environment
A. Hydrogen sulfide accumulations can be toxic to fish.
B. Hydrogen sulfide accumulates in oxygen-deficient bottom sediments.
C. Accumulations of hydrogen sulfide can be identified by the presence of black

sediments with a rotten-egg smell.
D. Concentrations are highest in summer and lowest in winter.
E. The application of lime may reduce the toxicity of hydrogen sulfide by raising
the pH level.
F. Potassium permanganate can also be applied to a pond during harvesting

to oxidize the hythogen sulfide in the water.
XIV. Aquatic plants and their descriptions
POINT OF INTEREST: There are many types of aquatic plants, but generally they
can be divided into two distinct groups. algae and macrophytes. Algae are primitive
plants without true roots, stems, or leaves. Macrophytes ale vascular plants with
true roots, stems, and leaves. Plants are further classified as free-floating, submergent,
emergent, and marginal. All aquati,-; plants compete with fish for oxygen at night,
and in excessive numbers may interfere with harvesting and draining of stocked
ponds.
A. Planktonic algae
1. Are microscopic and are either single-celled or composed of branched

or unbranched cell chains.
2. Are rootless forms of plant life that grow between the pond bottom
and surface.
3. Are the chief producers of DO.
4. Are the "bloom" algae that may cause fish kills and off-flavor problems
(blue-green algae) in stocked ponds.
B. Filamentous algae
1. Are visible to the naked eye as floating mats or hairlike strands attached
to underwater objects.
2. Are primitive plants without roots, stems, or leaves, and are often
called moss or pond scum.
87
AQ-57
INFORMATION SHEET
3. May completely cover a pond, preventing sunlight penetration and

reducing photosynthesis by phytoplankton.
C. Macrcphytic algae
EXAMPLE: Chara or muskgrass, a coarse plant with a strong musky odor

often found encrusted with lime
1. Are large, branched plants attached to the pond bottom.
2. Are often confused with higher plants, which they resemble, but prcper
identification is necessary so that the correct chemical can be selected
for control.
D. Free-floating macrophytes
EXAMPLES: Duckweed, watermeal
1. Are tiny green plants that float on the surface and superficially resemble
algae, but have small leaves and roots that hang down into the water.
2. Often indicate water Hgh in phosphorous, which in turn indicates ponds

whose DO levels may vary widely.
3. Can cover a pond surface and thus prohibit sunlight penetration and
reduce DO production.
E. Emergent macrophytes
EXAMPLES: Floating-leaf: Water lilies, cowlilies

Above surface: Lotus, alligator weed
1. Are rooted in the pond bottom but have leaves that float on or extend
above the water surface.
2. Some, like waterlilies, can grow in water 10 feet deep or more, and
their leaves can completely cover a pond, thus prohibiting photosyn-
thesis and DO production by phytoplankton.
3. Use nutrients from the soil and water that could be used by phyto-
plankton.
F. Submergent macrophytes
EXAMPLES: Hornwort, milfoil, coontail, najas, pondweed
1. Are rooted in the bottom and grow completely underwater, though

some produce seed-heads that can be seen at the surface.
88
58
INFORMATION SHEET
2. Grow in dense underwater patches and can grow in water 5 feet deep
or more.
3. Limit access of fish to food organisms produced on and in the pond

bottom.
G. Marginal macrophytes
EXAMPLES: Cattails. flatsedges, bulrushes, waterprimrose, smartweed
1. Grow in very shallow water or wet soil along the edge of the pond.
2. Provide shelter for predators such as birds, snakes, frogs, turtles, and
burrowing aquatic animals such as beaver and muskrats.
3. Can cause harvesting and pond management problems for the aquaculturist.
EXAMPLE: Due to its dense surface growth that extends into the
pond from the shoreline, waterprimrose can seriously affect
pond management practices and hamper harvesting activities.
XV. Sources of water pollution

A. Industrial wastes
POINT OF INTEREST: In the United States, industries discharge three or

four times as many pollutants irAo water as do all sewage systems in the
country.
1. industrial pollutants are high in chemicals and many are discharged

directly into water systems.
2. Some industrial pollutants enter rivers, lakes and ponds in the form of
acid rain.
(NOTE: Acid rain is a pollutant formed when moisture in the air reacts
with the nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide released by factories and power
plants that burn coal or oil. This reaction produces nitric acid and sulfuric
acids that fall to earth with rain and snow.)
3. Thermal pollution occurs when industries discharge heated water into

lakes and streams.
B. Sewage
1. Nearly three-quarters of the sewage in the United Stateshuman

wastes, garbage, and water that has been used for bathing and
launderingis treated to turn it into less polluting substances; treat-
ment plants discharge these substances directly into lakes or rivers or
dispose of them on land.
89
AQ-59
INFORMATION SHEET
2. Of the remaining amount, about one-eighth is treated in septic tanks

and disposed of on land.
3. The remaining one-eighth of sewage in the United States is disposed

of untreated into waterways.
C. Agricultural chemicals and wastes:
POINT OF INTEREST: Agricultural soil erosion [including soil, chemical

herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizers] is the single greatest cause of water
pollution in two-thirds of the river basins in the United States.
1. Rainwater flowing from farmland into ponds and streams carries chemical
fertilizers and pesticides that have been put into the soil.
2. Wind carries sprayed pesticides and chemicals into ponds and waterways.
3. Cattle, hogs, sheep, and chickens raised on feedlots do not distribute

their wastes over widespread pastureland; instead most of their wastes
go into nearby streams and ponds during high runoff.
90
Aquatic Food Chain
Lake/Reservoir
Gizzard Shad
Phytoplankton Zooplankton
Crayfish
Farm Pond Dragonfly Nymph
Phytoplankton Zooplankton Largemouth Bass
From The Fish Book by NEBRASKALand Magazine. Reprinted with permission.
91
ip to
Aquatic Food Chain

Cold-Water Stream
Leaf 'Matter
(bacteria, fungi)
Brown Trout
Warm-Water Stream/River
Leaf Matter
(bacteria, fungi) Aquatic Invertebrates
(Caddisfly) Dragonfly Nymph
Channel Catfish
--&' Pii#IntN
Algae on Rocks
7 Zooplankton
Phytoplankton
A' From The Fish Book by NEBRASKALand Magazine, Reprinted with permission.
93 94
411111.,----, ....o
AQ-65
Nitrogen Cycle
Food
Atmosphere
Phytoplankton
1 Other
Fixation Fish 1.--,- Aquatic
Higher Plants
Bacteria Animals
Nit ate
NO;
,
Decomposing
Organic
Wastes
Oxidation by 1
Nitrobacter Ammonification
I
Gas F______ Nitrite Nitrification by Ammonia Ammonium
N2 NO1 Nitrosomonas NH3-"--- NHt
I
2
61
95
TM-3 - i
AQ-67

UNIT II
HANDOUT #1 HOW TO USE A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
Eyepiece
Course Adjustment Body Tube
Nosepiece
Arm
High-Power Jojective
Clip -
Low-Power Objective
Fine Adjustment Stage

Diaphragm
Base
Mirror
A. Set up microscope in best possible light, clean lenses and mirror with lens paper,
and turn on lamp.
B. Prepare slide and insert under clips, centering field to be magnified over hole in
stage.
(NOTE: Hold slide by its edges so as not to smear with fingers.)
C. Focus the low-power (LP) objective.
1. Turn nosepiece until LP objective (the shorter of the objectives) eicAs into
place over hole in stage.
2. Open diaphragm to its maximum circumference.
3. Turn mirror so that its flat side faces the underside of the stage.
4. Place one eye over ocular, taking care not to touch the eyepiece with your
eyelashes.
(NOTE: Always keep both eyes opan while us:eg ihe m!oroscope.)
5. While looking into the ocular, move the lamp and mirror to obtain the best
possible white light.
6. With your eyes level with the stage, turn the coarse adjustment knob (the
larger knob) until the objective is 1/4 inch from the slide
96
68
e
HANDOUT #1
7. Return your eye tc the ocular, and slowly raise the objective by turning the
coarse adjustment 'award you.
(NOTE: Never turn the coarse adjustment away from you to focus down on
the slide. The objeve can smash the slide.)
8. If you cannot locate the object, repeat Steps 6 and 7.
9. Once you have the object in focus, turn the fine adjustment knob (the smaller
knob) very slowly to sharpen the field.
D. Focus the high-power (HP) objective.
(NCTE: Always focus under low power first. Never focus with the coarse adjustment
under HP. Use the fine adjustment only.)
1. Turn nosepiece until HP objective clicks into place over hole in stage.
2. With your eye at the ocular, turn the fine adjustment very slowly until the
image is clear.
3. If you have trouble finding the object, start all over again by following all
steps in LP focusing and then switching to HP.
E. Focus for depth of object.
1. Very gently turn the fine adjustment knob and observe the barrel movement.
2. Notice the small scale of lines near the fine adjustment knob.
3. Focus on the top of the object, and then observe the scale lines; record.
Top-of-object scale lines:

4. Focus on the bottom of the object, ano then observe the scale lines; record.
Bottom-of-object scale lines:

5. Read barrel markings to laarn the distance between each scale line.
6. Multiply this number times tin distance you moved the fine adjustment knob
(difference between Steps 3 ane. 4) to find the thickness of the specimen.
7. Multiply your answer by 1000 to convert milliliters to microns.
97
AQ-69

UNIT II
HANDOUT #2 COMMON POND PLANKTON AND INSECT LIFE
MICROSCOPIC ALGAE
Diatoms (microscopic golden Desmoids (look like diatoms

brown algae) but are bright green)
er.77-7-7
Blue-green algae Filamentous green algae
Volvox (a sphere of hundreds of Euglena (animal-like, small

green algae cells that "swims" green algae with a whip-
by lashing threads) like part for movement)
Illustrations in this handout ar6 from the Field Book of Ponds and Streams by Ann Haven Morgan and are repnnted
Iwith the permission of G. P. Putnam's Sons.
98
70
HANDOUT #2
PROTOZOA (single-celled zooplankton)
Paramecium (can be seen with the Stentor (transparent, blue-green

naked eye as white, rapidly or whitish, trumpet-shaped)
moving speck)
Bell animals (can be seen with the Spirostomum

hand lens, either singly or in
colonies)
N1ETAZOA (many-celled zoop.unkton)

Rotifers (an abundant and Water fleas (minute 10-legged
important member of the food crustaceansmembers of the
chain) same family as crayfish)
99
AQ-71
HANDOUT #2
Cyclops (a copepod)
j_
:s.v4
Fairy shrimp (1" long back- Nematodes (microscopic to 1/2"

swimmers, transparent) worms)
iI4Zitck
.ON vte
INSECTS AND WORMS
Stonefly nymphs Mayfly nymphs
Dragonfly nymphs Water springtail
\VIM
V.,f7
,
Waterboatman Midge (larva, pupa, adult)
10 0
72
HANDOUT #2
Tubifex worms Bristleworm
Leech Whirligig berAle larva
Giant waterbug Water strider
Water scorpion (nonpoisonous Backswimmer

to humans)
ts.
1 01
AQ-73

UNIT II
HANDOUT #3 COMMON AQUATIC PLANTS
Chara (muskgrass) Duckweed
Water lily
Lotus
Watershield
.......
Illustrations in this handout are from the Plaid Book of Ponds and Stream., ..,y Ann Haven Morgan and are reprinted
with the permission of G. P. Putnam's Sons.
1
102
74
HANDOUT #3
Hornwort Mi lfoil
Water smartweed Bladderwort
Cattail Ee !grass
"
'14 ^
103
AQ-75
r: Bulrush
HANDOUT #3
...,---
Pondweed
104
AQ-77

UNIT H
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1 COLLECT POND PLANKTON AND

EXAMINE UNDER A MICROSCOPE
This assignment sheet s designed to familiarize you with planktonic members of the food
chain found in the water of earthen ponds. You will need to go into the field to collect
specimens from an es.ablished pond, and then examine and discuss your findings in the
classroom.
1. Go'her the following equipment and materials
a. Plankton net or nylon stocking
b. Microscope, slides, and cover slips
c. Methyl cellulose to retard plankton movement
(NOTE: Zooplankton and some phytoplankton, such as the euglenas, can

move so fast that they disappear from the viewing field if not placed in viscous
[thick] methyl cellulose.)
d. Eyedropper or pipette
e. Clean 1-quart glass jar with screw-on lid
f. Handout #2 to help you identify plankton
(NOTE: If you do not know how to use a microscope, follow the instructions
in Handout #1.)
g. Magnifying glass
2. Collect a water sample from an established, stocked pond.
a. Fill the clean glass jar with culture pond water.
b. Pass plankton net or nylon stocking through water in pond several times.
c. Release plankton from net into water in jar by inverting net and dipping up
and down in jar.
3. Hold jar up to light and observe the 'arger protozoans and tiny multicellular organisms
in your sample by staring intently into the water in the jar, you may also want to observe
the organisms with a magnifying glass held to the side of the specimen container.
4. Return to the classroom and prepare slides.
(NOTE. For best results, examine the pond water immediately or at most within an
hour after collecting the sample.)
10 5
78
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
a. Using eyedropper or pipette, place a small drop of pond water on a slide.
b. Add a drop Of methyl cellulose to the water drop to increase viscosity and
slow plankton movement so that the organisms will stay within the field of
the microscope.
c. Place cover slip over water drop.
5. Examine your prepared slides under the microscope at different levels of magnification.
6. Describe your findings, using Handout #2 as necessary to identify some basic types
of plankton; try to distinguish between phytoplankton and zooplankton.
(NOTE: Phytoplankton contain chlorophyll, a green substance.)
7. Sketch below some of the plankton observed.
10 6
AQ-79

UNIT II
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2 OBSERVE THE EFFECTS OF SUNLIGHT

ON COLLECTED SAMPLES OF POND WATER
In this assignment sheet you wil' conduct an experiment to determine the effects oi sunlight
on the plankton populations in pond water. You will need to go into the field to collect water
samples, and then you will conduct your experiment and evaluate your findings in the classroom.
This activity will be accomplished over a period of three days.
1. Gather the following equipment and materials.
a. Two one-quart glass specimen jars
b. Microscope, slides, and slide covers
c. Eyedropper or pipette
d. Magnifying glass
2. Early in the morning on a sunny day, collect two samples of water from a stocked,
aged pond that is in algal bloom.
a. Submerge each jar about 1 foot.
b. Invert the jars to release trapped air.
c. Allow the jars to fill the water, and lift from pond, but do not place lids on the
jars.
3. Place one specimen jar in a dark cupboard or closet for 36 hours.
4. Observe the color of the water in the second specimen jar (the one gathered from
sunlit water), and record on the next page.
5. Smell the water in the second specimen jar, and record the odor on the next page.
6. Stare intently into the water and observe the deNsity of the larger organisms present,
you may want to use a magnifying glass to aid your observation.
7. Make slides of the water collected in the second specimen jar. Follow the procedure
outlined in Assignment Sheet #1, but do not add methyl cellulose to alter the movement
of the plankton.
107
80
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
8. Examine your slides under a microscope, and record your observations below.
WATER SAMPLE KEPT IN SUNLIGHT
Water color:
Water odor:
Approximate plankton density: Dense Moderate Light
Plankton activity: Rapid Moderate Slow None
9. After 3 days, repeat the procedure in steps 1 through 6 on water from the specimen
jar placed in the dark.
WATER SAMPLE KEPT IN DARK
Water color:
Water odor:
Approximate plankton density: Dense Moderate Light
Plankton activity: Rapid Moderate Slow None
10. Compare Zhe data obtained from both observations.
a. Were there differences in water color? If yes, what conclusions

can you draw about the cause of the color change?
b. Were there differences in water odor?
If yes, what conclusions can you draw as to the cause ot the odor change?
l0g
,MMINE=
AQ-81
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
c. Which sample had the densest plankton populations? Why?
d. In which sample were the plankton most active? Why?
the plankton in a
11. What conclusions can you draw about the effects of sunlight on
water sample?
109
_
AQ-83

UNIT II
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3 SEINE A POND; EXAMINE FINDINGS, AND

DISCUSS THE FISH FOOD CHAIN
In this assignment sheet, you will c.11ect and classify mid-ivater members of the food
chain found in an established pond. You will find it convenient to work with a partner to
complete the assignment. After working together to seine a sample, one of you can
classify and the other can record specimen types and numbers. After classifying your
specimens, you will return to the classroom to evaluate your findings in terms of the food
chain.
a. 10-foot minnow seine
b. Handout #2
c. Specimen containers
2. Work with your partoer to seine an area of the same stocked pond observed in
Assignment Sheets #1 and #2.
(NOTE: Check to make sure that hand-seining is legal in t sample pond.)
3. Classify any fish caught as to species, size, and number; record below.
Species Approx. Size Number

(inches)
4. Wet your hands and release any seined fish.
5. Record immediately on the chart on the next page any specimen, such as a frog
or turtle, that cannot be confined in a specimen jar.
6. Sort the remaining contents of the seine into specimen jars; put plant st.'3r;imens
in one jar, larvae in another, insects such as water boatmen in another, snails in
another, an so on.
7. Repeat the seining/sorting process at three or four places in the pond.
110
84
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3
8. Record on the chart below the number and species in each of your specimen jars.
Specimen Type Number
9. Release your specimens into the pond.
10 Return to the classroom and evaluate your findings in terms of the fish food chain:
a. How many types of food did you collect from the water of this pond?
b. Which food collected was most abundant?
c. What competitor specimens did you collect? (Those that would compete with
the pond's fish population for food.)
d. What preoLdor specimen's did you collect?
e. Does the number of Want specimens collected indicate a weed control

problem?
AO-85

UNIT II
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #4 COLLECT A POND BOTTOM SAMPLE;

EXAMINE AND DISCUSS FINDINGS
This assignment sheet is designed to familiarize you with benthic members of the fish food
chain commonly found on pond bottoms. You will need to collect some specimens at a
pond, and then return to the classroom to evaluate your findings.
a. Bucket
b. Sieve box
(NOTE: A small sieve box can be made from common window screen.)
c. Magnifying glass
d. Specimen containers
2. Begin at the pond margin and collect three samples: the first from the shallow pond
margin, the second from a depth of about 1 foot, and the last from a depth of about
2 or 3 feet.
3. Wade into the pond, and scoop as deeply into the pond bottom as conditions will
allow.
4. Sift each sample through the sieve box.
5. Examine with the magnifying glass, describe and record your findings below.
Descriptions of Number per

Organisms Found Sample
Mollusks (clams, snails, etc.)
Crustaceans (crayfish)
1 1. 2
=1MENNIPS1~Maliganr4
86
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #4
Descriptions of Number per

Organisms Found Sample
Insects (larvae, nymphs, adults)
Amphibians (frogs, salamanders)
Snakes and turtles
Worms
Plants
Man-made litter (glass, cans, discarded fishing equipment, etc.)
6. Examine and describe the composition of the pond bottom. What is its primary
composition? Clay? Organic debris? Sand? Stones/gravel?
(NOTE: You can also place some pond bottom material in a glass jar filled
with
water. Shake jar vigorously and then observe the layers as the material settles out.)
7. Discuss the implications of your findings on the fish food chain and
sound pond
ecology.
(NOTE: An interesting project is to collect some dried pond bottom (or edge) soil
and place it in a large jar with water. In a moderately warm, well-lit place, this jar
will soon become a miniature pond ecosystem as plants and animals revive from
dormancy.)
11 3
AQ-87

UNIT II
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #5 PREPARE A LIST OF FOOD SOURCES A

SAMPLE POND OFFERS ITS FISH POPULATIONS; IDENTIFY
BENTHIC ORGANISMS AND OTHER ELEMENTS IN THE
FOOD CHAIN
1. Using the data that you collected in Assignment Sheets #1, #3 and #4, prepark a
list of food sources that your sample pond offers its fish populations.
2. Identify benthic organisms, aquatic insects, and other elements in the food chain;
list below.
TOTAL FOOD SOURCES FOR SAMPLE POND
Plankton
Algae
Rooted plants
Aquatic insects
Benthic organisms
Fish species
I4
88
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #5
3. Other than plankton, which food source is most prevalent in the pond you sampled?
115
AQ-89

UNIT II
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #6 SURVEY THE AQUATIC PLANTS AND

MARGINAL ECOLOGY OF A SAMPLE POND; DISCUSS THE ECOLOGICAL
IMPACT ON FISH POPULATIONS AND THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
1. Walk around the margin of a sample pond; look for and record in a notebook any
of the following:
a. Types of marginal and aquatic plaids
b. Signs of burrowing predators duch as muskrats, nutria, and beaver that

damage pond edges and levees
c. Signs (tracks or sightings) of predatory birds such as egrets, herons, pelicans,

ducks, cormorants, and kingfishers
d. Signs of competitors such as bullfrogs, otters, raccoons
e. Trees and bushes that shade or overhang the water and drop leaves, adding
to the organic debris on the pond bottom
f. Turtles, tadpoles, frog eggs, frogs, salamanders, snakes
g. Man-made litter
2. Note the location of the pond. Will it receive full-day sunshine? Is it near
agricultural endeavor that may cause run-off and pollution problems?
3. Note the size of the pond.
4. Determine the source of the pond's water.
5. Discuss the ecologica; impact of your findings on fish populations and the aquatic
environment.
116
AQ-91

UNIT II
TEST
NAME SCORE
1. Match terms associated with the aquatic environment with their correct definitions.
Write the correct number in the blanks.
a. Related to or derived from living 1. Population

organisms
2. Community
b. Process by which plants use sunlight
to produce organic substanceschiefly 3. Ecosystem
sugars and oxygenfrom carbon dioxide
and water 4. Organic
Microscopic aquatic animals 5. Microbe
Zone separating waters of varying 6. Detritus

densities
7. Phytoplankton
e. Parts per million; the addition of 1
pound of a substance to 999,999 8. Zooplankton
pounds of water so that the dissolved
substance arid the water weigh a total 9. Benthos
of 1 million pounds
10. Fish food chain
f. Microscopic organism
11. Photosynthesis
9. Organic debris
12. Larva
h. Organisms living on or in the bottom
sediment of a pond 13. Nymph
i. An insect or animal that at birth or 14. Stratification

hatching is unlike its parent and must
change to another form before assuming 15. Thermocline
adult characteristics
16. ppm
Group of the same species (kind) of
organism that lives in an area
k. Transfer of energy from one living thing

to another in the form of food
I. Microscopic aquatic plants
-
92
TEST
m. The layering of temperature and oxygen

in a pond
n. Communities of plants and animals

and their climate, soil, and water
environments
o. The larva of various insects, especially

dragonfly and mayfly larvae
Group of animal and plant populations

living together in the same environment
2. List 8 important variables affecting the ecological balance of a pond.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
9.
h.
3. Select facts about the aquatic food chain. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. Which organisms are the primary producers, forming _he first link in the
food chain?
1) Phytoplankton, algae, and other aquatic plants

2) Zooplankton, insect larvae, and other small organisms
3) Microbes and benthic organisms
b. What source of energy do primary producers use to produce food energy?
1) Primary cortt Jmers

2) Sunlight
3) Tertiary consumers
c. What are some examples of primary consumers?
1) Phytoplankton
2) Zoopiankton
Microbes and benthic organisms
118
AQ-93
TEST
d. How do primary consumers obtain their energy?
1) By eating dead animals and plants

2) By eating secondary consumers
3) By eating primary producers and other primary consumers
e. What are some examples of secondary consumers?
1) Insect larvae, fry, zooplankton

2) Medium-sized fish, crayfish
3) Algae, phytoplankton
f. What is a tertiary consumer?
1) A larger fish, bird, or man that eats a secondary consumer

2) A microbe or benthic organism that eats a secondary consumer
3) A primary consumer that eats a primary producer
What role do microbes and benthic organisms play in the aquatic food
chain?
1) They adt as decomposers.

2) They act as primary producers.
3) They act as primary consumers.
h. How do decomposers join the first and last links in the food chain?
1) They provide the energy source for the primary producers.

2) They enrich the bottom sediment and provide chemicals needed
by primary producers.
3) They provide the chlorophyh needed by algae and other aquatic
plants.
4. Complete the following statements concerning the oxygen cycle in pond ecology.
Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. Fish need oxygen to five; they take from the water and give off
as a waste product of respiration.
1) carbon dioxide; dissolved oxygen (DO)

2) dissolved oxygen (DO); hydrogen sulfide
3) dissolved oxygen (DO); carbon dioxide
b. While pond water absorbs some oxygen from the air, the major source
of DO in ponds is from by aquatic plants.
1) photosynthesis
2) expiration
3) decomposition
119
.1
94
TEST
c. During , phytoplankton take carbon dioxide gas from the water

and produce .
1) daylight, oxygen
2) nighttime, hydrogen sulfide
3) nighttime, oxygen
d. When sunlight is not available for photosynthesis, phytoplankton and

other aquatic plants use for respiration.
1) carbon dioxide
2) oxygen
3) chlorophyll
e. Therefore, at night and when it is overcast and dark, both fish and plants
available DO in the water.
1) produce the
2) consume little
3) compete for
5. List 5 factors affecting oxygen production in pond water.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
6 Select facts about the affects of seasonal temperature changes on pond water. Write
a. If in winter a pond is f ozen over for an extended period and the water
temperature just below the ice is 32°F, how do decomposing plants and
animals affect the water chemistry?
1) They gradually remove oxygen from the water and increase gases
such as carbon dioxide, methane, and hydrogen sulfide.
2) They provide chemicals and nutrients for algae and aquatic plants.
3) They keep the water chemistry in balance by ridding the pond
of dead organisms.
b. As spring temperatures warm the water, it becomes denser and begins

to sink. At what temperature does this process begin?
1) 39°F
2) 0°F
3) 32°F
120
AQ-95
TEST
c. During the process described in b, which layer of water contains the

most dissolved oxygen?
1) Surface
2) Middle
3) Lower
d. The spring pond is a uniform temperature from top to bottom. What

minimum temperature must the water be?
1) 65°F
2) 39°F
3) 33°F
e. During which season would the aquaculturht be most likely to aerate

(add oxygen to) a pond?
1) Summer
2) Spring
3) Fall
f. How does thermal stratification prevent the mixing of upper and lower
pond waters?
1) The cooler water is denser and heavier, so sinks and cannot mix
with the less dense, lighter water near the surface.
2) The warm water is denser and heavier, so sinks and cannot mix
with the less dense, lighter water near the surface.
3) Cool dense water traps lighter warmer water beneath it.
___.9. In late summer in a deep and stratified pond, which fish would have
the best supply of DO?
1) Bottom feeders
2) Surface feeders
3) Mid-depth feeders
h. During which two seasons does a pond have the best supply of DO
at all depths?
1) Summer and winter

2) Spring and summer
3) Spring and fall
7. Select from a list true statements about the positive, roles of plankton and benthic
organisms in pond ecology. Write an "X" in the blank before each correct statement.
a. Phytoplankton produce hydrogen dioxide for fish and other organisms
b. Phytoplankton serve as the main source of food for zooplankton and

some fish
121
96
TEST
c. Phytoplankton produce blooms that increase oxygen production in

rooted plants
d. Zooplankton are a vital food source for fry and all species of fish
e. Zooplankton feed on phytoplankton and help keep it in balance
f. Benthos convert dead plant and animal matter into organic nutrients
recycled by plants into forms suitable for animais
g. Benthos supply food and essential vitamins and trace elements to fish
h. Benthos help control accumulations of organic matter on pond bottoms

by converting it to safe forms
8. Select from a list true statements about the negative roles of plankton and benthc
organk.rns in poi,d ecology. Write an "X" in the blank before each correct statement.
a. Plankton may make water so turbid that the sun cannot penetrate and
DO cannot be produced.
b. Plankton may produce an off-flavor.
c. Plankton may compete with fish at night for available carbon dioxide.
d. Plankton may die in numbers too great for conversion by decomposers,

and thus release harmful compounds into the water and cause high pH
and low DO.
e. Plankton may be parasitic or disease causing.
f. Plankton may prey on eggs and fry.
g. Benthic organisms compete with fish for food, DO, and space.
k. Benthic organisms may serve as intermediate hosts for disease

organisms
Benthic organisms may provide hiding places for eggs and fry
j. Benthic organisms may inpre fish, leaving them susceptible to infections
9. Solve problems concerning carbon dioxide in pond ecology.
a. You want to isolate a fish, so fill a holding tank with well water, acclimate
the fish to the new water temperature, and release it into the tank. It
immediately gasps at the surface and then dies. What water conditions
probably caused the death?
122
AQ-97
TEST
b. It is 8:30 p.m. on an overcast summer evening. ;n the late afternoon of the

same day, you experienced a die-off of phytoplankton. What level of carbon
dioxide can you expect in your pondhigh, average, low? Why?
c. You measure the level of carbon dioxide in your pond and find it to be 6
ppm in the surface waters. Is this a healthy level for your stock? Why or
why not?
d. During the afternoon on a sunny, windy spring day, you measure the carbon
dioxide 'evels in your pond. The CO2 level is 19 ppm. Do you need to take
emergency measures? Why or why not?
10. Solve problems concerning water acidity (pH) in pond ecology.
a. You have just tested your pond's pH level and are happy to find that it is
neutral. What pH value did your test reveal?
b. You notice that the fish in one of your ponds have been experiencing slow
growth. You suspect pH imbalance. Your suspicions are confirmed when you
test the pond pH in the afternoon What pH range did your test reveal?
c. It is late afternoon on a sunny day, your pond is experiencing a heavy algal

bloom, and you get a pH value readings of 11 and 9. Should you take
emergency measures? Why or why not?
d. Through repeated pH testing, you find that your pond water is generally hasic
during the day and more acidic during the night. Why?
123
98
TEST
11. Select from a list true statements about water alkalinity and hardness. Write an
"X" in the blank before each correct statement.
a. Alkalinity is a measure of calcium carbonate and bicarbonate ions (both

bases) in water to provide an idea of the resistance of that water to changes
in pH
b. Water with a low alkalinity acts as a buffer to changes in pH
c. Water with high alkalinity has lower early morning pH levels because
carbonate and bicarbonate ions increase the effect of carbon dioxide
(an acid) production by phytoplankton during the night
d. Hardness is a measure of the concentration of calcium and magnesium

in water
e. Because-the same rocks that produce carbonate and bicarbonate also

provide calcium and magnesium, and the values for alkalinity and hardness
are often expressed as calcium carbonate equivalents
I. As a rule, the best water for fish production has nearly equal values
of total hardness and total alkalinity
g. Fish grow reasonably well over a very narrow range of alkalinities and
hardnesses, but values of 30-50 ppm are optimum
12. Solve problems concerning ammonia and ammonia byproducts in pond ecology.
a. In testing your tank culture water, you find a high level of ionized ammonia
nitrogen (NH4). Should you take emergency measures? Why or why not?
b. On a hot summer day, you test your tank culture water and find a pH value
of 9 and an un-ionized ammonia nitrogen (NH3) level of 0.5 ppm. Should
you take emergency measures? Why or why not?
c. Should you be concerned when you find an NH3 level of 0.1? Why or why
not?
1 24
AQ-99
TEST
d. You have just experienced a fish kill. You test the water and find that it has
a high DO content and a nitrite (NO2) value of 1.5. You determine that the
fish died of "brown blood disease." What caused this disease, and how did
the disease cause the fish to die?
e. You test your pond culture and find the level of nitrate (NO3) at 450 ppm.
Should you take emergency measures? Why or Why not?
13. Select facts about hydrogen sulfide in the aquatic environment. Write the correct
answers in the blanks.
a. Where do hydrogen sulfide build-ups occur in a pond?
1) In warm upper layers

2) In algae and aquatic plants
3) In bottom sediments
b. How can the fish farmer tell if a pond has an accumulation of hydrogen
sulfide?
1) The water will be turbid

2) The sediment will smell like rotten eggs
3) The water will give a high nitrate reading
c. At what time of year are concentrations of hydrogen sulfide the highest?
1) Summer
2) Fall
3) Spring
d. What substance can be applied to raise pH and reduce the toxicity of

hydrogen sulfide?
1) Lime
2) Potassium permanganate
3) Table salt
oe
125
100
TEST
e. What chemical can be applied to the pond during harvesting to oxidize

the hydrogen sulfide in the water?
1) Lime
2) Potassium permanganate
3) Table salt
14. Match aquatic plants with their descriptions. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. Are rooted in the bottom and grow 1. Planktonic algae

completely underwater, though some
produce seed-heads that can be seen 2. Filamentous algae
at the surface; grow in dense underwater
patches that can grow in water 5 feet 3. Macrophytic algae
deep or more; limit access of fish to food
organisms produced on or in the pond 4. Free-floating
bottom macrophytes
b. Grow in very shallow water or wet soil 5. Emergent

along the edge of the pond; provide macrophytes
shelter for predators; can cause
harvesting and pond management 6. Submergent
problems for the aquaculturist macrophytes
c. Are microscopic and are either single- 7. Marginal

celled or composed of branched or un- macrophytes
branched cell chains; are rootless forms
of plant life that grow between the pond
surface and bottom; are chief produc-
ers of DO; are the "bloom" algae and
may cause fish kills and off-flavor prob-
lems in stocked ponds
d. Are large branched plants attached to

the pond bottom; are often confused
with higher plants, but proper iden-
tification is necessary so that the cor-
rect chemical can be selected for
control
e. Are rooted in the pond bottom but

have leaves that float on or extend
above the water surface; some, like
waterlilies, can grow in water 10 feet
deep or more, and their leaves can
completely cover a pond, thus pro-
hibiting photosynthesis and DO produc-
tion by phytoplankton; use nutrients from
the soil and water that could be used
by phytoplankton
126
- _
AQ-101
TEST
f. Are visible to the naked eye as floating

mats or hairlike strands attached to
underwater objects; are primitive plants
without roots, stems, or leaves, and are
often called moss or pond scum; may
completely cover a pond, preventing
sunlight penetration and reducing photo-
synthesis by phytoplankton
g. Are tiny green plants that float on the

surface and superficially resemble algae,
but have small leaves and roots that
hang down into the water; often indicate
water high in phosphorous, which in turn
indicates ponds whose DO levels may
vary widely; can cover pond surface and
thus prohibit sunlight penetration and
reduce DO produrtion
15. Complete statements about sources of water pollution. Write the correct numbers
in the blanks.
a. Industrial pollutants are high in and may be discharged directly

into water systems.
1) nutrients
2) chemicals
3) buffers
b. Some industrial pollutants enter rivers, lakes, and ponds in the form of
1) distilled water
2) ionized chemicals
3) acid rain
c. pollution occurs when industries discharge heated water into lakes

and streams.
1) Thermal
2) Therapeutic
3) Chemical
d. Nearly of the sewage in the United States is treated to turn it

into less polluting substances; treatment plants discharge these substances
directly into lakes or rivers or dispose of them on land.
1) one-eighth
2) one-half
3) three-quarters
127
102
TEST
e. Of the remaining amount, about is treated in septic tanks and

disposed of on land.
1) one-eighth
2) one-half
3) three-quarters
f. About of the sewage in the United States is disposed of untreated

into waterways.
1) one-eighth
2) one-half
3) three-quarters
g. Rainwater flowing from farmland into ponds and streams carries

and that have been put into the soil.
1) thermal wastes; carcinogens
2) chemical fertilizers; pesticides
3) topsoH; noxious plants
h. Wind carries pesticides and chemicals into ponds and waterways.
1) sprayed
2) mulched
3) organic
1 During periods of high runoff, most of the wastes of cattle, hogs, sheep,
and chickens raised on go into nearby streams and ponds during
high runoff.
1) small farms
2) concentrated feeds
3) feedlots
(NOTE: If the following activities have not been completed prior to the test, ask your
*nstructor when they should be completed.)
16. Collect pond plankton and observe under a microscope. (Assignment Sheet #1)
17. Observe the effects of sunlight on collected samples of pond water. (Assignment
Sheet #2)
18. Seine a pond; examine findings and discuss the fish food chain. (Assignment Sheet
#3)
19 Collect a pond bottom sample; examine and discuss findings. (Assignment Sheet
#4)
2' Prepare a list of food sources a sample pond offers its fish populations, identify
benthic organisms and other elements in the food chain. (Assignment Sheet #5)
128
AQ-103
TEST
21. Survey the aquatic plants and marginal ecology of a sample pond; discuss the
ecological impact on fish populations and the aquatic environment. (Assignment Sheet
#6)
129
AQ-105

UNIT II
ANSWERS TO TEST
1. a. 4 i. 12
b. 11 j. 1
c. 8 k. 10
d. 15 I. 7
e. 16 m. 14
f. 5 n. 3
g. 6 o. 13
h. 9 p. 2
2. Answer should include any eight of the following
a. Water source
b. Water chemistry
c. Water depth
d. Climate
e. Size of pond (area covered by water)
f. Age of pond
g. Geographical and topographical location of pond
h. Plankton and benthic populations
i. Fish populations
j. Algae and rooted plant populations
k. Predator and competitor populations
I. Soil type and composition
3. a. 1
b. 2
c. 2
d. 3
e. 2
f. 1
g. 1
h. 1
4. a. 3
b. 1
c. 1
d. 2
e. 3
130
106
ANSWERS TO TEST
5. Answer should include any five of the following
a. Number of aquatic plants and phytoplanktol in pond

b. Number, size, and species of fish (and other aquatic animals) in pond
c. Number of hours of daylight
d. Intensity of sunlight
e. Water temperature
f. Altitude and wind
g. Water depth
h. Water clarity
I. Water source
j. Amount of detritus in pond
6. a. 1
b. 3
C. 1
d. 2
e. 1
f. 1
g. 2
h. 3
7. b, d, o, f, g, h
8. a, b, d, e, f, g, h, j
9. a. The well water may be too high in carbon dioxide but contain no oxygen
b. High; little photosynthesis takes place after a die-off of phytoplankton, and
photosynthesis lowers carbon doxide levels
c. Yes; normal safe levels range from 5 to 10 ppm in surface waters
d. No; oxygen levels are generally high in spring, and the day is windy, adding
more aeration to the water. Fish can tolerate carbon dioxide levels as high
as 20 ppm as long as DO levels remain high.
10. a. 7
b. Range between 4 and 6
c. While 11 is the basic death point for fish, ponds experiencing heavy algal
blooms can reach pH levels above 11 for short periods of time without
negative effects.
d. When photosynthosis is taking place, the water is more basic than at night
when photosynthesis is not taking place
11. a, d, e, f
1 31
AQ-107
ANSWERS TO TEST
12. a. No; ionized ammonia nitrogen is rarely toxic to fish

b. Yes; un-ionized ammonia (NH3) increases with increased temperature and
pH; levels as low as 0.6 ppm are toxic
c. Yes; sublethal levels as low as 0.1 ppm reduce fish growth and cause gill
damago
d. High levels of nitrite in fish blood hemoglobin reduce the ability of blood to
carry oxygen; fish suffocate even when DC 'evels are considerad safe
e. No; nitrate is the least toxic of the nitrogen compounds; fish can tolerate
levels in excess of 500 ppm
13. a. 3
b. 2
1
d. 1
e. 2
14. a. 6
b. 7
c. 1
d. 3
e. 5
f. 2
g. 4
15. a. 2
b. 3
C. 1
d. 3
e. 1
f. 1
g. 2
h. 1
i. 3
16.-21. Evaluated to the satisfaction of the instructor
132
AQ-1C9
FUNDAMENTAL FISH BIOLOGY

ANIL UNIT III
UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completion of this unit, the student should be able to identify species and basic
anatomical parts of fishes. The student should also be able to discuss thg functions of
internal organs and the life cycle of a fish. These competencies will be evidenced by
correctly comp:sting the assignment and job sheets and by scoring a minimum of 85
percent on the unit test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After completion of this unit, the student should, be able to:
1. Match terms associated with fundamental fish biology with their correct
definitions.
2. Label external parts of a typical fish.
3. Discuss basic external body features that enable fish to live in water.
4. Label internal organs of a typical fish.
5. Select true statements about lie functions of internal organs and systems of
fishes.
6. Match life cycles of fish with th9ir correct descriptions.
7. Identify fish species.
8. Demonstrate the ability to:
a. Dissect a fish, examine under a microscope, and identify internal organs.

(Job Sheet #1)
b. Kill, weigh, measure, and dress a catfish, and compare dressed and
undressed measurements. (Job Sheet #2)
183
UNIT III
B. Make and review transparencies.
C. Provide students with objective sheet. Discuss unit and specific objectives.
D. Provide students with information sheet.
E. Discuss information sheet, providing as many examples as possible. Be sure to

discuss local names for species illustrated in Section VII.
I
F. Provide students with job sheets and schedule due dates.
G. Discuss and demonstrate the procedures outlined in the job sheets. Provide
students with Unit II, Handout #1How to Use a Compound Microscope as
necessary.
H. Give test. Critique in class.
A. Belusz, Larry. Fish Farming Techniques. Columbia Missouri. University of Missouri,

B. Third Report to the Fish Farmers: The

Dupree, Harry K, and Jay V. Huner, eds.
Status of Warmwater Fish Farming and Progress in Fish Farming Research.
Washington, D.C.: Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984.
C. The Fish Book from NEBRASKAland Magazine. Nebraska Game and Parks
Commission. Lincoln, Nebraska: Vol. 65, No. 1, January-February 1987.
D. Lee, Jasper S. Catfish Farming: 4 Reference Unit. Jackson, Mississippi:

Mississippi Department of Education, Division of VocationalTechnical Education,
1971.
E. Piper, Robert G. et al. Fish Hatchery Management. Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Department of the interior Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982.
F. Schubert, Dr. Gottfried. Fish Diseases: A Complete Introduction. Neptune City,

New Jersey: T.F.H. Publications, Inc., 1987.
G. Torrans, Les. Blue Tilapia Culture in Arkansas. Pine Bluff, Arkansas: University
of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service, 1988.
H. Van Ramshorst, Dr. J. D. Aquarium Encyclopedia of Tropical Freshwater Fish.

Tucson, Arizona: H.P.- Books, 1981.
it
134
I. World Book Encyclopedia. Vol. 7. "Fish." Chicago: World Book-Childcraft

International, Inc., 1981.
135
AQ-113

UNIT III
INFORMATION SHEET
A. Species Narrowest scientific classification; a class of related organisms

having common characteristics, capable of interbreeding, and sharing a
common name
EXAMPLE: The species name for channel cathsh is Ictaturus punctatus.
B. Predator Animal that preys on, destroys, or eats other animals
C. Vertebrate Organism with an inner skeleton and a segmented spinal

column
EXAMPLES: Fish, alligator, man
D. Invertebrate Organism with a hard outer skeleton and lacking a spinal

column
EXAMPLES: Crayfish, shrimp, oyster
E. Forage Food for animals taken by browsing or grazing, or the act of

browsing or grazing to obtain food
F. Parasite A plant or animal that lives on or in another species
EXAMPLES. Fungi, bacteria, protozoa, fish lice, intestinal worms, nematodes,

flukes, "ich"
G. Viscera The internal organs of the body, especially of the abdominal cavity
H. Eviscerate To gut a fish; to remove the viscera
I. Ventral Underside of the body where the belly is located
J. Dress To clean and eviscerate for marketing or consumption
K. Pigment The coloring matter in the cells of plants and animals
L. Dorsal Top side of the body
M. Lateral Side of the body
136
114
INFORMATION SHEET
H. External parts of a typical fish (Transparency #1) e

A. Head
1. Mouth
2. Nostrils
(NOTE: A fish's nostrils are not used for respiration as they are in
other vertebrates. They are sensory organs used only for smelling.)
3. Operculum (gill cover)
4. Opercle tab
5. Nostrils (nares)
6. Barbels (catfish)
B. Trunk
1. Pectoral fin
2. Pelvic fin
3.
(NOTE: The pelvic fin is sometimes called the ventral fin.)
Pelvic or pectoral fin spine

e
4. Dorsal fin
5. Dorsal fin spine
6. Adipose fin
(NOTE: This fleshy fin occurs in some species such as the catfish.)
C. Tail
1. Anal fin
2. Caudal (tail) fin
D. Lateral line
137
AQ-115
INFORMATION SHEET
10. Basic external body features that allow fish to live in water
A. Shape Most fish have a streamlined body adapted for swimming and
speed; fish have no neck so that the head blends smoothly into the trunk,
..
which in turn narrows to the tail.
POINTS OF INTEREST: Aside from this basic similarity, fish come in a

variety of shapes. Many fast swimming fishes have a torpedo-like shape.
Freshwater sunfish and some other midwater species are flattened from
side to side. Many bottom-dwelling fishes, such as catfish and sturgeon,
are flattened from top to bottom.
B. Skin Fish have fairly tough skin that, like other vertebrates', contains blood
vessels, nerves, and connective tissue, as well as certain special cells that
produce mucus and pigment cells.
1. The slimy mucus produced by the mucous cells makes fish slippery
and gives them their "fishy" smell; this mucous coating, called a
slimecoat, provides an important protective barrier against disease
organisms, and aids movement through the water.
(NOTE: Fish should be handled with wet hands or net to reduce

damage to the slimecoat.)
2. Pigment cells in the skin give fish what is called protective coloration,
a coloration that matches that of their environment; many can also
change their color to match color changes in their surroundings.
POINT OF INTEREST: Many fish are light below and darker on top so that
to predators looking up, they blend with the surface while to those looking
down, they blend with the bottom. Some have stripes or speckles to help
them blend better with weeds and shade patterns. Bright coloration may
protect certain fish by confusing their enemies or by warning predators that
they are poisonous.
C. Scales Most jawed fish have an additional protective covering of scales,

bony plates with rounded edges; scales protect the fish not so much against
predators as against infections and foreign bodies.
(NOTE: If a fish loses some scales, they will grow back, but while they are
absent, the fish will be more at risk from infection.)
13 8
116
INFORMATION SHEET
D. Fins Fins are movable structures that help a fish swim and keep its
balance; except for a few finless species, all modern fish have rayed fins in
which fan-shaped rods called rays support a web of skin.
1. Median fins are the vertical fins on the fish's back, underside, or tail
used to help the fish remain upright and to propel it through the water.
EXAMPLES: Dorsal, anal, and caudal fins
2. Paired fins consist of two, identical fins, one on each side of the body;
these fins are used primarily for stopping, turning and maneuvering.
EXAMPLES: Pectoral and pelvic fins.
IV. Internal organs of a typical fish (Transparency #2)

A. Brain/spinal cord
B. Gill
C. Heart
D. Esophagus
E. Liver
F. Stomach
G. Intestine
H. Kidney
I. Sex organ (ovary or testes)
J. Swim bladder
K. Anus
L. Spleen
V. Functions of internal organs and systems in fish

A. Respiratory system
1. Unlike land animals, almost all fish get their oxygen from that dissolved
in water.
2. Most fish have four gills enclosed in gill chambers on each side of the
head.
3. Water enters a fish's mouth and is forced by the movement of the

mouth and gill covers to flow out through the gills.
139
A0-117
INFORMATIOU SHEET
4. As water passes over the two rows of filaments attached to each gill
arch, blood flowing through tiny extensions on the filaments absorbs
oxygen from the water and releases carbon dioxide into the water.
B. Circulatory system
1. Fish are cold-blooded organisms whose body temperature is regulated

by water temperature.
2. A fish's heart consists of two main chambersthe atrium and ventricle.
3. Blood flows through veins to the atrium; it then passes to the ventricle.
4. Muscles in the ventricle pump the blood through arteries to the gills,
where it receives oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide.
5. Arteries then carry this oxygenated blood, plus food from the intestines,
to body cells.
6. Blood also carries waste products away from the cells; the fish's kidneys
remove the waste products from the blood, which then returns to he
heart through the veins.
C. Digestive system
(NOTE: As in all vertebrates, a fish's digestive system changes food into

materials that nourish the body cells, and eliminates unused materials.)
1. Most fish have a jawed mouth with an immovable tongue used only
for tasting; mouths are different shapes and sizes reflecting the fish's
eating habits and diet.
2. Teeth, in those species that have them, are used to seize prey and to
tear off pieces of flesh; they are rooted in the jaw, but some fish may
also have teeth on the roof of the mouth or on the tongue, and most
have teeth in the pharynx, a short tube behind the mouth. These teeth
are used to crush or grind food.
3. In all fish, food passes through the pharynx on its way to the esopha-
gus, another tubelike organ that expands easily, allowing fish to swallow
food whole.
4. From the esophagus, food passes into the stomach where it is partially
digested.
(NOTE: Not all fish have true stomachs.)
5. Thf.; digestive process is completed in the intestines, where digested

food enters the bloodstream and waste products and undigested food
pass out through the anus.
140
118
INFORMATION SHEET
D. Nervous system
1. The nervous system of fish, like that of other vertebrates, consists of

a spinal cord, brain, and nerves.
2. A fish's nervous system is not as complex as that of other vertebrates.
3. The nervous system regulates the amount of gas in the swim bladder.
E. Reproductive system
1. The reproductive organs in fish are the testes in males and the ovaries
in females.
2. The testes produce the male sex cells, or sperm, which are contained
in a fluid called milt.
3. The ovaries produce the female sex cells, or eggs, which are also
called roe or spawn.
4. Most fish are egg-layers, releasing their sex cells into the water through
an opening near the anus, but others are live-bearers; the males of
these species have special structures for transferring sperm directly into
the female.
F. Sensory organs
1. Nearly all fish have a special sensory organ called a lateral line system
that enables them to react to the slightest pressure and temperature
changes, allowing them to sense changes in water movement
(NOTE: The lateral line can be seen both externally and internally.
[See Figure 1 below.] It consists of a series of tubelike canals in the
fish's skin. Vibrations enter the canals through pores and travel to
sensory organs in the canals. Nerves connect these organs to the
brain.)
FIGURE 1
Epidermis
Deflecton Water
Lateral Pathway
Line Canal (Causes altered signal)
Scale Hair Cell
Nasal Cavity
Muscle Nerve (to Brain) Folds of
Sensory Tissue
Inside Fish
Nerve
(to Brain)
From The Fish Book by NEBRASKAland Magazine. Reprinted with permission.

AQ-119
INFORMATION SHEET
2. A fish's eyes differ from those of land vertebrates in that most fish can
see to the right and left at the same time, and most lack eyelids
because water keeps the eyeballs moist and clean.
(NOTE: A fish's ability to see both right and left at the same time,
makes up, in part, for its inability to turn its head because it has no
neck.)
3. Fish have no external ears or eardrums to receive sound vibrations,

but all fish hear sounds produced in the waterand even on shore if
they are loud enoughbecause sound waves are carried by body
tissues to the pouches and tubelike sacs of their internal ears.
(NOTE: Catfish have a very keen sense of hearing.)
4. The organs of smell in most fish consist of two pouches, one on each
side of the snout; these pouches have a nostril at both the front and
back, allowing water to pass through them and over tissue that is highly
sensitive to odors.
(NOTE: Many fish species, including catfish, have a highly developed

sense of smell.)
G. Special organs
1. Below the backbone, most fish have a saclike swim bladder that
provides buoyancy, enabling the fish to remain at a particular depth in
the water; the fish's nervous system automatically regulates the amount
of gas in the bladder.
POINT OF INTEREST: The stomach of a fish suddenly jerked from

the bottom of a lake into the air may be forced out of the mouth.
This is because the air bladder was under considerable pressure in
deep water and rapidly expanded after the fish was pulled from the
water. Some fish, such as the gar, can physically regulate the
amount of air in the swim bladder. Also ii feresting is that many
catfish use their swim bladders to produce sounds as well as to
provide buoyancy. Some species communicate with these sounds.
2. The stomach and esophagus in some fish is enlarged into a gizzard,

an organ that grinds food into small pieces before it is passed to the
intestines.
3. Some fish that have no teeth, such as paddlefish, have comb-like gill
rakers that strain plankton from the water pumped through the gills.
VI. Life cycles of fish (Transparency #3)
A. Every fish begins life as an egg; fish eggs are called roe or spawn.
B. In the egg, an undeveloped fish called an embryo, feeds on the yolk until
ready to hatch.
142
120
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Newly hatched fish, called larva or fry, still draw their nourishment from the
egg yolk in an attached yolk sac; because of this, they may also be called
sac fry or yolk sac fry.
D. When the fry have used their supply of yolk and the yolk sac is absorbed,
they can feed on the surface and forage for food on their own; these fry are
called swim-up fry or advanced fry.
E. Fingerlings are the young of the year, juvenile fish resembling the parent
fish, and used to stock food fish ponds.
F. Yearlings or stockers are fish held for a year or until they reach marketable
size.
G. Sexually mature fish are called adult spawners or broodfish; generally the
larger the species, the longer it takes to reach maturity.
VII. Species identification (Figures 2-17)
A. Channel catfish (Ictaturus punctatus)
(NOTE: The anal fin on the channel catfish has fewer than 30 rays, and the
outer margin appears rounded. Spots on light colored young fish disappear
with age. Adult colors range trom olive and brown to dark blue.)
FIGURE 2
From Eddy and James C. Underhill, How to Know the Freshwater Fishes, 3rd ed. Copyright 1978.
Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. All rights reserved. Reprinted by special permission.
AQ-121
INFoRMATION-HEE1'.
B. Blue catfish-Votalurys fulcatusy
(NOTE: The anal finAistinguishes, the blUe from the channel zatrish. The
blue's fin haS.nt;e'than.30 rayt, and,the oUter margin IS straight. dolor is
silvery white,lo-light blufk)
FIGURE 3.
From Eddy and James C. Underhill, Hew to 16Ow the,FreshOter F7shes, 3rd ed. Copyright 1978.
WM, C.,BroWnPubjishers,,Debuque,, !trim. All.rights reserved. Reprinted by special permission.
C. Blacktullhead (Ictalurus rnelas).
(NOTE: The ,barbel colOrs help .tell bullheads apart, end the more rounded
'tail helps tell,them from catfish species. Thetlack bullhead has black-or grey
barbels. and 17 to 24 anal fin rays:).
FIGURE 4
From Eddr and James C. Underhl11, 'How..to Khowthe FreshwaterFlshes, 3rd 'ed. Copyright-1978.
Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dub4.ie, Iowa. All-rights reiervep ,4pprInted by special Oermiasion.
122-
INFORMATION SHEET
D. Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus gairdnen)
(NOTE: Small black spots cover the tail and dorsal fins of the rainbow trout,
The pink lateral band that gives this fish its name varies in intensity, from
'faint irrlake fish to a more brilliant color in,stream fish.)
FIGURE 5
From Eddy and James C. Underhill, How to Know the Freshwater Rshes, 3rd ed. Copyright 1978.
E. Bigmouth buffalo (lctiobus cyprinellus)
,(NOTE: The biamouth buffalo is a deep bodied, husky sucker that can top
30 pounds. Its mouth faces-forward not down like other suckers. More than
10 dorsal rays separate suckers from the minnow family. its main colors are
olive, grey, and bronze.)
From .Eddy and James C. Underhill, How to Know the Freshwater Fishes,,3rd sd. Copyright 1978.
Wm. C. Brown Publishers,,DubuquS, Iowa. All rights reserved. Reprinted by special permission.
AQ-123
INFORMATION'SHEET
F. White bass (Morons chtysops)
(NOTE: The white bass"' has, one tooth patch on the base of its tongue,
broken horizontal lines on its sides, and its anal Fin spines are stair-stepped.)
FIGURE 7
From Eddy and James C. Underhill, How to Know the Freshwater Fishes, 3rd ed, Copyright 1978.
Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Icwa. All rights re2erved. Reprinted by special permission.
G. Largemouth bass (Microptsrus salmoides)

-
(NOTE: Mouth size distinguishes this Member of the sunfish family. In
largemouth bass, the jaw extends beyond the eye; whereas in smallmouth
bass, the jaw extends only to the rear margin of the eye and not beyond.
Young largemouth bass and many adults have a distinct, black lateral band.)
FIGURE 8
From Eddy and James C. Underhill, How to Know the-Freshwater FIshes, 3rd ed. Copyright-1978.
Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. All rights reserved. Reprinted by special permistion.
146
124,
INFORMATION SHEET
H. Striped bass (Marone saxatilis)
(NOTE: Striped and white bass bear a superficial resemblance to each other.
The striped bas, however, appears more streamlined than the white, and its
horizontal lines are more distinct and unbroken. Also, stripers are large fish,
capable of topping 50 pounds, but 5 pounds is tops for a white bass.)
FIGURE 9
Wm, C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque; All rights reserved. Reprinted by special permission.
I. Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus)
(NOTE: The backs of males of these sunfish are usually olive, and their
sides are Marked with dark, vertical bars. Orange breasts identify males
guarding spawning beds. Females are drab, but both males and females
have solid, dark blue gill cover tabs.)
FIGURE 10
From I Eddy and Jamos C. Underhill, How to Know the Freshwater Fishes, 3rd ed. Copyright 1978.
Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. All rights reserved. Reprinted by spacial permission.
14 7
A0-125
INFORMATION SHEET
J. Commop carp (Cyprinus catplo)
,(NOTE: A deep yellow body and toothless mouth with four barbels on the
upper lip Identify carp, members pf tha,minhow family.)
r
Prom Eddy and James C. Underhill, How to Know the Freshwater Fishes, 3rd ed. Copyright ism
wm. C. Brown Publlshers, Dubuque, lowa. All rights reserved. Reprinted by special permission.
K. Bighead carp (Aristichthys nobills)
(NOTE: Dull grayish-brown in color, these Chinese carp hava small scales
and large heads. Their lateral lines are dark and clearly visible. These fish
feed on detritus and zooplankton in nature but cultured fish accept pelleted
*feed.)
-
FIGVRE 12
.
'1111111111.
14 8
126
INFORMATION SHEET
L. Grass carp (ctenophatyngodon (deltas)
(NOTE: These slim carp have large, dark-edged scales and dark fins. They
feed on aquatic plants in nature but cultured fish accept pelleted feed.)
FIGURE 13
M. Blue tilapia (Tilapea aurea)
(NOTE: Young are difficult to distinguish from small sunfish, such as the
green sunfish. However the dorsal fin of tilapia is longer than that of sunfish.
Adult tilapia are blue to silver colored, with several dark, vertical bars on the
sides. The paired,fins may turn aqua-blue during the breeding season, giving
the fish its common name. These fish are deep-bodied with a small head
and small mouth.)
FIGURE 14
14 9
AQ-127
INFORMATION'SHEET
N. Golden Shiner (Notemigonus crysoleucas)
(NOTE: A silvery gold color and deeply descending lateral line characterize
this minnow, which is commercially raised and sold a5 a bait fish in many
areas. One of the larger members of the minnow family,lt will grow to over
8 inches.)
Drawing by Brenda Rodgers In Manual for Balt Fish Culture In the South. With permission.
0. Fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas)
(NOTE: These fish are characterized by their blunt snouts, olive color, and
a horizontal bar across their dorsal fins. Uke the golden shiner, they are
ralsec and_ sold as bait fish. A small short-lived fish, they seldom reach 3
inches or 3 years.)
From Eddy and James C. Underhill, How to Know the Freshwater Pshes, 3rd ed. Copyright 1978.
Wm. C. Brovm Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. Ali rights reserved. Reprinted by spools) permission.
(NOTE: Male fathead minnows display grey and yellow spawning colors,
develop humps on then-needs and backs, and sport breeding tubercles. See
Figure 17.)
From Eddy and James C. Undethill, Hum to Know the Freshwater Fishes, 3rd ed. Copyright 1978.
Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubtique, Iowa. Ali rights reserved. Reprinted by special permission.
150
-iai
External Fish Anatomy
Head (Yellow Perch)
Nostrils (Nares) Opercular Spine
Opercle
Cheek
Lower Jaw
(Mandible)
Upper Jaw
(Maxillary)
Spiny-Rayed Fish Soft-Rayed Fish

(Bluegill) (Channel Catfish)
Dorsal Fin
Dorsal Fin Tail (Caudal) Fin
Spiny Rays Soft Rays Dorsal Fin Spine,_ ) Adipose Fin
Opercle Teb
Pectoral Fin Spine

Breast Lateral Line
Pectoral Fin Pelvic Fin
Pectoral Fin N Belly
Anal Fin
Pelvic Fin From The Fish Book by NEBRASKAland Magazine. With permission.
Internal Fish Anatomy
Spine Swim Bladder

Brain
Esophagus
Heart
Spleen
Stomach
Liver Anus
Intestines Ovaries
or
Testes
154
15 3
Life Cycle of a Catfish
Fingerling Stocker
(1 to 8 inches) (Fingerling through
3/4 pound)
Advanced Fry
(Through 1 Inch
7 4--8 Months
After
Hatching
12-24 Months
After
Hatching
Food Fish
Length) Yolk Sac (1 to 2 Pounds
or More)
Absorbed
in 6-8 Days About
36 Months
After
Hatching
j..........""------.1
Sac Fry
Hatching Occurs
in 7-8 days
Broodfish
0 (3 Pounds or More)
Egg
From Catfish Farming by Jasper Lee. With permission.
155 156
AQ-135

UNIT III
JOB SHEET #1 DISSECT A FISH; EXAMINE UNDER A MICROSCOPE,

AND IDENTIFY INTERNAL ORGANS
A. Tools and equipment
1. Tub to hold live specimen fish
2. Running water and drain board
3. Microscope and magnifying glass (multi-lens or x3)
4. Slides and cover slips
5. Dissection needles
(NOTE: Dissection needles are fine needles [sharp, blunt, or lancetlike] with
a handle. They are used for probing, separating and holding down tissues
and organs. You can make your own by inserting insect pins into suitable
dowels.)
6. 9% solution of sodium chloride (9 grams of kitchen salt to 1 quart of water)
7. Eyedropper
8. Tweezers with sharp points
9. Sharp knife or strong pair of scissors (preferably right-angle scissors with one
blunt and one sharp blade)
10. Small pair of scissors with two pointed blades
11. Fish skinning board with clip, or length of board to use as a dissecting
surface
12. Spatula
13. Blotting paper or coarse paper towel
B. Routine #1 Dissect fish; identify and examine organs and tissues.
1. Place a piece of damp blotting paper on the dissecting board.
2. Kill fish by cutting deeply through the spinal cord directly behind the head.
(NOTE: Tissue breakdown after death is very rapid in fish. Do not kill the
fish until you are set up and ready to dissect.)
i57
136
JOB SHEET #1
3. Take a blood sample.
a. Catch a drop of blood on a clean slide.

b. Dilute with a smaH drop of 9% sodium chloride solution.
c. Cover with a cover slip and examine the blood cells under the
microscope.
4. Place the fish on its side on the dissecting board.
5. Take a skin scraping.
a. Collect skin deposits by scraping spatula gently over the skin, scraping
toward the tail.
b. Transfer sample to a slide, mix with a very small drop of tap water,
and cover with a cover slip.
c. Use a microscope to examine the scraping for parasites.
6. Take a gill soaping.
a. Lift opercle and collect a gill scraping on a dissecting needle.
b. Transfer sample to slide and make a wet mount as explained in 5b

above.
c. Use microscope to examine gill scrapings for parasites.
7. Cut away opercle and study the skin and gills; normal gills should be bright
red; affected gills are faded and may look frayed.
(NOTE: Because tissue breakdown is so rapid after death, the gills will
become naturally pale 10 or 15 minutes after death.)
8. Examine the gill filaments with magnifying glass and microscope.
9. Examine a piece of fin under the microscope at low and medium powers.
10. Examine a healthy scale under the microscope.
11. Cut open the fish to expose its internal organs.
a. Taking care not to damage the intestine, carefully insert tip of knife or
one blade of the strong scissors into the anus, and cut along the medial
line until reaching the gills.
(NOTE: Clear fluid may be discharged.)
158
A0-137
JOB SHEET #1
b. Now make a shallow cut from the anus upwards and toward the head,
following the edge of the abdominal cavity until you reach the opercle.
(NOTE: Do not cut too deeply or you will damage the internal organs.)
C. Lift this triangular flap of abdominal wall up from the anal region, and
with the spatula push back into the abdominal cavity any internal organs
adhering to it.
d. Remove the flap by cutting between the first two cuts at the opercle.
e. If the incisions have caused a lot of bleeding which means that they
have been too deep rinse the fish gently under running water.
El Have your instructor check your work.
C. Routine #2 Identify and examine the internal organs.
1. Fill the abdominal cavity with clean water in order to make it easier to spread
out the organs.
2. Identify each of the following organs, and then examine with the naked eye
and with the magnifying glass.
(NOTE: You may want to refer to Transparency #2 for the approximate

locations of the internal organs.)
a. Intestine (slit, make a slide from its contents, and examine under the
microscope)
b. Spleen (move loops of intestine to reveal this small, bright red organ)
c. Stomach (open and examine contents)
d. Kidney (slice and look for renal tubes)
e. Ovary (if fish is female)
(NOTE: Sometimes large numbers of white spawn are found in the

abdominal cavity. If sexually mature females do not discharge their
spawn, the cells die and become white.)
f. Testes (if fish is male)
g. Liver
h. Swim bladder
i. Heart (snip out with pointed scissors and slice to expose the ventricle
and atrium)
j. Esophagus
159
128
JOB SHEET #1
3. Open the skull by cutting from the left and right nostrils toward the back and
connecting the two incisions at the front by cutting across between the
nostrils.
4. Lift this strip of tissue to expose the brain; examine brain tissue under micro-
scope.
0 Have your instructor check your work.
5. Clean area and return tools and equipment to proper storage.
1 60
AQ-139

UNIT III
JOB SHEET #2 KILL, WEIGH, MEASURE, AND DRESS A CATFISH,

AND COMPARE DRESSED AND UNDRESSED MEASUREMENTS
A. Tools and equipment
1. Vat or tub of catfish
(NOTE: This job sheet covers the procedure for dressing a catfish. The
procedure for other species may vary somewhat.)
2. Running water and drain board
3. Skinning hook
4. Gutting knife
5. Skinning pliers
6. Metal rule
7. Hanging scales
B. Procedure
1. Remove fish from tub, place on drain board, and measure from tip of snout
to tip of tail; record this measurement.
Length:
2. Place fish on scales and record weight.
Weight:
3. Kill fish by cutting deeply through the spinal chord directly behind the head.
4. Hang fish by its head from skinning hook.
5. Cut or snip off dorsal and pectoral fins, taking care to avoid the spines.
6. Beginning just behind the opercle, cut through the skin all around the head.
7. Grasp edges of cut skin with skinning pliers, and strip off in a tailward
direction, leaving ventral side of fish until last.
8. Cut out the dorsal fin as the back strip of skin is removed.
140
JOB SHEET #2
9. Strip the skin from the ventral side, slitting open the belly and removing the
viscera and anal fin as the skin is pulled off.
10. Remove the head, cutting just behind the opercle.
(NOTE: Commercial processing plants behead fish with a bandsaw.)
11. Waoh fish and remove any skin, viscera, or fins that were not previously
removed; the tail fin usually remains with the fish.
12. Place dressed fish on scales and record its weight.
Dressed weight:
13. Measure fish and record its dressed length.
Dressed length:
14. Determine amount of weight and length lost to dressing by subtracting the
dressed weight and length from the undressed; record.
Undressed length Undressed weight
Dressed length Dressed weight
Length loss Weight loss
(NOTE: The head, viscera, and skin are normally equal to 40 to 45 percent
of a catfish. Catfish usually dress out at 55 to 60 percont of their live weight.
Th-; ideal size catfish for the retail market has a live weight of 1 to 1.5
pounds. This size usually yields a dressed fish weighing from 8 to 10
ounces.)
0 Have your instructor check your work.
15. Clean area and return tools and equipment to proper storage.
-I
AO-141

UNIT III
PRACTICAL TEST #1
JOB SHEET #1 DISSECT A FISH, EXAMINE UNDER A MICROSCOPE
AND IDENTIFY INTERNAL ORGANS
Student's Name Date
Evaluator's Name Attempt No.
When you are ready to perform Job Sheet #1, ask your iostructor to observe the
procedure and complete this form. All items listed under "Process Evaluation" must
receive a "Yes" for you to receive an overall performance evaluation.
PROCESS EVALUATION
(EVALUATOR NOTE: Place a check mark in the "Yes" or "No" blanks to indicate whether
or not the student has satisfactorily achieved each step in this procedure. If the student
is unable to achieve this competency, have the student review the materials and try again.)
The student: Yes No
1. Assembled and used proper tools and equipment. 1. 0 0

2. Killed fish properly and timely. 2. 0 0
3. Took blood sample and scrapinets. 3. CI CI
4. Made proper cuts to expose internal organs. A. 0 0

5. Opened skull with proper cut. 5. 0 0
6. Examined brain tissue under microscope. 6. 0 0
7. Cleaned area and returned tods to storage. 7. ED 0
Evaluator's Comments
163
142
JOB SHEET #1 PRACTICAL TEST
PRODUCT EVALUATION
(EVALUATOR NOTE. Rate the student on the following criteria by circling the appropriat.
numbers. Each item must be rated at least a "3" for mastery to be demonstrated. [See
performance evaluation key below.] If the student is unable to demonstrate mastery,
N
student materials shou:d be rwiewed and another test procedure must be submitted for
evaluation.)
Criteria: Excellent Acceptable Fair Uracceptable
Assembled and used proper

tools and equipment 4 3 2 1
Followed procedures as outlined 4 3 2 1
Found and identified

all nine organs 4 3 2
Worked safely 4 3 2 1
EVALUATOR'S COMMENTS*
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION KEY
4 Skilled Can perform job with no additional training.

3 Moderately skilled Has performed job during training program.
2 Limited skill Has performed job during training program; additional
training is required to develop skill.
1 Unskilled Is familiar with prccess, but is unable to perform job.
(EVALUATOR NOTE* If an average score is needed to coincide with a competency

profile, total the designated points in "Product Evaluation" and divide by the total numbar
of criteria.)
164
A0-143

UNIT III
PRACTICAL TEST #2
JOB SHEET #2 KILL, WEIGH, MEASURE, AND DRESS A CATFISH,
AND COMPARE DRESSED AND UNDRESSED MEASUREMENTS
Student's Name Date
When you are ready to perform Job Sheet #2, ask your instructor to observe the
PROCESS EVALUATION
unable to achieve this competency, have the student review the materials and try again.)
Yes No
1. Killed fish properly. 1. 00

2. Measured undressed length and weight. 2. El El
3. Skinned fish and removed head properly. 3. El El
4. Cleaned, washed, and dressed fish. 4. El 0

5. Measured dm: ied length and weight. 5. El El
6. Calculated amounts lost to dressing. 6. 0 El

7. Cleaned area and returned tools to storage. 7. El El
165
144
PRODUCT EVALUATION
(EVALUATOR NOTE: Rate the student on the following criteria by circling the appropriate
student materials should be reviewed and another test procedure must be submitted for
evaluation.)
Criteria: Excellent Acceptable Fair Unacceptable
Assembled and used proper

tools and equipment 4 3 2 1
Followed procedures as outline(' 4 3 2 1
Made proper calculations 4 3 2 1
Worked safely 4 3 2 1
EVALUATOR'S COMMENTS.

2 Limited skill Has performed job during training program; additonal
1 Unskilled Is familiar with process, but is unable to perform job.
(EVALUATOR NOTE: If an average score is needed to coincide with a cumpetency

profile, total the designated points in "Product Evaluation" and divide by the total number
of criteria.)
1 66
AQ-145

UNIT III
TEST
SCORE
NAME
definitions. Write
1. Match terms related to fundamental fish biology with their correct
Narrowest scientific classification; a 1. Parasite

a.
class of related organisms having
common characteristics, capable of 2. Pigment
interbreeding, and sharing a common
3. Forage
name
Animal that preys on, destroys, or eats 4. Species

b.
other animals
5. Dress
c. Organism with an inner skeleton and
a segmented spinal column 6. Invertebrate
d. Organism with a hard outer skeleton 7. Predator

and lacking a spinal column
8. Ventral
e. Food for animals taken by browsing or
grazing, or the act of browsing or 9. Viscera
grazing to obtain food
10. Vertebrate
f. A plant or animal that lives on or in
another species 11. Eviscerate
internal organs of the body, 12. Dorsal

g. The
especially of the abdominal cavity
13. Lateral
h. To gut a fish; to remove the viscera
I. Underside of the body where the belly

is lor ated
j. To clean and_eviscerate for marketing

or consumption-
k. The coloring matter in the cells of

plants and animals
I. Side of the body
m. Top side of the body
I p 1-1
..,.. k) I
146
'FEST
2. Label the external parts on the typical fish illustrated below.
b.
3. Discuss external body features that enable fish to live in water.

following questions. Answer the
a. What is the basic body shape of most fish, and how does this shape equip
fish to live in water?
b. What is the mucous coating produced by the skin cells called, and what
are
its functions?
c. How do the skin's pigment cells function as a protective device?
d. What is the function of a fish's scales?
1 68
A0-147
TEST
e. What is the function of a fish's median fins?
f. How many sets of paired fins does the typical fish have, and what are their
functions?
4. Label the internal organs on the typical fish illustrated below.
5. Select true statements about the functions of internal organs and systems of fishes.
Write an "X" before each statement that is true.
(NOTE: For a statement to be true, all parts of the statement must be true.)
a. Respiratory system
1) Unlike land animals, almost all fish get their oxygen from that
dissolved in water
2) Most fish have two gills enclosed in gill slits on each side of the
head
3) Water enters a fish's gill slits and is forced by the movement of

the mouth and gill covers to flow through the gills
4) As water passes over the two rows of filaments attached to each

gill arch, blood flowing through tiny extensions on the filaments
absorbs oxygen from the water and releases carbon dioxide into
the water
169
148
TEST
b. Circulatory system
1) Fish are cold-blooded organisms whose body temperature is

regulated by water temperature
2) A fish's heart consists of two main chambers--the atrium and

ventricle
3) Blood flows through the arteries to the atrium; it then passes to

the ventricle
4) Muscles in the ventricle pump the blood through veins to the

gills, where it receives oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide
5) Arteries carry oxygenated blood, plus food from the intestines,
to body cells
6) Blood also carries waste products away from the cells; the fish's
kidneys remove the waste products from the blood, which then
returns to the heart through the veins
c. Digestive system
1) Most fish have a jawed mouth with a movable tongue used only
for tasting; mouths are different shapes and sizes reflecting the
fish's eating habits and diet.
2) Teeth, in those species that have them, are used to seize prey
and :a tear off pieces of flesh; they are rooted in the jaw, but
some fish may also have teeth on the roof of he mouth or on
the tongue, and most have teeth in the pharynx; these teeth are
used to grind food
3) In all fish, food passes through the esophagus on its way to the
pharynx, another tubelike organ that expands easily, allowing fish
to swallow food whole
4) From the esophagus, food passes into the stomach where it is

absorbed
5) The digestive process is completed in the intestines, where

undigested food enters the bloodstream, and waste products and
digested food pass out through the anus
d. Nervous system
1) The nervous system of a fish, like that of other vertebrates,

consists of a spinal cord, brain, and nerves
2) A fish's nervous system is more complex than that of many other
vertebrates
1
AQ-149
TEST
3) The nervous system regulates the amount of gas in the swim

bladder
e. Reproductive system
1) The reproductive organs in fish are the testes in males and the
ovaries in females
2) The testes produce the male sex cells, or milt, which are
contained in a fluid called sperm
3) The ovaries produce the female sex cells, or eggs, which are
also called roe or caviar
4) Most fish are egg-layers, releasing their sex cells into the water
through an opening near the anus, but others are live-bearers;
the males of these species have special structures for transferring
sperm directly into the female
f. Sensory organs
1) Nearly all fish have a special sensory organ called a lateral line
system that enables them to react to the slightest changes in
dissolved oxygen in the water
2) Most fish can see to the right and left at the same time, and
most lack eyelids because water keeps the eyeballs moist and
clean
3) Fish have no external ears or eardrums to receive sound, so

they sense sounds through their lateral line systems
4) The organs of smell in most fish consist of two pouches, one on

either side of the snout; these pouches have a nostril at both the
front and back, allowing water to pass through them and over
tissue highly sensitive to odors
g. Special organs
1) Below the backbone, most fish have a saclike swim bladder that
provides equilibrium, enabling the fish to remain upright in the
water; the fish's respiratory system automatically regulates the
amount of gas in the bladder
2) The stomach and esophagus in some fish is enlarged into a

gizzard, an organ that grinds food into small pieces before it is
passed to the intestine
3) Some fish that have no teeth have comblike gill rakers that strain
plankton from water pumped through the gills
150
TEST
6. Match life cycles of fish with their correct descriptions. Write the correct numbers
in the blanks.
a. Fry that have absorbed the yolk sac 1. Fingerlings

and can feed on the surface and forage
for their own food 2. Roe or spawn
b. Fish held for a year or until they reach 3. Sac fry or yolk sac
marketable size fry
c. Newly hatched fish that draw their 4. Spawners or
nourishment from the egg yolk in an broodfish
attached sac
5. Embryo
d. The egg from which every fish begins
life 6. Swim-up fry;
advanced fry
e. The undeveloped fish in the egg
7. Yearlings or
f. Sexually mature fish stockers
g. The young fish of the year; juvenile
fish resembling the parent fish and
used to stock fish ponds
172
AQ-151
TEST
each drawing.
7. Identify the following species of fish. Write the common name below
b.
a.
4C4S
.:11
C.
d.
e. f.
h.
g.
173
O.
-
t40,-
Pc# 4fiim is
srstez,v4
-I .0,011r+M-Mei
0
.4.7044411i:tile.
4
...01:s6igsagetn
/
,.<44-7.4rs
meol.Or.o,
tsli'411'
: .<z;
:,,',(krAt.:-4
..so.tstz :
AQ-153
TEST
been accomplished prior to the test, ask your

(NOTE: If the following activities have not
a. Dissect a fish, examine under a microscope, and identify internal organs.

(Job Sheet #1)
b. Kill, weigh, measure, and dress a catfish, and compare dressed and undressed
measurements. (Job Sheet #2)
175
UNIT III
-
ANSWERS TO TEST
1. a. 4 h. 11
b. 7 -- i. 8
C. 10 j. 5
d. 6 k. 2
- 13
e. 3 1.
f. 1 rn. 12
g. 9
2. a. Barbeh
b. Pectoml fin spine
c. Pectoral fin
d. Palvic fin
e. Anal fin
t. Tail fin
g. Adipose fin
h. Dorsal fin
i. Dorsal fin spine
3. a. Streamlined for swimming and speed

b. Slimecoat; provides a protective barrier against disease and aids movement
through water
c. They provide coloration that lets the fish blend in with its environment
d. Protection against predators, infection, and foreign bodies
e. They help a fish stay upright in the water and also help propel the fish
f. Two. They are used for stopping, turning, and maneuvering
4. a. Esophagus
b. Heart
c. Stomach
d. Liver
e. Spleen
f. Intestines
g. Ovaries or testes
h. Anus
i. Swim bladder
j. Spine
k. Brain
5. a. 1, 4
b. 1, 2, 5, 6
C. 2
d. 1, 3
e. 1, 4
f. 2, 4
g. 2, 3
156
ANSWERS TO TEST
6. a. 6
b. 7
C. 3
d. 2
e. 5
f. 4
g.
7. a. Fathead minnow
b. Bluegill
c. Grass carp
d. Tilapea
e. Striped bass
f. Bigmouth buffalo
g. Blue catfish
h. Largemouth bass
i. Rainbow trout
j. Common carp
k. Channel catfist
I. Golden shiner
m. Bighead carp
n. White bass
o. Black bullhead
8. a. Evaluated according to criteria in Practical Test #1

b. Evaluated according to criteria in Practical Test #2
177
A0-157
MARKETING
UNIT IV
UNIT OBJECTIVE
I
After completion of this unit, the student should be able to identify key markets and
marketing strategies, complete a marketing flow chartand process fish. These corn
petenues will be evidenced by correctly completing procedures in the assignment and job
sheets and by scoring a minimum of 85 percent on the unit test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After completion of this unit, the student uld be able to:
1. Match terms related to marketing with their correct definitions.
2. Select true statements about processing plant markets.
3. Select true statements about live haul markets.
4. Select true statements about local markets: stores and restaurants.
5. Select true statements about local retail markets.
6. Select true statements about the fee-fisti market.
7. Complete statements about economy of scale
8. List factors to consider when exploring marketing alternatives.
9. Complete statements about product forms.
10. Match food fish processing cute and forms with their correct descriptions.
11. Match dressout percentages to processing cuts and forms.
12. Discuss on-site versus plant processing.
13. Select true statements about disposal of processing waste.
14. Complete statements concerning permits and regulations.
15. Survey lok,al markets. (Assignment Sheet #1)

158
OBJECTIVE SHEET
a. Skin and filet a catfish. (Job Sheet #1)
b. gresS and package a trout. (Job Sheet #2)
179
AQ-159
MARKETING
UNIT IV
A. Invite local marketers to talk to the class about desired marketing forms and size,
seasonal markets, and market strategies and prices.
B. Make transparency.
C. Provide students with objective sheet. Discuss unit and ..,pecific objectives.
D. Provide students with information sheet. Discuss information sheet, personalizing

and localizing the intormation to fit your class profile.
E. Schedule and evaluate assignment sheet.
F. Gather equipment and materials needed for job sheets. Schedule, demonsh ate,_ and
evaluate job sheets.
G. Give written test.
A. Beem, Marley, and Steven Anderson. Catfish Farming. Fact Sheet No. 9002.
Stillwater, Oklahoma: Oklahoma State Cooperative Extension Service, n.d.
B. Belusz, Larry. Fish Farming Techniques. Columbia, Missouri. The Instructional

Materials Laboratory/University of Missouri, 1988.
C. catfish Aquaculture: A Decision-making Guidebook. Baton Rouge, Louisiana:

Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service/Louisiana State University Agricultural
Center, 1987.
D. Huner, Jay V., and Harry K. Dupree. "Methods and Economics of Channel Catfish
Production, and Techniques for the Culture of Flathead Catfish and Other Catfishes,"
in The Third Report to the Farmers: The Status of Warmwater Fish Farming and
Progress in Fish Farming Research, Harry K. Dupree and Jay V. Huner, eds.
Washington, DC: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984.
E. Jensen, Gary L. Commercial Production of Farm-Raised Catfish. Baton Rouge,

Louisiana. Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station;Louisiana Cooperative Extension
Service, 1988.
F. Reigh, Robert C., ed. Proceedings of the Louisiana Aquaculture Conference, 1988.
Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Louisiana Coopei ative Extension Service/Louisiana State
180
160
G. Sedgwick, S. Drummond. Trout Farming Handbook. London, England: Seeley,

Service, & Co., 1978.
H. "Standard Cuts and Forms of Farm-Raised Catfish." Fact Sheet. Jackson,

Mississippi: Catlish Farmers of America, n.d.
I. Wellborn, Thomas L. Jr. Catfish Farmer's Handbook. Mississippi State Univer-

sity/Mississippi Cooperative Extension Service, 1987.
181
Aq-161
MARKETING
UNIT IV
INFORMATION- SHEET
L Terms and definitions
A. Market Buyer of product
B. Cryogenically frozen Frozen at very low temperatures
C. Filet Boneless sides cf fish cut lengthwise away from the backbone
D. Eviscerated Gutted; with internal organs removed
E. Dressed Killed and prepared-for food-rilarket
F. -Retall.,Saies Sales of fish in'small quantitiesAirectlY to the consumer
G. Wholesale saies Sales of fish in.large quantities to buyer-who then sells

to distributor or retail market.
H. Seed stock Larval fish or crustaceans; fry; small fingerlings
IL Processing plant-market (Transparency 1)
A. Processing plants buy fish from the producer, and then dress, package, and
sell the fish to appropriate markets. (Figure 1)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 1
B. The -Major processing plants -are- in the- cattish-prodUcing ,areas of Mississip-

pi arid-Alabama,,but smaller plants are located in all the. states in-which fish
are produced.
C. Plants often employ spedialty .harVesting crews .and dap provide transport
-trucke for hauling; barVeating cests 'range :from 3 to 5 cents a pound, and
haulinglcosts :may rartge frorn 1 to 6 ce,nts,a Pound:
182
162
INFORMATION SHEET
D. The minimum load is between 8,000 and 10,000 pounds of live weight, and
many ,plants set a distance limit for their hauling services of no more than
50 miles one-way. (Figure 2)
(NOTE: These.conditions mean that most hill-pond andsmall,farmers will not

be able to sell their' fish to a processing plant because of the distance
involved and the-lack of enough fish.)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 2
E. Arrangements with the plant to accePt, harvest, and 'transport fish usually
must be made well in advance zgreement 7 to 60 days before harvest is
typical.
Live hOul market

A. Live-fish haulers purchase fish from the producer and transport them
predominately to thenownérs of fee-fishing lakes.
B. Live haulers only transport fish:- they do not harvest or grade them.
C. Most haulers do not accept:orders fer small numbers of fish; a 5,000-pound

to 8,006-pound minimum load Is typical.
p. The fish mUst be in exeellent condition so that they will survive the trip and
can begin feeding- iii the fee-fishing pond.
E. Live haulers often pay above-processor prices to obtain good quality fish.
183
;INFORMATION SHEET
IV. Local Markets: stores-and restatirants
A. These rnarkets art:amnng the 4est for small-enterprises, and for those:located:
-in areas beyond proceSsing, plant haul distances. (Figure' 3).
EXAMPLE: FIGURE.-3
B. Lodal Stores . and: restaurants usually, want rsh, weekly- throughout .the- year,
which means-that the 'farmer .mustba.able,to harvest-tsh weekly by Seining
or trapping:
C. Many Stores -and restaurants will aCcept 'only ,dressed 'fish; therefore, the
produder .must be, equiPped-Jo proceSe the,fiSh- on- the. farm.
(NOTE: SoMe farmers may own a réstaurant--,Suct). as -a catfish sPecialty

restaurant or a reStaurant specializing in CajUb dishes+-that becoMes the
principal nutlet for their own fish.)
Local retail Markets

EXAMPLES: Civic, church and other fund-raising groupS anddlubs;-individuals;-other
fish farmers
A. Food fish can be five- or dressed, and purchased en the farm or -delivered;
'baitfish, crayfish, 'and hobby' fith.are -generally ,delivered:
B. The producer May harvest:food_fish once- ea:few:trims-aliearand:advertise

by local radio and newspaper Vial:fresh' fiSh. WilFbe avaiiabletn-the farm-at
a certain date.
C. Food,fish-may also-be transported fronthe farm 'to nearby population-centers

and sold diredtly 'froth ,the tout truck to the ainSOrrier; Ihis Matt* also
recjuires adVaricSadiertising.
0. Fish- farmers buy -brdodfish, eggs, fry; anct fingerlings.
E. Deperiding-on the:tocatien, areSpoPulation,size. of thesoperatien,:and number_

of competing prOticeislin'ths area, this'type- of Market rangesfrom excellent
fir poer.
194
164
INFORMATION EHEET
VI. Fee-fish market
A. In this market, the producer grows -the fish -in one or more ponda; the
-customer pays, a- fee for entering-the, site-and:trying to-catch lish.arid usually
pays an additional :charge for: the -number -ot-fish or pOunds- Of-fish Caught
EXAMPLE: thlouisiana -in 1987, live- weight prices lorcatfish 'from fee,fish
ponds ranged:from .$1:0010 $1.75 per pciund.
B. Some fee-fish-producers also dreSs, the fish-caught for a modept charge.
C. Ponds may:be open all year,-only-on certain,-dayS,Of the week, Or only-during

certain-periods; hoWever, the fee-pond. Operator mustbe present Whenever
the pond ip open-forfiShing. (Figure 4)
:EXAMPLE: FIGURE 4
D. While the fee-fish market requires=no harvesting, the operator may purchase
stock from a producer, Or a farmer may operate a-fee:fish-pond in addition
to producing fingerlings or food-fish.
VII. Economy of Scale
A. As ,a rule of'thumb,-production costs per pound of fish ars usually lower for
large-Wits than those for small- farms
S. Unlike small farms, large -farms Ican take advantage .of: discounts for bulk
purchases of feed and seed stOCK
C. Larger ponds are less.-expenSiVe.per acre to build lhan small pOnds.
D. Large- farms can sell wholesale to a processor or -live-hauler While profits

'may be low or even negative if small farms-sell to a prodessor or wholesale
market.
E. Retail ,prices usually fluctuate More-than wholesale-orices and,small--farmers

who must retail their procludts must AdvertiselO be'"%ccesful.
.185
AQ-165
INFORMATION SHEET
_
F. These data do not mean that fish farming "annot be profitable for the small
farmer: from a profit standpoint, what counts is the pounds of fish marketed
each year, not the pounds of fish produced.
VIII. Factors to consider when exploring market alternatives

(NOTE: Marketing involves much more than the act of changing ownership of a
product [selling]. Each producer must actively and creatively explore marketing
alternatives.)
A. Market size (wholesale versus retail)
B. Area market distribution (Table 1)
(NOTE: Table 1 illustrates national market distribution. Producers should be

aware of national market distribution, but of more immediate importance is
the market distribution in the producer's locality or area.)
EXAMPLE: TABLE 1: National Market Distribution for Sales of Food-

Sized Channel Catfish in 1981*
Quantity Percent of
Market (thousands of pounds) total
71,800 81
Processors
5,921 7
Live-haulers
2,704 3
Consumers
1,951 2
Fee and sport fishing
1,812 2
Other producers
Government agencies 49 Trace
3,874 4
Others
Agriculture, 1982.
* Adapted from Table 4.8 in Third Report, 1984. From U.S. Department of
"Aquaculture Outlook and Situation," U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service
AS-3.
C. Local and area competition
D. Past and present market prices
E. Harvesting and transporting strategy
EXAMPLES: One-time or multiple harvest; custom harvest and hauling or

producer harvest and hauling
F. Product forms and sizes desired in market area
EXAMPLE: Is there local demand for fingerlings? Hobby fish? Food fish?
G. On-site versus processing plant processing, packaging, and storing
18G
166
INFORMATION SHEET
H. Processing form(s) desired in market area
EXAMPLES: Live, processed, fileted

I. Seasonal ups and downs
J. Advertising
IX. Product forms
(NOTE: Most fish ar e. sold in all forms of their life stages. Crayfish may be sold in
a softshell or hardshell stage. Most baitfish are sold in an adult life stage.)
A. Eggs Fish eggs sell by the pound and the prices change annually,
depending on the supply or success of the hatchery.
B. Broodfish Some specialty markets exist for broodfish, especially if they are
an improved or selected strain.
C. Fry Fry are generally sold by the thousand, and fingerling fish longer than
1 inch are usually sold singly by the inch, up to about 8 inches; longer fish
may be sold by the pound.
D. Fingerlings Fingerlings or stocker fish are marketed primarily to

commercial fish farmers and people who have recreational or farm ponds;
a higher price is usually obtained than for wholesale sales to commercial
farms.
E. Food-fish Food fish are normally 3/4 to 2 pounds in weight and are sold
by the pound to either a wholesale or retail market.
(NOTE: Fish over 4 pounds usually receive a lower price.)
F. Crayfish Food crayfish are usually sorted by size and sold by the pound
(softshell crayfish command a higher price than hardshell), and bait crayfish
are sold by the piece.
G. Baitfish Baitfish are usually graded by size, and may be sold by the pound
at the liv' lesale level or the piece at the retail level.
187
-ACM67
INFORMATION. MEET
X. Food-fish processing cuts and forms

(NOTE: Food fish may be sold live or processed; Processed food fisii-command
the largest market, and may be sold fresh; Cryogenically frozen, padked pn ice,
orin the case of troutsmoked.)
A. Dressed Dressed catfish are beheaded, eviscerated, ancf skinned (Figure
5); dressed trout are generally only scaled and,evisberated. (Figure 6)
EXAMPLE. FIGURE 5: ,Dressed.catrish
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 6: Dressed trout filet and "inlhe round"
Courtesy Clear Skings TMut Company, Buhl, Idaho.
188
168,
-
INFOAMATION:SHOBT
S.
B. steik scut ,--dross-sedtion Cuts lrb'in, larger fish (Figure.7)
(NOTO.:,Large sea:trout are:Often preicesSed'as.steaksi-but rainbow-trout are

.rarely,Sold'in,steak 'form. :Presently, -Catfish, Steaks ,are'.not very popular, The
desirOpropeSsing:lormS:today.run,60--percent.filets, 35,gerdeht Whole, and
only IrcentsteäIç
'EXAMPLE;,,
FIGURE 7- Steak
C. Eletctit Boned side of'the fish, cut lengthwise away from the backbone
(Figtke.-8).
(NOTE:While 'rainbow trout.have.been traditionally processed "in the round,"

bonelese-buiterfly trout filets are becôrhing ifidreasinglydpopular.)
EXAMPLE:
FiGURE 8,
9,..
A0=169
,-
'INFORMATIoNifsiiggt
D. Nugget: cut The belly flap off the,filet(Figure-9)
(NC:1TE: Trout are-not proceSsed4or.nugget Cuts.)

_
EXAMPLE:
FIGURE 9 Nikh.,
E. Strip cut Smaller pteoes, of fish cut from filets. (Figure 10)
EXAMPLE:
FIGURE 10'
Xl. DreSsout perdentages for catfish
A. Fliet,'Usually,averages about 42parcent of live weight; commonly Marketed

filet sizee are,3 to 5 ouhcet (3/4,pound -fish),,510.7 -ounces (1-pound fish),
and 7 to9 ounces (11/epound ,ffsh).
B. Shank-and nugget About. Ft; -,percebt 'and 117 ,percent of. the -regUlar
with -the -nugget averaging, about-4 perceritot the liSh'S,
C.. Steaks. Usually -average about: 75 percent-of live meight; with 'steaks
-paakaged by:the pound,.6,tb-3 perpackage.
D. Dressed. AbOut,60;percent of.11*weight.
XIL du-Site versus, piantrodaSsing

A. 'Must: large produCers..seIrtheir fish -crOplo,pFociseing,,plants; This Ottvides
'them witlt a,secure:Market.ahd.savée:harliseling endimarketing time.
120
176--
INFORMATION SHEET
B. Many small producers decide to process their own fish, because the value-
added return- ic so much greater than for sales to a processor or-broker.
ii-4XAMPLE: Most profitFish farmer to consumer

LeSs,profftFish farmer to retailer to consumer
Least profit=fish farmer to processor to broker to retailer to
consumer
Modern processing plants are equipped with skinning' machines, band saws
for beheading fish, and state-ofghe-art equipment for freezing, smoking, icing,
and padkaging the processed produd. (Figui-9s 11 and 12)
(NOTE:filets are usually prepared by hand both at the processing plant and
on-site.because fileting-Machines are still being perfected, and those on.the
market are very expensive.)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 11: A skinning machine with a high-speed rotating knife

positioned in the table bed efficiently removes the
skin from a catfish.
EXAMPLE: RGURE 12: A bandsaw is used to behead fish and to cut fish
into steaks.
nip I
191
AQ-171
INFORMATION SHEET
D. On-site ,processing is often done entirely by hand, though processing

machinery is available if the size of the operation juStifies it. (Figure 13)
(NOTE: knumber of small producers in an-area might consider a coopera-

tive processing and marketing ;venture that would benefit all concerned. in
this way they could share costs and assure an outlet for all fish raised.)
1
'EXAMPLE: FIGURE 13: On-site processing, using hand labor to filet catfish.
,t
E. farmers who process, prepare, and package -their own fish must be aware
of state-mandatijd facility design requirements, and must be in compliance
with !mai sanitary and waste disposal codes.
XIII. Disposal of processing waste
A. In some dreas.there is a (market for frames (skeletons) that remain ahor the
fish are fileted; among other uses, these are ground and used with other
waste products in food for domestic pets.
B. Some processing plants Market processed by,products that include

viscerasold to alligator producers, and headssold to commercial crab
fishermen or crayfish producers.
C. For the most part, however,,orocisssing solid by-products awe liability to the
processor, and traditional &prise methods hava,included trucking wastes lo
rendering Wants and landfills.
D. Dispotal of wastes is especially costly for major processing plants because

the bulk "Of the processing waste is either dry rendered Or-made into Silage.
1. Dry rendering units treat fish wastes with high temperats to produce
usable by-products, including high-grade fiSh oil and iligh-pro.aln 64.
meal.
192
M
172
2.
INFORMATION SHEET
Preparation of fish silage is a fairly hew method of creating by-products

from processed catfish wastes; typical by-products include fish meal and
s
fish oil of higher protein than that produced by the rendering process,
and high-proteio concentrated silage that contains no bone.
(NOTE: To produce silage, catfish wastes are ground up, heated, and
treated with formic acid so that the skin and flesh aro liquefied. The
bones and much of the oil are then removed, and the silage is
concentrated in a vacuum evaporator at 95°F.)
IV. Permits and regulations

A. Some states require commercial producers of fish and crayfish to obtain
farming permits or licenses from the State Department of Wildlife and
Fisheries.
B. Some states may also require a commercial fish farmer's license, a

wholesale/retail dealer's license, or a transport license for transportation over
public roads and for sales taking place off the property.
C. While the federal government has no health, sanitation, or grading require-

ments for processed fish products at this time, states do have facility and
sanitary requirements; permits are obtained from the county health and
sanitation officer and from the state health office.
a
E.
There are also laws regarding interstate and intrastate transportation of fish.
Laws and regulations may change from year to year, and vary from state to
e
state, so it is wise to check with a representative of the appropriate agency
or department when in doubt.
e
Marketirg Flow Chart
FISH FARMER
DIRECT TO HOTELS
CONSUMER RETAIL STORES RESTAURANTS
INSTITUTIONS
PROCESSING PLANT
\/
Retail
Central Retail
Warehouse Distributor
Hotel
Retail
Stores Restaurants
Institutions
Adapted from Commercial Production of Farm-raised Catfish, with permission.
19
AQ-175
MARKETING
UNIT IV
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1 SURVEY AREA MARKETS
In this assignment sheet, yoJ will explore area markets to find where locally sold fish
come from, who are the present and potential customers, what form, size, and species
the customer desires, and the past and present market prices.
Visit individuals, organizations, churches, clubs, and groups that buy fish for family use,
fish frys, and annual fund-raisers, dinners, and picnics. Visit area restaurants that include
fish on their menus. Visit supermarkets, grocery stores, delicatessens, wholesalers, and
retailers.
1. Which of these customers buy fish locally?
2. From whom do they buy their fish?
3. What species do they buy?
4. What product forms do they buy (steaks, filets, nuggets, etc.)?
5. What prepared forms do they prefer (fresh, fresh-frozen, iced, smoked, breaded,
etc.)?
6. What sizes to they prefer?
7. What prices do they pay for the various processing and prepared forms?
8. How much fish (your product) do they use, and when do they use it? Do they buy
heavily in the spring, summer, fall, or winter? Do they buy once a year or on a
weekly or monthly basis?
Analyze the data you have collected and ask yourself the following questions.
1. How many producers are supplying the markets in my area?
2. If there are no area suppliers, why not?
3. Is there a demand for the species and enterprise I intend to undertake?
(NOTE: Your product is of no value if you cannot sell it! You certainly would not
start a baitfish enterprise in the middle of the desert, nor would you attempt to
raise food crayfish in an area where few people consumed crayfish.)
4. If there are already producers in the area, is there enough market demand for
more, or will I be competing for the same market?
5. Based on the present and past wholesale and retail prices of fish being sold in my
area, can I price my product so that I can make a profit?
AQ-177
MARKETING
UNIT IV
JOB SHEET #1 FILET AND PACKAGE A CATFISH
A. Equipment and materials
1. Tub containing live catfish
2. Running hot and cold water and dish detergent
3. Skinning hook
4. Skinning pliers
5. Gutting knife
.6. Heavy-duty butcher knife or band saw
7. Filet knife
8. Scales
9. Plastic freezer bag
10. Freezer label/marking pen
11. Ice
12. Water brush
13. Rubber gloves and apron
14. Container for ice bath
15. Access to freezer
B. Procedure
1. Put on gloves and rubber apron.
2. Make an ice bath by placing about 1 gallon of water and 2 pounds of ice in
a clean container.
3. Kill fish by cutting through backbone just behind head.
4. Hook fish by head to eye-level skinning hook.
5. Cut through skin just behind and on both sides of head.
6. Grasp flap of skin at head with skinning pliers and pull down on both sides.
JOB SHBET #1
7. Gtasp remaining flap of skin at head-and; pull skin-frorn belly-flap.
8. Remove fishirom skinning hook andlay on processinglable.
9. Cut off headjust behind'opercles wittt heavy-duty butcherknife-ora bandsaw

if available.
10. Slit belly from anal opening to head area.
11. Gut fish, and ute waterbruSh to clean 'cavity:
12. Lay the fish on one.side with the head end pointing toward you.
13. Filet with filet knife. (Figure 1)
a. Starting-at backbone near heerLarea, cut to and around the ribs and
back to the backbone.
b. Cut to and along backbone fromtead-end to tail, removing filet at tail.
FIGURE 1
14. Trim off:peivid flap,and pelvic fins.
15. Turn fish over and repeat fileting,process-on other side.
16. Wash filets with waterbrush.
17. Place clean filets in ice bath for 15 to 30 minutes.
(NOTE: The ice bath freshens the 'Mesh and gilies:it body.)
18. Place the two filets in a Plastid freezer bag, expel air frorn the bag, and:seal.
19. Weigh the filets:
20. Label the package vith the processing date and the-weight.
187
AQ-179
JOB SHEET #1
21. Place the packaged filets in the freezer.
22. Discard fish waste in appropriate manner.
23. Clean all equipment and knives in hot, soapy water.
24. Dry equipment arid return to proper storage.
198
AQ-181
MARKETING
UNIT IV
JOB SHEET #2 PROCESS AND PACKAGE A TROUT
1. Tub containing live trout
2. Water brush
3. Hot and cold running water and dish detergent
4. Gutting knife
5. Plastic freezer bag
6. Freezer label/marking pen
7. Rubber gloves and apron
8. Clean container for ice bath
9. Access to freezer
B. Procedure
1. Prepare ice bath by putting about 1 gallon of water and 2 pounds of ice in
a clean container.
2. Put on rubber gloves and apron.
3. Kill trout by cutting through backbone directly behind head.
4. Wash hard with waterbrush to remove scales.
(NOTE: Trout scales are so tiny that all scales are not often removed.)
5. Slit belly from anal fin to underside of head.
6. Pull out entrails, and then reach further up and pull out gills; discard in proper
receptacle.
7. Clean gut and gill cavities with water brush.
3. Place trout in ice bath for 15 to 30 minutes.
9. Place trout in freezer bag, expel air from bag, and seal.
182
JOB. SHEET #2
(NOTE: Generally medium-sized trout are packaged two to a freezer bag.

Large trout are packaged singly. Trout may also be fileted, and very large
trout can be steak-cut.)
10. Weigh trout.
11. Label package with processing date and weight.
12. Place package in freezer.
13. Discard any fish waste in an appropriate manner.
14. Clean all equipment and knives in hot, soapy water.
15. Dry equipment and return to proper storage.
200
AQ-183
MARKETING
UNIT IV
FRACI1CAL TEST #1
JOB SHEET #1 FILET AND PACKAGE A CATFISH
Student's name Date
Evaluator's 1.ame Attempt no.
Student instructions: When you are ready to perform this task, ask your instructor to
observe the procedure and complete this form. All items listed under "Process
Evaluation" must receive a "Yes" for you to receive an overall performance evaluation.
PROCESS EVALUATION
(EVALUATOR NOTE: Place a check mark in the "Yes" or "No" blanks to designate
whether or not the student has satisfactorily achieved each step in this procedure. If the
student is unable to achieve this competency, have the student review the materials and
try again.)
The student: Yes No
1. Prepared ice bath. 1. O0

2. Skinned, beheaded, and gutted fish. 2. 00
3. Prepared filets and trimmed. 3. O0
4. Put filets in ice bath for proper length of time. 4. 00
5. Placed filets in air-free freezer bag. 5. O0
6. Weighed and labeled filets. 6. 00
7. Properly discarded waste and cleaned equipment. 7. O0
Evaluator's comments:
to
184
MARKETING
UNIT IV
PRODUCT EVALUATION
(EVALUATOR NOTE: Rate the student on the fohowing criteria by circliag the appropriate
numbers. Each item must be rated at least a "3" for mastery to be demonstrated. (See
performance evaluation key below.) If the student is unable to demonstrate mastery,
evaluation.
Criteria:
Preparation Complete Acceptable Poor Unacceptable

4 3 2 1
Skinning Neat Acceptable Poor Sloppy

Process 4 3 2 1
Filet Neat Acceptable Poor Unacceptable

Preparation 4 3 2 1
Packaging and Complete Acceptable Fair Unacceptable

Weighing 4 3 2 1

3 Moderately skilled Has performed job during training program;
limited additional training may be required.
1 Unskilled is familiar with process, but is unable to perform jot
(EVALUATOR NOTE: If an average score is needed to coincide with a competency

of criteria.)
20 2
AQ-185
MARKETING
UNIT IV "
PRACTICAL TEST #2
JOB SHEET #2?ROCESS AND PACKAGE A TROUT
Student's name Date
Evaluator's name Attempt no.
Evaluation" must receive a "Yes" for you to receive an mere!l performance evaluation.
PROCESS EVALUATION
try again.)
The student: Yes No
1. Prepared ice bath properly. 1. O0

2. Removed scales as required. 2. 00
3. Cleaned gut and gill cavities properly. 3. 00
4. Placed trout in ice bath. 4. 00
5. Packaged, weighed, and labeled trout. 5. O0
6. Cleaned equipment properly. 6. 00
7. Discarded waste properly and cleaned equipment. 7. O0
Evaluator's comments'
203
186
MARKETING
UNIT IV
PRODUCT EVALUATION
numbers. Each item must be rated at least a "3" for mastery to be demonstrated. See
performance evaluation key below.) If thc student is unable to demonstrate mastery,
evaluation.
Criteria:
Preparation Complete Acceptable Poor Unacceptable

4 3 2 1
Scrubbing Neat Acceptable Poor Sloppy

and Gutting 4 3 2 1
Product Neat Acceptable Poor Unacceptable

Preparation 4 3 2 1
Weighing and Complete Acceptable Fair Unacceptable

Labeling 4 3 2 1

3 Moderately skilled Has performed job during training program;
limited additional training may be required.
1 Unskilled is familiar with process, but is unable to perform job.
(EVALUATOR NOTE: If an average score is needed to coincide with a competency

profile, total the designated points in Product Evaluation" and divide by the total number
of criteria.)
2 04
A0-187
MARKETING
UNIT IV
TEST
NAME SCORE
1. Match terms related to marketing with their correct definitions. Write the correct
a. Gutted; with internal organs removed 1. Market
b. Frozen at very low temperatures 2. Cryogenically frozen
c. Killed and prepared for the food 3. Filet

market
4. Eviscerated
d. Buyer of product
5. Dressed
e. Boneless sides of fish cut lengthwise
away from backbone :3. Retail sales
f. Sales of fish in large quantities to 7. Wholesale sales

buyer who then sells to distributor or
retailer 8. Seed stock
g. Larval fish or crustaceans; fry; small

fingerlings
h. Sales of fish in small quantities directly

to the consumer
2. Select true statements about processing plant markets. Write the correct numbers
in the blanks.
a. Which ol the following is not a function of the procescing plant market?
1) Buying fish from the producer

2) Dressing and packaging fish
3) Providing seed stock
b. In which of the following states are 7Rjor processing plants located?
1) Oklahoma and Arkansas

2) Mississippi and Alabama
3) Florida and Louisiana
205
188
TEST
c. Which of the following are typical charges for processing plants that
provide harvesting and hauling services?
1) Harvesting costs at 3 to 5 cents a pound; hauling costs ranging

from 1 to 5 cents a pound
2) Harvesting costs a: 4 to 8 cents a pound; hauling costs ranging
from 1 to 3 cents a pound
3) Harvesting costs at 1 to 3 cents a pound; hauling costs from 5
to 8 cents a pound
d. What is the minimum live-weight load for typicd processing plant

hauling services?
1) 4,000 to 8,000 pounds

2) 2,000 to 12,000 pounds
3) 8,000 to 10,000 pounds
e. What is the usual distance limit for processing plant hauling services?
1) 50 miles one-way
2) 75 miles one-way
3) 100 miles one-way
f. Which of the following is typical of the length of lead tin.- required by

the processing plant for contracting harvesting and hauling services?
1) 7 to 60 days before harvest

3. Select true statements about live haul markets. Write the correct numbers in the
blanks.
a. Which of the following is the predominate destination of fish transported

by iive haulers?
1) Processing plants
2) Fee-fishing lakes
3) Retail markets
b. Which of the following is a service provided by live haulers?
1) Harvesting
2) Grading
3) Transporting
c. Which of the following is the typical minimum load for the live hauler?
1) 1,000 to 3,000 pounds
2) 2,000 to 4,000 pounds
3) 5,000 to 8,000 pounds
20C
AQ-189
TEST
d. Why must fish be in excellent condition for the live haul market?
1) So that they can be delivered to the processor live and be fresh-

killed for dressing
2) So that they can withstand the acclimating and grading prowsses
at ihe fish farmer's
3) So that they will survive the trip and can begin feeding in the fee-
fishing pond
e. When do live haulers generally purchase their fish?
1) In the fall after water temperatures have cooled enough for safe
harvesting (typically mid-September to mid-November in the
temperate southern states)
2) Only during sport fishing season (typically mid-April to mid-
September in the temperate southern states)
3) In the early spring (mid-March to mid-May in the temperate
southern states)
f. Because of the short buying period, the farmer must often adjust
production by doing which of the following?
1) Over-wintering fish
2) Alternating crop and fish harvests
3) Stocking in late fall
4. Select true statements about local markets: stores and restaurants. Write the correct
a. Which of the following would be LEAST likely to market to stores and

restaurants?
1) Large enterprises
2) Small enterprises
3) Enterprises located in areas beyond processing plant haul
distances
b. How often must the farmer be able to harvest fish for this market?
1) Daily
2) Weekly
3) Monthly
c. Why must the producer who markets to local stores and restaurants be
prepared to process the fish on the farm?
1) Because many stores and restaurants will accept only dressed

fish
2) Because it is the producer's responsibility to test for off-flavor
3) Because local and state laws often specify that fish must be
processed before sale to restaurants and food stores
207
190
TES i'
5. Select from a list true statements about local retail markets. Write an "X" in the
blank before each correct statement.
a. Food fish can be live or dressed, and purchased on the farm or

delivered; baitfish, crayfish, and hobby fish are generally delivered.
b. The producer may harvest food fish once or a few times a year and
advertise by local radio and newspaper that fresh fish will be available
of the farm at a certain date.
c. Baitfish may also be transported fiom the farm to nearby population

centers and sold directly from the haul truck to the consumer; this
method also requires advance advertising.
d. Other fish farmers buy broodfish, eggs, fry, and fingerlings.
e. Depending on the location, area population, size of the operation, and

number of competing producers in the area, this type of market ranges
from fair to very poor.
6. Select from a list true statements about fee-fish markets. Write an "X" in the blank
before each correct statement.
a. In this market, the producer stocks one or more ponds, the customer
pays a fee for entering the site and trying to catch fish, and usually is
refunded the fee if no fish are caught.
b. Some fee-fish producers also dress fish for a modest charge.
c. Ponds may be open all year, only on certain days of the week, or only
during certain periods; however, the fee-pond operator must be present
whenever the pond is open for fishing.
d. While the fee-fish market requires no harvesting, the operator may

purchase stock from a producer, or a farmer may operate a fee-fish
pond in addition to producing fingerlings or food-fish.
7. Complete statements about economy of scale. Write the correct number in the
blanks.
a. As a rule of thumb, production costs per pound of fish are usually

for large farms than those for small farms.
1) the same
2) lower
3) higher
20 8
to
AQ-191
TEST
b. Unlike small farms, large farms can take advantage of of feed and
seed stock.
1) discounts for bulk purchases

2) seasonal sales
3) reduced amounts
c. Larger ponds are expensive per acre to build than small ponds.
1) more
2) less
3) as
d. Large farms can sell wholesale to a processor or live-hauler, while

profits may be if small farms sell to a processor or wholesale
market.
1) low or even negative

2) increased by 25 percent or more
3) even with investment costs
e. prices usually fluctuate more than prices, and small farmers

who must retail their products must advertise to be successful.
1) Market; credit
2) Wholesale; retail
3) Retail; wholesale
f. These data do not mean that fish farming cannot be profitable for the
farmer: From a profit standpoint, what counts is the pounds of fish
marketed each year, not the pounds of fish produceo.
1) extensive
2) large
3) small
8. List seven factors to consider when exploring market alternatives.
e.
f.
209
192
TEST
9. Complete statements about product forms. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. Fish eggs sell by the and the prices change annually, depending
on the supply or the success of the hatchery.
1) hundred weight
2) unit
3) pound
b. Some specialty markets exist for broodfish, especially if they are .
1) an lrnproved or selected strain

2) sexually young
3) exotics
c. Fry are gunerally sold by the , and fingerling fish longer than 1
inch are usually sold singly by the inch up to inches; longer fish
may be sold by the pound.
1) pound; 3
2) thousand; 8
3) thousand weight; 4
d. Fingerlings or stocker fish are marketed primarily to commercial fish

farmers and people who have recreational or farm ponds; a higher
price is usually obtained .
1) than for wholesale sales to commercial farms

2) when selling wholesale to processors
3) when sales are made in the fall
e. Food fish catfish and trout are normally pounds in weight and are
sold by the pound to either a wholesale or retail market.
1) 2 to 3
2) 2 1/2 to 2 3/4
3) 3/4 to 2
f. Food crayfish are usually sorted size and sold by the (softshell
crayfish command a higher price than hardshell), and bait crayfish are
sold by the .
1) piece; dozen
2) dozen; piece
3) pound; piece
-
g. Baitfish are usually graded for size and may be sold by the at the
wholesale level or the at the retail level.
1) thousand; container weight

2) dozen; piece
3) pound; piece
210
AQ-193
TEST
10. Match food fish processing cuts and forms with their correct descriptions. Write the
correct numbers in the blanks.
a. The belly flap off the filet 1. Strip cut
b. Boned side of the fish, cut lengthwise 2. Nugget cut

away from the backbone
3. Filet cut
c. Beheaded, eviscerated, and skinned
(catfish), or scaled and eviscerated 4. Steak cut
(trout)
5. Dressed
d. Smaller pieces cut from filets
e. Cross-section cuts from larger fish
11. Match catfish dressout percentages to processing cuts and forms. Write the correct
a. About 83 percent and 17 percent of 1. Filet

the regular filet
2. Shank and nugget
b. About 60 percent of live fish weight
3. Steaks
c. Usually average about 75 percent of
live weight, with those packaged by the 4. Dressed
pound, 6 to 8 to a package
d. Usually averages about 42 percent of

live weight; commonly marketed sizes
are 3 to 5 ounces (2/4-pound fish), 5
to 7 ounces (1-pound fish), and 7 to
9 ounces (1 1/2-pound fish)
12. Select from a list true statements about on-site versus plant processing. Write an
in the blank before each correct statement.
a. Most small producers sell their fish to processing plants; this provides
them with a secure market and saves harvesting and marketing time.
b. Many large producers decide to process their own fish because the
value-added return is so much greater than for sales to a processor or
broker.
c. Modern processing plants are equipped with skinning machines, band

saws for beheading fish, and state-of-the-art equipment for freezing,
smoking, icing, and packaging the processed product.
d. On-site processing is often done entirely by hand, though processing

machinery is available if the size of the operation justifies it.
211
194
TEST
13. Select from a list true statements about disposal of processing waste. Write an "X"
in the blank before each correct statement.
a. In some areas there is a market for frames (skeletons) that remain after
fish are fileted; among other uses, these are ground and used with
other waste products in fool for domestic pets.
b. Some processing plants market processed by-products that include

viscerasold to zoo keepers, and headssold to commercial crab
fishermen and crayfish producers.
c. For the most part, however, fish ;:rocessing solid by-products are a
liability to the processor, and traditional disposal methods have included
trucking wastes to rendering plants and landfills.
d. Dlsposal of wastes is inexpensive for major processing plants because

the bulk of the processing waste is either dry rendered or made into
silage.
e. Dry rendering units treat fish wastes with quk freezing to produce
usable byproducts, including high-grade fish oil and high-protein fish
meal.
f. Preparation of fish silage is a fairly new method of creating byproducts

from processed catfish wastes; typical byproducts include fish meal and
fish oil of higher protein that is produced by the rendering process, and
high-protein concentrated silage that contains no bone.
14. Complete statements concerning permits and regulations. Write the correct numbeis
in the blanks.
a. Some states require commercial producers of fish and crayfish to :-..,i)tain

farming permits from the .
1) State Department of Wildlife and Fisheries

2) U.S. Soil and Conservation Service
3) U.S. Department of Agriculture
b. Some states may also require a license, a wholesale/retail dealer's

license, or a transport license for transportation over public roads and
for sales taking place off the property.
1) fishing
2) conservation
3) commercial fish farmer's
2I2
AQ-195
TEST
c. While the federal government has no health, sanitation, or grading

requirements for processed fish products, states do have facility and
sanitary requirements; permits are obtained from the and from the
state health office.
1) county fish and wildlife ranger

2) county heth officer
3) state department of wildlife management
d. There are also laws regarding of fish.
1) feeding
2) interstate and intrastate transportation
3) market prices
e. Laws and regulations may change from year to year and vary from
state to state, so it is wise to check with when in doubt.
1) other fish farmers

2) the local game ranger
3) a representative of the appropriate agency or department
(NOTE: Test questions 15 and 16 list the assignment and job sheets. If they have not
been completed, check with your instructor for scheduling dates and evaluation
procedures.)
15. Survey local markets. (Assignment Sheet #1)
a. Skin and filet a catfish. (Job Sheet #1)
b. Dress and package a trout. (Job Sheet #2)
213
AQ-1j7
MARKETING
UNIT IV
ANSWERS TO MST
1. a. 4 e. 3
b. 2 f. 7
c. 5 g. 8
d. 1 h. 6
2. a. 3 d. 3
b. 2 e. 1
c. 1 f. 1
3. a. 2 d. 3
b. 3 e. 2
c. 3 f. 1
4. a. 1
b. 2
C. 1
5. a, b, d
6. b, c, d
7. a. 2 d. 1
b. 1 e. 3
c. 2 f. 3
8. Answer should include seven of the following:
a. Market size (wholesale versus rgtail)

b. Area market distribution
c. Local and area competition
d. Past and present n....sket prices
,-
e. Harvesting and transporting strategy
f. Product forms and sizes desired in market aroa
g. On-site versus processing plant processing, packaging, and storing
h. Processing forms des!ra in market area
i. Seasonal ups and downs
i. Advertising
O
2 14
198
ANSWERS TO TEST
9. a. 3 e. 3
b. 1 f. 3
C. 2 g. 3
d. 1
10. a. 2
b. 3
C. 5
d. 1
e. 4
11. a. 2
b. 4
C. 3
d. 1
12. c, d
13. a, c, f
14. a. 1
b. 3
C. 2
d. 2
e. 3
15. Evaluated to the satisfaction of the instructor
16. a. Evaluated according to Practical Test #1

b. Evaluated acnrding to Practical Test #2
215
AQ-199
SITE SELECTION
UNIT V
UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completion of this unit, the student should be able to evaluate a site for its fish
farming potential. This competency will be evidenced by completing the assignment sheets
and scoring a minimum of 85 percent on the unit test.
SPECIAC OBJECTIVES
1. Match terms related to site selection with their correct definitions.
2. List the three basic site requirements.
3. Select from a list facts to consider when evaluating a site's potential water
sources.
4. List steps in determining a site's water quality.
5. Select facts about pond type and site evaluation.
6. Select from a list steps in determining whether soil is suitable for pond
construction.
7. Match basic soil typec fo their characteristics.
8. Select facts about soil consilerations in site selection.
9. Select facts about topographical considerations in site selection.
10. Select from a list general facts to consider in site selection.
11. List site-specific factors that determine costs.
12. Select from a list laws, regulations, and permits required to develop a site
for fish farming.
13. Survey a site's potential as a fish farm. (Assignment Sheet #11
14. Evaluate a pntential site's soil cp.ality. (Assignment Sheet #2)
15. Evaluate a potential site's water sources and quality. (Assignment Sheet #3)
200
OBJECTIVE SHEET
to
16. Complete a checklist to determine site's feasitility. ',Assignment Sheet #4)
2i7
op
A0-201
SITE SELECTION
UNIT V
A. Have available local soil, groundwater, and topographical maps to aid students in
completing the assignment sheets and in selecting appropriate sites.
B. Invite a representative of the Soil Conservation Services, USDA, to speak to the

class about the assistance that agency provides in site evaluation and layout.
C. Invite a representative of the Army Corps of Engineers to speak to the class about
water use rules and regulations.
D. Invite a representative from a local well drilling company to visit the class and talk
on the costs and processes of well drilling in the area.
E. Provide students with objective sheet. Discuss unit and specific objectives
F. Provide students with information sheet. Disc..:ss information sheet, adapting and
adding information specific to your state or locality.
EXAMPLES. Discuss soil types found in your area; provide students with local and
state laws, regulations, and permit needs, and with specific addresses
of agencies to contact.
G. Provide students with assignment sheets. Review assignment sheet information

and schedule duo dates.
H. if possible, have the class as a whole evaluate the potentkii of a mock site chosen
by you. Discuss development potential and restrictions.
I. Have students complete assignment sheets. Evaluate and discuss in class.
J. Give test.
A. Coche, A. G. Soil and Freshwater Fish Culture. Rome: Food and Agriculture
B. Dupree, Harry K., and Jay V. Huner. Third Report to Fish Farmers: The Status
of Warmwater Fish Farming and Progress in Fish warming Research. Washington,
,
4f).
tI 0
0
202
C. Hepher, Balfour and Yoel Pruginin. Commercial Fish Farming. New York: John
Wiley & Sons, 1981.
D. Inland Aquaculture Engineering. Rome: United Nations Development Program,

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1984.
E. Jensen, Gary L. Commercial Production of Farm-Raised Catfish. Louisiana

Agricultural Experiment Station, Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, 1988.
F. Lee, Jasper S. Catfish -arming: A Reference Unit. Jackson, Mississippi: Division

of Vocational and Technical Education, Mississippi State Department of Education,
1971.
G. Pond Management in Oklahoma. Oklahoma City: Fish Division, Oklahoma

H. Ponds Planning, Design, Construction. Handbook 590. Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Soil and Conservation Services, June 1982.
I. Reigh, Robert C., ed. Proceedings of the Louisiana Aquaqulture Conference 1988.
Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Agridulture Center, Louisiana
Cooperative Extension Service, 1988.
J. Swift, Donald R. Aquaculture Training ManuaL Surrey, England: Fishing News

Books, Ltd., 1985.
219
AQ-203
SITE SELECTION
UNIT V
INFORMATION SHEET

A. Friable Easily crumbled or crushed into powder
B. Coherent Sticking together, as with soil particles
C. Permeability Rate of penetration by liquids
(NOTE: Soils that are permeable can be penetrated by fluids. Soils or

materials that are impermeable cannot be penetrated by fluids. Those that are
serni-oermeable resist fluid penetration.)
D. Plasticity Capacity of soil to be bent without breaking and to remain bent

after force is removed
E. Water table Level below which the ground is saturated with water
F. Substrata Subsoils
G. Seepage To flow out slowly through the pond bottom material
H. Drainage May refer to methods of draining a pond or to surface water

runoff
I. Wetland Area that is covered with standing water or is saturated most of

the year, and that supports mainly water-loving plants
(NOTE: Wetlands are primary habitats and breeding grounds of many

waterfowl. The conversion of wetlands to crop productionincluding fish
cropsthreatens waterfowl populations.)
J. Aggregate Soil made of a mixture of mineral particles
K. Infiltration To filter through small gaps or passages
L. Runoff Rain that does not infiltrate the soil so flows to ponds, streams,
and depressions
M. Topography Surface features of a region; the lay of the land
N. Sediment Matter that settles to the bottom of a liquid
0. Flatland Area with not more than 3 percent slope

(NOTE: Flatlands used for pond or raceway sites need some slope for gravity
drainage.)
220
204
INFORMATION SHEET
II. Basic site requirements
A. Adequate supply of guod quality water
B. Subsoils that hold water
C. Suitable topography
III. Facts to consider when evaluating the site's potential wuter sources
A. Wells
1. Wells are the preferred water source, provided that enough water is
available at an affordable energy cost.
2. If a well is to be the primary water source, adequate groundwater must

exist in the proposed site before ponds or raceways are constructed.
3. The availability of groundwater varies with location, as do underground

water-bearing formations.
(NOTE: Groundwater maps of the area may be available from the

U.S. Soil Conservation Service.)
4. A test bore well should be drilled to evaluate quality, quantity, and

location of groundwater.
5. Well water is usually free of pollution, although some undesirable gases

(hydrogen sulfide), minerals (iron), or chemicals (ammonia) may have
to be removed.
6. Low oxygen is a problem with well water, but aeration will remedy this.
7. Wells are free of contamination by wild fish.
B. Spring water
I. Year-round availability must be evaluated by observing water flow from

the spring(s), especially during fall when discharge is usually lowest.
2. Springs have a constant temperature and require no pumping costs to

bring water to the surface.
3. Spring water is cool; continuous flow through a pond may make the
pond water too cool for some warmwater species such as catfish, and
a warming pond may be needed.
4. Spring water may be low in oxygen and require aeration, or it may be

supersaturated with nitrogen gas and require investment in degassing
equipment to avoid fish kills.
5. Because springs may contain wild fish, mechanical filtration is needed.
221
AQ-205
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Surface runoff
1. Surface runoff from a watershed is not a dependable supply of water;

annual runoff is unpredictable, and the potential fish farmer must
evaluate each of the numerous physical characteristics that affect water
yield.
EXAMPLES: Relief, soil infiltration, plant cover, surface storage; and

amount, intensity, and duration of rainfall
2. The watershed area must be large enough to maintain water in the

pond during drought, yet not so large that expensive overflow structures
are needed to bypass runoff during storms.
3. An oversized watershed causes pond water to be changed too often,

flushing out nutrients and animal life; washes too much silt into the
pond; causes erosion of the spillway and dam; and may require a
diversion canal.
4. Areas completely covered with grasses or woody vegetation make the

best watersheds.
5. Properly grazed pastureland provides the second best watershed.
6. Heavily fertilized cultivated land provides the least desirable watershed

cover; if used, it must be free of toxic insecticides and herbicides and
should be protected from erosion by conservaon measures.
EXAMPLES: Terracing, contour tillage, strip cropping
7. Surface runoff is often used as a source of water for hill ponds and
those that supplement rather than provide the principal iarm income.
D. Surface water from rivers, reservoirs, lakes, bayous, canals
1. Water pumped from these sources is generally the least consistent and
least desirable water supply
2. Agricultural, industrial, or municipal activities upstream or elsewhere

may pollute the water with pesticides and other contaminants that can
kill fish.
3. Silt loads are often heavy and can cause damage to fish or fill
impoundments.
4. Surface water may contain fish eggs, wild fish and predatory species
that may compete with the farmed species, amphibians and their eggs,
and disease organisms.
5. Use surface water only if it can be managed economically; if surface

water is used, a proper filter system is essential.
222
N
206
INFORMATION SHEET
IV. Steps in determining a site's water quality

A. Perform chemical analyses of water during site selection to determine whether
the water quality is suitable for fish production.
B. Select a location where drainage from farms, feedlots, corrals, sewage lines,
mine dumps, and similar areas cannot reach the pond.
C. Select a location free from industrial runoff or direct discharge of industrial

waste into water source.
D. Note potential contaminating activities in the surrounding watershed.
EXAMPLE: Adjacent land in row crop production receiving aerial pesticides

that may drift with the wind and contaminate your pond or water
source.
V. Pond type and site evaluation (Figures 1-3)
A. Levee (dike) ponds
EXAMPLE:
FIGURE i
1. Mo11 ,;ommercial ponds are earthen dike ponds built on flatlands.
2. Dike ponds have four raised levees, are usually rectangular, and have
relatively level bottoms; maximum water depth is usually 4 to 8 feet.
3. The chosen site should be large enough to enable the construction of

the desired number of ponds for both present and future.
223
AQ-207,
INFORMATiON SHEET
B. Hill ponds
EXAMPLE:
FIdURE 2
1. Hill,ponds are generally ,not as suitable, for intensive culture as other

pond types, but they may be profitable for cage culture or fee fishing.
2. Hill ponds:are usualIT created by damming a gully or valley, have an

irregular shape, have, relatively steep bottom- slope, and are 10 to 20
feet deep near aid dart.
3. The type and condition of the watershed, and' the ratio of watershed
area tO Pond area are very important considerations in hill site selection.
4. Hill ponds, withtheir irregular shapes arid bottom.coritours, are diffidult

to harvest' except- by, complete. draining, but.skillfut pond Placement and
conStruction can make harvesting efficient and ensurewatet supplies
in all.but the driest years.
5. Hill pOnds areoften built parallel to the. contour of the hill.
6. Drainage and overflow 'Structures are necessary.
224
208
1-,
INFQRMATION SHEET
C. Excavated,ponds
,EXAMPLE:
FIGURE 3
1. Excavated ponds are dug out below the soil surface; therefore it is
impOrtant that the ,substreta have good water retention properties.
2. These ponds-,may be regular or irregular im shape, have relatively level

bottoms, and a maximum water depth.of 5 to 9 feet.
3. Surface runoff or Springs generally serve as the water sources for these
ponds.
4. These ponds usually have to be drained by pumping.

VI. Steps in determining whether soil Is suitable for pond construction
A. Refer to soil maps of the area for information on the types of soils found on
the.proposed site.
B. Leam the'characteris,tics of the different soil types, and look for soils with a
slow-infiltrationrate and high runoff potential.
C. Perform.simple preliminary visual and-field tests to evaluate the suitability of

the soil.
EXAMPLES: Checking color, odor, texture, permeability and so on as outlined

in Assignment Sheet #2
D. After a tentative -pond site has been chosen, contact the Ll.S. Soil
Conservation Service to provide soil tests, soil analySes, and technical
assistance in site Jayout.
A0-209
INFORMATION SHEET
VII. Characteristics of basic soil types
A. Sand Noncoherent visible particles of rock that when dry run through the
fingers like water; these soils do not stick to tools, are easy to work with, and
water circulates through them very easily.
B. Inorganic silt Very fine, closely packed particles not visible to the eye;
does not crack when dry or stick to tools when wet, is harder to work than
sandy soils but easier than clayey soils, is less permeable than sand, and
does not let water through as easily.
(NOTE: Inorganic silt has a smooth appearance just like clay, and is often
mistaken for clay. However, it can be distinguished from clay in the field by
using the Shaking Test outlined in Assignment Sheet #2. This distinction is
very important because some silty soils become very unstable when wet, as,
for example when used for dike construction and placed underwater. Clay,
on the other hand, is a stable construction material.)
C. Organic &it Particles of inorganic silt mixed with particles of organic

matter; color varies from light to very dark grey, and this soil may have the
odor of decaying organic matter.
D. Inorganic clay Finest part of soil, with some particles not visible even
under a microscope; absorbs water very slowly but will hold water once
absorbed and will swell to more than double its volume; becomes very sticky
when wet, and when it loses water it cracks and forms hard lumps; usually
yellow, red, or white.
(NOTE: When clay soils are wet, they are often too sticky to work, and when
they are dry, they are often too hard to work.)
E. Organic clay Particles of inorganic clay mixed with organic matter;

generally dark grey or black with a strong odor of decaying organic matter.
F. Peat Wholly organic soil made of visible fragments of decayed plant

material; color varies from light brown to black, and it has an odor of organic
matter.
G. Hardpan Very dense mineral soil of clay, sand, and gravel that has been
cemented together to form a rock-like layer; it will not soften when wet, and
a pick must be used to dig in it.
H. Loam Rich, dark brown soil made of clay, sand, and organic matter; may
be semi-impermeable to impermeable, depending on the proportion of clay.
VIII. Soil considerations In site selection
A. The best soils for fish culture are the sandy clay, silty clay loam, or clay loam
soils with clay particles representing more than 50 percent of total dry weight.
B. A site may be considered suitable for a pond if the soil will ensure good
water retention (clay or sand clay soils).
226
210
INFORMATION SHEET
C. If not enough clay is present, consider anotl-er site or the costs of trucking
in clay to core (plate) the dam and pond basin.
D. A site may be considered unsuitable for dike ponds if it contains rock

outcroppings or big surface stones, gravel beds or ..:^.ky soils, limestone or
shale areas, sandstone soils, or organic sons such as pe3t.
E. Look for watershed soils with a slow infiltration rate: clay soils with a high
swelling potential, soils with a high water table, soils with claypan at or near
the surface, and shallow soils over impermeable rock.
F. After choosing a tentative site, learn the soil history, and then have the soil
analyzed for possible pesticide residue if necessary.
POINT OF INTEREST: The pesticides of greatest concern are chlorinated

hydrocarbon residues, especially endrin and toxaphene. If cotton was grown on
the proposed site any time after 1940, or if cotton was grown on adjacent land,
these pesticides can remain in the top several inches of the soil. Contaminated
soil will kill fish, however, it can be used for filling centers of levees or for outside
slopes. The County Cooperative Extension Service Office can provide advice on
procedures for collecting samples, and assist in providing soil sample containers
and in contacting the state soil testing laboratory.
IX. Topographical considerations
A. Topography, particularly in hill ponds, often dictates the size, shape, and
number of ponds possible.
B. Flatlands generally make the best sites for ponds.
C. The lay of the land determines the amount of dirt to be moved: generally,
less dirt must be moved on flat land than on hilly, rolling land.
D. Often land that is considered marginal for field crops, or even wasteland, can
be used.
E. Avoid sites in low-lying areas of floodplains: flooding can damage levees,

ruin a fish crop, allow wild fish to enter a culture pond, and make draining
difficult or impossible.
(NOTE: If an area ::: considered to be a "wetland," a Section 404 construction

permit from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is required. See Information
Sheet, Section XII for details.)
F. The topography around ponds should permit drainage by gravity flow during
any season; if natural draws are absent, drainage ditches may have to be
excavated.
G. Rivers, bayous, or drainage ditches should be at an elevation lower than that

of the proposed drainpipe.
22 7
A0-211
INFORMATION SHEET
H. Avoid damming creeks or large, deep draws: Ponds of this type usually
become muddy, silt-in rapidly, develop unwanted fish populations, and lose
valuable nutrients when they overflow; in addition, they are dangerous as their
dams may blow out.
X. General facts to consider in site selection
A. If fish culture is to become the primary source of income, make sure that
enough land is available for future expansion.
B. If water must be used elsewhere, such as for irrigation or fire protection,

locate the pond site as close to the major water use as possible.
C. Beware ofareas where natural phenomenasuch as hurricanes or

floodsoccur regularly.
D. Evaluate access to the site iron, major roads and the condition of the
roadways that will be used by heavy trucks.
E. Determine the location of the nearest power line and telephone line, and
evaluate access costs.
F. Think about the site's proximity to available markets, feed suppliers, stock
suppliers, and medical and chemical suppliers.
G. Choose a site on which the pond can be located to the best advantage of
the prevailing wind direction
(NOTE: Wind-caused waves damage levees, shorelines, and dams, but

construction of the long levee parallel to the direction of the prevailing wind
increases wave action on the water surface afid thus increases aeration and
the mixing of the water, both of which are good for fish produ, ion.)
H. If possible, protect against theft and poaching by choosing a site where the
ponds are visible.
Xl. Site-specific factors that determine costs

(NOTE. In Unit VI, "Faculty Design and Layout," you will complete a feasibility study
of the selected site, and estimate construction costs. In selecting a site, however,
you must bear in mind the following factors that affect costs.)
A. Topography
EXAMPLE. Determines the cost of construction and the size and shape of the
pond or raceway.
B. Depth to groundwater
EXAMPLE. The deeper the well, the more expensive the pumping and drilling
costs.
22E1
212
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Location of energy source
EXAMPLE: If the power and telephone lines are near the site, access costs
are lower.
D. Size and shape of ponds
EXAMPLE: Large, regularly shaped ponds are less expensive to construct on

a per acre basis than some smaller ponds or hill ponds on steep
slopes.
E. Size of farm
EXAMPLE: The principle of economy of scale: Investment costs per acre

generally decrease as farm sizes increase; production and
operating costs are usually higher for smaller farms that cannot
benefit from discounted bulk purchases.
F. Enterprise chosen
EXAMPLE: Trout culture requires raceways; some enterprises require facilities

other than pondshatching troughs, holding troughs, processing
equipment.
G. Type of production method planned
EXAMPLES: Cage culture can be carried out in existing ponds of 1 acre with
a minimum end depth of 8 feet; raceways or tanks require less
acreage but draerent construction considerations and costs.
H. Type of soil
EXAMPLE: The cost is high to move peat soils or those high in organic
matter.
I. Soil conditions
EXAMPLE: Soils containing pesticide residues cannot be used for pond

bottom or dike construction, except as limited fill or on outside
slopes.
J. Dirt to be moved and vegetation to be cleared
EXAMPLES The more dirt moved and trees cleared, the higher the
construction costs; the site selected should be one that requires
the least amount of earthfill and clearing of trees and vegetation.
K. Whether land is owned or purchased
EXAMPLE: Flat land may be more expensive to purchase than hilly land, but
hill ponds are usually more difficult to manage and less profitable.
229
,k
AQ-213
INFORMATION SHEET
XII. Laws, regulations, and permits

(NOTE: Laws, regulations, and permits vary from state to state, and may change
from year to year. If in doubt, check with a representative of the appropriate state
or federal agency. Your County Cooperative Extension Service can also be of
help.)
A. You may need to obtain a permit from the State Department of Natdral
Resources before drilling a well.
B. You will need a permit from the Army Corps of Engineers or the Environmen-
tal Protection Agency before diverting, damming, or altering the course of a
river or stream.
C. You may need to secure a legal right-of-way if needed for access to market
roadways.
D. Wells that pump over a certain capacity per day may be required to be
registered with the State Department of Water Resources.
E. You may need a discharge permit from the Department of Environmental

Quality (DEQ).
(NOTE: Regulations vary from state to state on the volume of allowable dis-
charged water and the source of the discharged water. Processors, for
instance, may need a permit for point-source discharge into state waters.)
F. You must notify the utility company and get permission to dig if above ground
or underground cables or lines for power, natural gas, or water exist on the
proposed site.
a The Swampbuster Provision of the Food Security Act of 1985 discourages

the conversion of wetlands for agricultural production, including fish culture.
1. If you convert wetlands to fish ponds without the necessary permits, you
may lose your eligibility for certain USDA programs on all the land you
farm, not just the wetlands.
2. When applying for USDA farm programs, applicants must certify that
no crops (including fish) are being produced on any land that has been
converted from wetlands since December 1985.
(NOTE: Certification is obtained through county offices of the USDA

Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Services [ASCS].)
3. You need a permit to convert wetland to fish production; it can be

obtained from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Office of the District
Engineer.
4. You must obtain a water quality certification permit by the EPA or state
department of environmental quality before you will be issued a Section
404 construction permit.
230
214
INFORMATION 'SHEEt
H. Know the locallaws regarding poaching and trespassing. (Figure 4)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 4
231
A0-215
SITE SELECTION
UNIT V
4SSIGNMENT SHEET #1 EVALUATE A SITE FOR ITS POTENTIAL

AS A FISH FARM
To evaluate a site for a potential fish farm, you will have to walk the land and judge its
suitability based on your requirements. It may be to your advantage to find more than
one possible site and choose among them on the basis of your water requirements and
the topography, soil, and vegetation present at each site. You should also take into
consideration the site-specific cost factors outlined in Information Sheet, Section XI.
1. Begin your evaluation by drawing a small sketch map of the available and adjacent
land. Locate all the major topographical features such as existing ponds and
buildings, springs, swamps, gravel beds, rock outcroppings, hills, forest, grasslands,
roads, railways, and power lines.
2. Eliminate from consideration areas with large surface stones, gravel beds, or rock
outcroppings that are unsuitable for pond construction, eliminate also heavily forested
areas.
3. Evaluate the remaining area for accessibility to power and water sources, and then
sketch in proposed pond sites and locations of water supply.
4. Now make a field evaluation of the soil and watershed in the proposed site(s)
(Assignment Sheets #2 and #3)
(NOTE: Make your own quick soil analyses as outlined in Assignment Sheet #2,
and then enlist the services of the U.S. Soil Conservation Services.)
5. Analyze the water quality of your proposed water sources (Assignment Sheet #3),
and, if a well is to be one of your water sources, have a test bore well drilled to
determine the quality, quantity, and location of groundwater.
(NOTE: These are the actual steps taken by a prospective fish farmer, but for this
exercise, you would not have an expensive test bore well drilled.)
6. Return to your sketch map and make any site location adjustments necessary as
a result of your soil and water testing.
7. Now you are ready for the next step in the process, pond layout and design, which
is explained in the following unit.
232
A0-217
SITE SELECTION
UNIT V
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2 EVALUATE A POTENTIAL SITE'S SOIL QUALITY
A good understanding of soil and its characteristics is one of the most impc-lant of many
factors that must be considered for successful site selection for freshwater fish farming.
To choose a successful site for fish farming, you must know your soil well. Before building
your fish pond, you will need to test your soil to see if the texture, consistency,
permeability, and saturation levels on the site you have selected are suitable for building
a pond, supply canals, dikes, dams, or levees.
Survey the soil of your potential site by removing soil from different depths and condu.;t-
ing some of the following simple field tests.
A. Quick field tests to determine soil texture
1. Shaking test (to diffewntiate clay from silt)
(NOTE: Silt and clay soils both have very smooth textures. It is important to be
able to tell the difference between these two soils. When silt is used as a
construction material for dams and dikes, it may not have enough plasticity, and
when wet, it may become very unstable.)
a. Take a sample of soil and wet it.
b. Form a small patty about 1 1/2 inches thick and 3 inches in diameter.
c. Place the patty, which will appear dull, in the palm of your hand, and shake
it from side to side.
If its surface becomes shiny, it is silt.
If its surface remains dull, it is clay.
d. Confirm this result by bending the patty !Jetween your fingers.
If the surface becomes dull again, it is silt.
e. Put the patty aside and let it dry completely.
If it is brittle and dust comes off when rubbing it, it is silt.
If it is firm and dust does not come off when rubbing it, it is clay.
2. Throw-the-ball test
a. Strain soil sample through a sieve wiih 2 mm openings to separate earth

from larger particles.
b. Moisten the strained fine earth.
0 33
218
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
c. Take a handful of the moist soil and squeeze it into a ball.
d. Throw the ball into the air about 2 feet and then catch it.
If the ball falls apart, it is poor soil with too much sand in it for pond
..:onstruction.
If the ball sticks together, it is probably good soil with enough clay in it
for pond construction.
3. Squeeze-the-ball test
a. Strain soil to separate fine earth from larger particles as in Step la above.
b. Take a handful of fine soil and wet it so that it begins to stick together without
sticking to your hand.
c. Squeeze hard, and then open your hand.
0 Good Soil retains the shape of your hand.
El Poor Soil does not retain the shape of your hand.

4. Test for proportions of sand, silt, and clay.
a. Place about 1 cup of soil in a clear glass bottle and fill the bottle with water.
b. Stir the water and soil well.
c. Put the bottle down and do not touch it for an hour.

d. At the end of an hour, the soil will have settled into layers: the bottom layer
will be sand, the middle layer silt, and the top layer clay.
234
AQ-219
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
e. Measure the depths of each of the layers, and estimate the proportion of
each. (Figure 1)
Poor High proportion of sand to clay
Fair High proportion of silt to clay
El Good High proportion of clay to sand
FIGURE 1
Water
Clay
Silt
Sand
B. Quick field tests to determine soil's consistency
(NOTE. Soil consistency is a measure of the soil's ability to hold together and to resist
deformity and uracking. Wet soils suitable for pond construction should be sticky and
plastic. Moist soils should be firm. Dry soils should be hard after air drying.)
1. Field test for stickiness of wet soil

(NOTE: This test should be done when the soil is saturated with water. The best
time is after a heavy rainfall.)
a. Place a small amount of soil between your thumb and forefinger to see if it
will stick to your fingers.
b. Slowly open your fingers.
c. Rate the stickiness and suitability for pond construction as follows:
Poor Non-sticky if no soil or practically no soil sticks to your fingers
25
220
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
ED Fair Slightly sticky if the soil begins to stick to your fingers but comes
off one or the other cleanly and does not stretch when the fingers are opened
0 Good Sticky if soil sticks to both fingers and stretches a little before
breaking when fingers are pulled apart
O Best Very sticky if soil sticks firmly to both fingers and stretches when
the fingers are opened
2. Field test for plasticity of wet soil

a. Roll a small amount of wet soil between the palms of your hands until it
forms a rope about 1/2" thick.
b. Rate the soil's plasticity and suitability for pond construction as follows:
0 Poor Non-plastic if no rope can be formed
El Fair Slightly plastic if rope can be formed but can be easily broken
and returned to its former state
1:1 Good Plastic if rope can be formed but not re-formed after it is broken
and returned to its original state
O Best Very plastic if rope can be formed and not broken easily, and
if rope can be re-formed several times
3. Field 4. st for moist sot! ...msistency

(NOTE: Perform this test when the soil is moist but not wet. Test, for example,
24 hours after a good rainfall.)
a. Try to crush a small amount of moist soil by pressing it between yo_it thumb
and forefinger.
b. Rate moist soil consistency and suitability for pond construction as follows:
0 Very poor Loose if soil is noncoherent (will not stick together and is
composed of single grains)
O Poor Very friable if soil crushes easily under very gentle pressure but
will stick together if pressed again
0 Fair Friable ii soil crushes easily under gentle to moderate pressure
23C
AQ-221
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
El Good Firm if soil crushes under moderate pressure but' resistance is

noticeable
Ei Best Very firm if soil crushes under strong pressure, but this is difficult
to do between thumb and forefinger
4. Field test for dry soil consistency

(NOTE: Conduct test after soil has air dried.)
a. Try to break a small amount of dry soil by pressing it between your thumb
and forefinger.
b. Rate dry soil consistency and suitability for pond construction as follows:
O Very poor Loose if soil is noncoherent (single-grain structure)
Ei Poor Soft if soil is very weakly coherent and friable, breaking to

powder or individual grains after only slight pressure
O Fair Slightly hard if soil resists light pressure, but can be broken easily
between thumb and forefinger
0 Good Hard if soil resists moderate pressure, can barely be broken

between thumb and forefinger, but can be broken in the hands without
difficulty
O Best Very hard if soil resists great pressure, cannot be broken

between the thumb and forefinger, but can be broken in the hands with
difficulty
C. Field test to determine soil permeability
1. Dig a hole as deep as your waist.
2. Early in the morning, fill it with water to the top.
3. In the evening, after some water has seeped into the soil, again fill the hole
with water to the top.
4. Cover the hole with boards or leafy branches.
5. Check the water level the next morning; if most of the water is still in ihe
hole, the soil permeability is suitable for building a pond at this location.
6. Repeat this test in several other locations as many times as necessary,

according to the soil quality.
237
222
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
D. Field test for soil's resistance to water saturation

(NOTE: When you are selecting materials for embankment construction, it is very
important to determine the ability of a soil to resist water saturation.)
1. Dig a 3-foot hole in the ground, line with a plastic sheet, and fill with water;
or use a large metal drum filled with water.
2. Take a sample of soil and wet it well.
3. Kneed it with your hands until it becomes a stiff, plastic mass.
4. Make several balls about the size of an orange.
5. Place the balls in the hole or drum in still water about 3 to 5 feet deep.
6. Cover the pit with plastic anchored with rocks, or the drum with a cover.
7. Check the balls of soil every few hours at first, and later several times in a
24-hour period.
8. Rate the soil's resistance to saturation and its suitability for embankment
construction as follows:
0 Not good The balls fall apart within a few hours
0 Good The balls do not fall apart but remain intact for at least 24
hours
This assignment sheet adapted from Soil and Freshwater Fish Culture by A. G. Coche. With permission.
4.01.4 38
AQ-223
SITE SELECTION
UNIT V
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3 EVALUATE A POTENTIAL SITE'S WATER QUALITY
A water supply for an aquaculture facility must have several charactelstics to be

considered "good." Oxygen content, temperature, pH, alkalinity, hardness, chlorides, and
dissolved gases should all be within optimum ranges for the species you intend to raise.
You must also check any potential water supply for pollution, especially from chemicals.
1. Trace to its source any stream or spring you are considering for a water source.
2. Note agricultural and industrial use on adjacent land and watersheds.
3. Learn the history of any watershed that could drain to your water source.
(NOTE: Pay particular attention to any land on which cotton was grown since 1940,
as this soil can hold residual chlorinated hydrocarbons that can be lethal to fish.
Areas previously used for air strips; pesticide storage, disposal, or loading; and dip
areas for livestock may also contain undesirable levels of chlorinated hydrocarbons.)
4. If you plan on using surface water from lakes, rivers, reservoirs, etc., note
agricultural, municipal, and industrial activities that may pollute these sources.
5. If you plan on using well water, analyze the quality of the water to detect any
problems with high iron content, heavy metals, nitrogen levels, or other possible
contaminants.
(NOTE: The U.S. Soil Conservation Service or you County Cooperative Extension
Service can aid you in this analysis.)
6. After you have checked your water sources for pesticide contamination and pollution,
use a multi-test water analysis kit (Hach Kit) to check your water source for the
following variables. Check morning noon and night to get an overall idea.
(NOTE: Specific directions for checking water parameters can be found in the unit
titled "Water Quality." Water analysis kits are convenient and easy to use. They
contain packets of reagents [chemicals] that are added to known volumes of water.
You take readings by simply counting drops of chemical or notin; obvious color
changes.)
a. Test water to determine amount of dissolved oxygen, and compare findings

to lethal ranges in Table 1.
(NOTE: The amount of DO in water fluctuates widely depending on a number

of variables. For the purpose of site selection, you need only a rough
estimate of DO content, especially in well water and some spring water, which
may contain little or no DO.)
239
224
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3
TABLE 1: Optimum and Lethal Levels of Dissolved Oxygen for Selected

Fishes
Species Optimum Level (ppm) Lethal Level (ppm)
Bluegill 5.0 0.5 to 3.1

Channel catfish 5.0 0.8 to 2.0
Fathead minnow 5.0+ 1.0
Golden shiner 5.0 1.4
Goldfish 5.0 0.1 to 2.0
Grass carp 5.0 0.2 to 0.6
Largemouth bass 5.0+ 0.9 to 3.1
Rainbow trout 6.0 1.4 to 3.1
b. Check temperature of springs and well water, and compare to accepted

ranges in Table 2; if temperature does not fall within the required range, plan
site so that the cool water can be mixed with another water source or held
in a warming pond until it meets species' temperature needs. If it is too
warm, you will have to plan production only for cold seasons.
TABLE 2: Temperature Requirements for Selected Fishes
Degree F Degree F
Species Range Optimum
Channel catfish 33 to 95 70 to 85
Largemouth bass 33 to 95 55 to 80
Bluegill 33 to 95 55 to 80
Hybrid striped ba ss 33 to 95 55 to 75
Golden shiner 33 to 90 50 to 80
Rainbow trout 33 to 78 50 to 60
Grass carp 33 to 95 65 to 85
c. Test pH to determine the water's acidity and alkalinity; an acceptable range

is between 6.5 and 9.0, with the acid death point about 4 and the alkaline
death point about 11.
d. Test water hardness and alkalinity; values of 50 to 300 ppm are optimum,
but the best waters for fish production generally have about equal values of
total hardness and total alkalinity.
e. Test carbon dioxide levels; normal safe levels range from 5 to 10 ppm in
surface waters, though levels will vary in relation to amount of photosynthesis
taking place.
24 0
AQ-225
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3
f. Check nitrite levels, noting that levels as low as 1.5 ppm have been known
to kill fish.
g. Check chloride levels; if levels are 20 ppm or less, you may encounter nitrite
problems.
24 1
-
AQ-227
SITE SELECTION
UNIT V
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #4 COMPLETE A CHECKLIST TO DETERMINE SITE'S FEASIBILITY
As a final step in the decision-making process, complete the following checklist to

determine the feasibility of the proposed site. A majority of "yes" answers probably
indicate that you have selected a site that will enable the successful construction of a
fish farm.
Yes No
00 of) you already own land suitable for fish farming?
O 0 Do you already have suitable ponds or pond sites?
00 Will the subsoils on your land hold water adequately?
00 Is the soil of the proposed site free of insecticide and herbicide contamination?
EJ E] Is the topography of the land suitable for economical construction of ponds of

the desired size?
00 Is enough water available to fin ponds within a reasonable time and to replace
water lost to seepage and evaporation?
O0 Is there adequate groundwater available on the land at a reasonable cost and

for future needs?
00 Is the water quality suitable for fish farming?
O0 Is the pond area protected from hurricanes and flooding?
0 0 Are ,r-ie drains in existing ponds or for ponds to be built large enough for rapid
draining?
O 0 Do land elevations permit gravity draining?
0 0 Can you prevent wild fish from entering ponds?
O 0 Can you reach ail ponds, regardless of the weather, for feeding, treating, and
harvesting?
O0 Will the pond bottom be suitable for dragging a seine for harvesting fish
without snagging on stumps or other debris?
O0 Is enough land available for future expansion if desired?
24 2
AQ-229
SITE SELECTION
UNIT V
TEST
NAME SCORE
1. Match terms related to site selection with their correct definitions. Write the correct
a. Subsoils 1. Friable
b. Matter that settles to the bottom of a 2. Coherent

liquid
3. Permeability
c. Easily crumbled or crushed into powder
4. Plasticity
d. To filter through small gaps or
passages 5. Water table
e. Level below whie!" the ground is 6. Substrata

saturated with water
7. Seepage
f. Rate of penetration by liquids
8. Drainage
_9- Rain that does not infiltrate the ground
and so flows to ponds, streams and 9. Wetland
depressions
10. Aggregate
h. To flow out slowly through the pond
bottom material 11. Infiltration
I. Sticking together, as with soil particles 12. Runoff
J. Capacity of soil to be bent without 13. Topography

breaking and to remain bent after force
is removed 14. Sediment
k. Surface features of a region; the lay 15. Flatland

of the land
I. Area that is covered with standing

water or is saturated most of the year,
and that supports mainly water-loving
plants
m. Soil made of a mixture of mineral

particles
n. May refer to methods of draining a

pond or to surface water runoff
o. Area with not more than 3 percent

slope
0
40
4 0o
230
TEST
2. List the three basic site requirements.
a.
c.
3. Select from a list facts to consider when evaluating a site's potential water sources.
Write an "X" beside each statement that is true.
Wells
a. Wells are the preferred water source, provided that enough water is
available at an affordable energy cost.
b. If a well is to be the primary water source, adequate rainfall must occur

at the proposed site before ponds or raceways are constructed.
c. The availability of groundwater varies with location, as do underground

water-bearing formations.
d. A test bore well should be drilled to evaluate quality, quantity, and

location of inlet pipe.
e. Well water is usually free of pollution, although some undesirable gases

(hydrogen sulfide), minerals (iron), or chemicals (ammonia) may have
to be removed.
f. Low carbon dioxide is a problem with well water, but aeration will
remedy this.
_____. .9. Wells are free of contamination by wild fish.
Spring water
a. Year-round availability must be evaluated by observing rainfall, especially

during the fall when discharge is usually lowest.
b. Springs have a constant temperature, but require pumping to bring the

water to the surface.
c. Spring water is cool; continuous flow through a pond may make the
pond water too cool for some warmwater species such as catfish, and
a warming pond may be needed.
d. Spring water may be low in oxygen and require aeration, or it may be

supersaturated with nitrogen gas and require investment in degassing
equipment to avoid fish kills.
e. Because springs originate underground, they contain no wild fish.
04.4
AQ-231
TEST
Surface runoff
a. Surface runoff from a watershed is a dependable supply of water;
annual runoff is predictable if the potential fish farmer evaluates the
numerous physical characteristics that affect water yield.
b. The watershed must be large enough to maintain water in the pond

during drought, yet not so large that expensive overflow structures are
neaded to bypass runoff during storms.
c. An oversized watershed causes pond water to be cnanged too often,

flushing out nutrients and animal life; washes too much silt into the
pond; causes erasion of the spillway and dam; and may require a
diversion canal.
d. Properly grazed pastureland provides the best watershed.
e. Areas completely covered with grasses or woody vegetation make the

second beist watersheds.
f. Heavily fertilized cultivated land provides the least desirable watershed

cover; if used, it must be free of toxic insecticides and herbicides and
should be protected from erosion by conservation methods.
g. Surface runoff is often used as a source of water for dike ponds and
those that provide the primary farm income.
Surface water from rivers, reservoirs, lakes, bayous, canals
a. Water pumped from these sources is generay the most consistent and
most desirable water supply.
b. Agricultural, industrial, or municipal activities upstream or elsewhere

may pollute the water with pesticides and other contaminants that can
kill fish.
c. Silt loads are often heavy, adding to the nutrient level of the water.
d. Surface water may contain fish eggs, wild fish and predatory species
that may compete with the farmed species, amphibians and their eggs,
and disease organisms.
e. Use surface water only if it can be managed economically; if surface

water is used, a proper filter system is essential.
2,15
232
4.
TEST
List steps in determining a site's water quality.

6
a
C.
d.
5. Select facts about pond type and site evaluation. Write the correct numbers in the
blanks.
a. What i the topography for most commercial earthen dike ponds?
1) Flatland
2)
3)
Not over 6 percent slope
Gully or valley to
b. What is the average water depth for dike ponds?
1) 3 to 6 feet
2) 10 to 20 feet
3) 4 to 8 feet
c. What type of culture is generally most profitable for hill ponds?
1) Intensive
2) Cage
3) Raceway
d. How are hill ponds constructed? 1
1) Excavation
2) Damming gully or valley
3) Erecting levees
e. What is the most important consideration in hill pond site selection?
1) Type and condition of watershed

2) Vegetation
3) Size of pond
24 6
AQ-233
TEST
f. Why is it difficult to harvest hill ponds?
1) They are generally located in areas inaccessible to haul trucks.

2) They have steep banks.
3) They have irregular shapes and bottom contours.
9. How are excavated ponds constructed?
1) They are dug below the soil surface.

2) Levees are raised at the soil surface.
3) Gullies or valleys are dammed.
h. What purposes may excavated ponds fill in addition to those for

aquaculture?
1) Reservoirs
2) Farm stock ponds
3) Both 1 and 2
i. What are the usual water soUrces for excavated ponds?
1) Wells
2) Surface water from rivers, reservoirs, lakes, bayous, canals
3) Surface runoff or springs
What type of pond usually must be drained by pumping?
1) Hill
2) Excavated
3) Levee
6. Select from a list steps in determining whether soil is suitable for pond construction.
Write an "X" beside each statement that is true.
a. Refer to topographical maps for information on the types of soils found

on the proposed site.
b. Learn the characteristics of the different soil types, and look for soils
with a slow infiltration rate and a high runoff potential.
c. Perform preliminary excavation to evaluate the suitability of the soil.
d. After a tentative pond site has been chosen, contact the U.S. Soil
Conservation Service to provide soil tests, soil analysis, and technical
assistance in site layout.
2 <1.7
234
TEST
7. Match bask soil types with their characteristics. Write the correct numbers in the
blanks.
a. Particles of inorganic clay mixed with 1. Sand

organic matter; generally dark grey or
black with a strong odor or decaying 2. Inorganic silt
organic matter
3. Organic silt
b. Rich, dark brown soil made of clay,
sand, and organic matter; may be semi- 4. Inorganic clay
impermeable to impermeable,
depending on the proportion of clay 5. Organic clay
c. Noncoherent visible particles of rock 6. Peat

that when dry run through the fingers
like water; these soils do not stick to 7. Hardpan
tools, are easy to work with, and water
circulates through them very easily. 8. Loam
d. Particles of inorganic silt mixed with

particles of organic matter; color varies
from light to very dark grey, and soil
may have the odor of decaying matter
e. Wholly organic soil made of visible

fragments of decayed plant material;
color varies from light brown to black
and soil has the odor of organic matter
f. Very fine closely packed particles not

visible to the eye; does not crack when
dry or stick to tools when wet, is harder
to work than sandy soils but easier
than clayey soils, is less permeable
than sand, and does not let water
through as easily
Very dense mineral soil of clay, sand,

and 'gravel that has been cemented
together to form a rock-like layer; it will
not soften when wet, and a pick must
be used to dig in it
h. Finest part of soil, with some particles

not visible even under a microscope;
absorbs water very slowly, but will hold
water once absorbed and swell to more
than double its volume; becomes very
sticky when wet, and when it loses
water it cracks and forms hard lumps;
usually yellow, red, or white
AQ-235
TEST
8. Select facts about soil considerations in site selection. Write the correct numbers
in the blanks.
a. What are the best soils for fish culture?
1) Sandy clay, silty clay loam, clay loam

2) Peat loam, inorganic silt
3) Sandy loam, organic clay, silty peat
b. What soil quality makes a site suitable for a pond?
1) Fast infiltration rate

2) Good water retention
3) Permeable soil
c. What soil considerations make a site unsuitable for a dike pond?
1) Slow seepage, sandy clay or clay loam soils

2) Slow infiltration, silty clay loam soil
3) Rock outcroppings, sandstone or organic soils
d. What can be done if not enough clay is present at the pond site?
1) Soil in pond basin can be compacted over a 2 week period

2) Pond basin can be plated (cored) with trucked-in clay
3) Pond basin can be covered with 4 mil polyethylene
e. What is the primary soil characteristic to look for in watershed soils?
1) Good friability
2) Good permeability
3) Slow infiltration rate
f. After you have chosen a site, why is it important to learn the history of
the soil?
1) Pesticide residues can remain in the soil.

2) The soil may not contain sufficient nutrients.
3) Soil may have been leached of important minerals.
9. Select facts about topographical considerations in site selection. Write the correct
a. What type of ponds are most restricted by topography?
1) Levee
2) Excavated
3) Hill
24 9
236
TEST
b. What topogr.7hy makes the best site for ponds?
1) Flatland
2) Wetland
3) Hill
c. What topography requires the least dirt to be moved?
1) Flatland
2) Wetland
3) Hill
d. Can wasteland and land considered marginal for field crops be used?
1) Yes
2) No
3) Only after expensive reclamation
e. What topographical area should be avoided?
1) Flatlands with slopes of 3 percent or under

2) Wetlands
3) Low-lying areas of floodplains
f. How does the topography around ponds affect drainage?
1) It doesn't affect drainage as drainage canals can be constructed.

2) It should permit drainage by gravity flow.
3) It should be higher than pond surface.
q. Where should the proposed drainpipe be situated in relation to existing

waterways?
1) Lower than any rivers, bayous, or drainage ditches

2) Higher than any rivers, bayous, or drainage ditches
3) At same level as any rivers, bayous, or drainage ditches
h. Why should you avoid damming creeks and large, deep draws?
1) Dam may blow out

2) Silt-in rapidly
3) Both 1 and 2
10. Select from a list general facts to consider in site selection. Write an "X" in the
blank before each true statement.
a. If fish culture is to become a primary source of income, make sure that

enough land is available for expansion.
b. If water must be used elsewhere, such as for irrigation or fire protection,

locate the pond site as close to the major water use as possible
25 0
AQ-237
e c.
TEST
Beware of areas where natural phenomena such as hurricanes, floods,

or fog occur regularly
d. Apply for permits to access the site to major roads, and evaluate the
condition of the roadways that will be used by heavy trucks
e. Locate power and telephone lines at least 1 mile from the pond site
to avoid fish loss due to accidental electrical shock
f. Think about the site's proximity to available markets, feed suppliers,

and medical and chemical supplies
g. Choose a pond site on which the pond can be located to the best
advantage of the prevailing wind direction
h. If possible, protect against theft and poaching by choosing a site where

the ponds are visible.
11. List seven site-specific factors that determine costs.
12. Select from a list laws, regulations, and permits required to develop a site for fish
farming. Write an "X" in the blank before each true statement.
a. You may need to obtain a permit from the State Department of Natural
Resources before drilling a well.
b. You will need a permit from the U.S. Soil Conservation Service before
diverting, damming, or altering the course of a spring.
c. You must secure legal right of way from the Department of

Transportation for access to market roadways.
d. Wells that pump over a certain capacity per day may be required to
be registered with the State Department of Water Resources.
e. You need a permit from the Environmental Protection Agency to

discharge pond water over a certain capacity per day.
238
TEST
f. You must notify the utility company arm get permission to dig if above
ground or underg:-Dund cables or fines for power, natural gas, or water
exist on the proposed site.
_9. The Provision of the Food Security Act of 1985 that discourages the
conversion of wetlands for agricultural production, including fish culture,
is called The Marshbuster.
h. If you convert wetlands to fish ponds without the necessary permits, you
may lose your eligibility for certain USDA programs on all the land you
farm.
I. You need a permit to convert wetland to fish production; it can be

obtained from the U.S. Soil Conservation Service.
I. Know the local laws regarding poaching and trespassing.
k. You must obtain a water quality certification permit by the EPA or state
department of environmental quality before you will be issued a Section
404 construction permit
(NOTE: If the following activities have not been accomplished prior to the test, ask your
13. Survey a site's potential as a fish farm. (Assignment Sheet #1)
14. Evaluate a potential site's soil quality. (Assignment Sheet #2)
15. Evaluate a potential site's water sources and quality. (Aisignment Sheet #3)
16. Complete a checklist to determine a site's feasibility. (Assignment Sheet #4)
252
AQ-239
SITE SELECTION
UNIT V
ANSWERS TO TEST
1. a. 6 1. 2
b. 14 j. 4
c. 1 k. 13
d. 11 I. 9
e. 5 m. 10
f. 3 n. 8
g. 12 o. 15
h. 7
2. a. Adequate supply of good-quality water

b. Subsoils that hold water
c. Suitable topography
3. Wells
a, c, e, g
Spring water
c, d
Surface runoff
b, c, f
Surface water from rivers, reservoirs, lakes, bayous, canals

b, d, e
4. a. Analyze the water during site selection to determine whether its quality is
suitable for fish production.
b. Select a location where drainage from farmsteads, feedlots, corrals, sewage
lines, mine dumps, and similar areas cannot reach the pond.
c. Select a location free from industrial runoff or direct discharge of industrial
waster into water source.
d. Note potential contaminating activities in the surrounding watershed.
5. a. 1 f. 3
b. 3 g. 1
c. 2 h. 3
d. 2 i. 3
e. 1 j. 2
6. b, d
253
240
ANSWERS TO TEST
7. a. 5 e. 6
b. 8 f. 2
C. 1 9. 7
d. 3 h. 4
8. a. 1 d. 2
b. 2 e. 3
c. 3 f. 1
9. a. 3 e. 3
b. 1 f. 2
c. 1 g. 2
d. 1 h. 3
10. a, b, d, f, g, h
11. Answer should contain any seven of the following
a. Topography
b. Depth to groundwater
c. Location of energy source
d. Size and shape of ponds
e. Size of farm
f. Enterprise chosen
g. Type of production method planned
h. Type of soil
i. Soil conditions
j. Dirt to be moved and vegetation to be cleared
k. Whether land is owned or purchased
12. a, d, f, h, j, k
13.-16. Evaluated to the satisfaction of the instructor
254
AQ-241
FACILITY DESIGN AND LAYOUT

UNIT VI
UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completion of this unit, the student should be able to design and lay out a pond for
fish farming and estimate water, construction, and earthmoving costs for a typical
enterprise. These competencies will be evidenced by correctly completing the procedures
outlined in the assignment and job sheets, and by scoring a minimum of 85 percent on
the unit test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Match terms related to facility design altzl!ayout with their correct definitions.
2. Match basic types of farm water enclosures with their characteristics.
3. ljst facility requirements for food-fish prodintion.
4. List facility requirements for channel catfish fingerling production.
5. List facility requirements for rainbow trout fingerling produchon.
6. List facility requirements for fee-fish operation.
7. Arrange in order initial steps in planning an on-site processing facility.
8. list facility requirements for an on-site processing facility.
9. List factors to consider when planning pond size.
10. Complete statements about layout and design considerations.
11. Distinguish between advantages of small versus large ponds.
12. Estimate water requirements. (Assignment Sheet #1)
13. Calculate common earth pond construction requirements. (Assignment. Sheet

#2)
14. Design and lay out a pond. (Assignment Sheet #3)
15. Determine costs of local well drilling, earthmoving, and construction services.
255
242
OBJECTIVE SHEET
16. Complete a feasibility study of a selected site by estimating construction costs.

17. Demonstrate the ability to construct a cage for fish culture. (Job Sheet #1)
256
-
AQ-243

UNIT VI
SUGGESTED ACTWITIES
A. Schedule a member of the U.S. Soil Conservation Service to speak to the class
on facility design, layout, and construction factors, particularly as related to
Assignment Sheets #1-#3.
B. Make transparencies and set up overhead projector.
C. Gather equipment and materials necessary for completing the job sheet.
D. Read unit and prepare your teaching strategy.
E. At first class period, provide students with objective sheet. Discuss unit and specific
objectives.
F. Provide student . with information sheet and selected handouts. Discuss each
section of the information sheet, providing supplemental information from your own
experience and resources. Tailor the information to fit the situations of the
individuals in the class.
G. Give unit test after presenting and discussing information sheet material.
H. Provide students with assignment and job sheets.
I. Discuss and schedule assignment sheets.
The information necessary to calculate water volumes in Assignment Sheet

#1 lends itself to mini hands-on sessions. Involve the students actively in
this assignment. You may want to show the students an engineer's transit,
for instance, and explain its operation. Then allow the students to use the
transit, chaining, and pacing to measure an area. If you have a pond on
your campus, allow the students to actually measure it to find its average
depth. When discussing flow rates, have the students measure the flow rate
of a classroom or facility spigot.
Have your guest speaker from the U.S. Soil Conservation Service talk to the
class about construction requirements before they complete Assignment Sheet
#2.
Assign and discuss Assignment Sheet #3 well in advance of its due date.
This assignment requires planning and thoroughness. Students will take
great pride in their finished layout and design plans. If there are a number
of fish farms in your area, you might want to take the students to some of
thain so that they can compare the various layouts.
After students have completed Assignment Sheets #4 and #5, have them
discuss and coMpare their results with other members of the class.
e J. Explain and demonstrate procedures in the job sheet.
257
244
K. Schedule job sheet completion and evaluation dates.
L. Evaluate job sheet performance with Practical Test #1.
M. Give written test.
A. Beem, Marley. "Building Cages for Fish Farming," Extension Extra. 12002, F &
F 9.1. South Dakota State University Cooperative Extension Service. May, 1987.
B. Carroll, Cecil. Cage Fish Farming Handbook. El Reno, Oklahoma: Carroll's Fish
Farm, 1987.
C. Catfish Aquaculture: A Decision-making Guidebook. Baton Rouge, Louisiana.

Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service/Louisiana State University Agriculture!
Center, 1987.
D. Catfish Farming. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983.
E. Coche, A.G. Water for Freshwater Aquaculture. Rome. Food and Agriculture
F. Dupree, Harry K., and Jay V. Huner. "Pond Culture Systems" in Third Report to
the Fish Farmers: The Status of Warmwater Fish Farming and Progress in Fish
Farming Resinrch. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984.
G. Jensen, Gary L. Commercial Production of Farm-Raised 13atfish. Baton Route,

Louisiana. Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service/Louisiana State Agricultural
Center, 4/1988.
H. Jensen, Gary L. Handbook for Common Calculations in Finfish Aquaculture. Baton

Rouge Louisiana. Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service/Louisiana Agricultural
Center, 8/1988.
I. PondsPlanning, Design, Construction. tinriculture Handbook No. 590.

Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Agriculture/Soil Conservation
Service, 1982.
J. Sedgwick, S. Drummond. Trout Farming Handbook. London. Seeley, Service &

Co., 1973.
K. Stevenson, Jo;in P. Trout Farming Manual. Farnham, Surrey, England. Fishing

News Books Limited, 1980.
L. Wellborn, Thomas L. Catfish Farmer's Handbook. Mississippi State University/

U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1987.
258
AQ-245
to UNIT VI
INFORMATION SHEET
A. Intensive production Raising of fish in densities higher than could be

supported in the natural environment; requires feeding of formulated feeds
B. Extensive production Raising of fish in low densities in ponds where the

iish feed primarily on natural feeds
(NOTE: While with extensive production, per-unit production may be small,

farmers using this method achieve substantial production in large bodies of
water such as reservoirs.)
C. Levee Earth dike used to enclose water
(NOTE: The main difference between a levee and a dam is that a dam lies
perpendicular to the main axis of flow in the valley to be impounded.)
D. Impound To gather and enclose water for fish pond or irrigation
E. Overflow pipe Vertical pipe placed in tank so that top is at desired water
height; water above this height drains from the tank
411 F. Agitator Mechanism for stirring up and thus aerating water in hatching
tanks and troughs
G. Baffle Device such as a screen that interferes with water flow, thus stirring
up and aerating the water
EXAMPLE: Baffles are used on the edges of egg trays in trout incubators
to aerate the eggs.
H. Seine Harvesting net
I. Live car Seine attached to harvesting seine and used to crowd, grade,
and hold fish in the pond
J. Freeboard Distance between pond surface and top of levees or dam;

generally between 1 and 2 feet
II. Characteristics of basic types of farm water enclosures
A. Earth ponds
1. Impoundment pond Irregularly shaped basin created by clamming

water that would normally run off
2. Excavated pond Regularly shaped basin on flat or gently sloping

land created by removing earth and using it to build embankments or
levees
259
246
INFORMAT!ON SHEET
3. Levee pond Usually square or rectangular enclosure constructed

by building earth dikes (levees) to contain water; the pond bottom is
above or nearly level with the surrounding soil
B. Fabricated pnds or rearing units
1. Circular concrete rearing unit Medium-sized rearir.; It into which

water enters through a jet at the side and leaves thr, h a conte-
overflow pipe; the body of the water is kept in rotation; because the
water is rapidly and continuously exchanged it is possible to mlture very
high densities of fish; typical diameter is 16 feet with a water depth of
4 feet
2. Rectangular concrete rearing unit Small regular rearing unit

typically 100 feet long, 40 feet wide, and 8 feet deep; used for fingerl-
ing or hobby fish or for holding pond
3. Raceway Sloping series of narrow concrete units in which a frequent

interchange of vrater is possible by maintaining a fast rate of water flow
down the length of the units; a typical ratio of depth to width to length
would be 1:3:30
(NOTE: Raceway systems are widely used for trout production. When
they are used for catfish culture, they require more intensive manage-
ment than earthen pond culture.)
C. Tanks, vats, and other enclosures
1. Holding tank or vat Made of galvanized metal, concrete block,

poured concrete, or fiberglass, these enclosures are used to grade
fish into size classes, hold fish for sale, as temporary storage, and to
segregate diseased fish for treatment; sizes vary, but 30 feet long by
4 feet wide by 3 feet deep is typical.
2. Hatching /fry trough Made of marine plywood, metal, or fiberglass,

these enclosures are typically 10, 12, or 15 feet long, 20 inches wide,
and 10 inches or more deep; the water is kept in motion with agitators
that circulate it among the fish eggs, which rest in the water on trays.
(NOTE: Paddlewheel agitators are used with catfish eggs as the

fanning action imitates that of the male catfish. The trays in trout
hatching troughs have baffles that ensure circulation among the eggs.)
3. Spawning pens Used to confine spawning pairs, these 5 by 10 foot

enclosures are made of heavy-duty vinyl-covered wire with a 2 inch
mesh, and steel or treated wooden posts; they have no top or bottom,
and are placed to extend from the pond bank into 2 feet of water, with
their .vire mesh sides embedded in the pond bottom.
260
AQ-247
INFORMATION SHEET
4. Floating cages Floated in ponds and used for grow-out, these net
units may be round, squat'e, or rectangular; they are made of
noncorrosive materials such as vinyl-covered wire, plastic and aluminum,
and range in size from about 3 feet by 3 feet to 8 feet by 8 feet
(NOTE: Sometimes large floating cages are called "pens.")
III. Facility requirements for food-fish production
A. Pond or raceway of appropriate size for present and future needs
B. Valves, screens, pumps, and other fixtures necessary for water control
C. Drainage system
D. Road sys:am that allows for movement of vehicles when mowing, stocking,
aerating, and harvesting
E. Small storage and utility buildings, feed storage bins
IV. Facility requirements for channel catfish fingerling production
NOTE: Fingerling producers frequently raise their own broodfish. Most of the
facilities and equipment - :eded for broodfish production are interchangeable with
food fish and fingerling production, though broodfish operations are generally not
as large as fingerling or food fish operations.
A. Broodfish holding ponds of 1 acre or less to maintain broodfish between

spawning seasons
B. Spawning pond of 1 to 5 acres, or spawning pens
C. Spawning nests
D. Hatching and fry troughs or fry ponds, depending on the method of hatching
desired
E. Rearing ponds for growing fry into fingerlings
F. Holding vats of various sizes
G. Drainage, storage, and road systems as for food fish production
V. Facility requirements for rainbow trout production
A. Longitudinal raceway for holding broodfish
B. Divided raceway so that males and females can be separated when they near
spawning condition
0g1
Ail:a.
248
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Hatching trough with tray hatching system, or hatching jars, depending on

preference
D. Small rearing troughs to handle fry to 2.5 inches
E. Raceways for rearing fish 2.5 inches and over
F. Settling basin for effluent that will settle out solids before release
G. Hatchery building with tank room, incubation room, some feed storage, and
general storage
H. Garage and shop build/1g
I. Feed storage building or bins
VI. Facility requirements for fee-fish operation
NOTE: The requirements for fee-fish ponds vary somewhat from those required
for food fish and fingerling production because the farmer is dealing with the
public. Sport anglers like pleasant surroundings, and attractiveness is important.
In addition to the facility requirements below, the operator must have good liability
insurance and a reliable source of fish.
A. Drainable pond(s) in area with attractive vegetation and with shade available
near the water
B. Drainage system
C. Fishing piers and platforms
D. All-weather parking facilities
E. Bait, tackle, food, and drink concession stands, if not using vending machines
F. Fish cleaning tables
G. Restrooms
VII. Steps in planning an on-site processing facility
NOTE: At this time, the federal government has no health, sanitation, or grading
requirements for processed fish products. States do, however, have sanitary
requirements that a processor must meet.
A. Find out if your county has planning and zoning laws; if it does, you may
need a minimum-sized parcel of land, or you may need to make legal
notification of your plans to build a facility.
262
AQ-249
INFORMATLA SHEET
B. Contact your county health and sanitation officer and discuss your plans to
learn the specific requirements needed in the design of your facility.
C. Draw up plans (you don't need an architect) for the facility and send or take
them to the state health office for approval.
D. Build your facility according to approved plans.
E. Receive final approval from state inspector.
VIII. Facility requirements for on-site processing

A. Enclosed structure with a concrete floor and wash-down walls
B. Lagoon for waste
C. Potable water system
D. Running water or aeration system
E. Three-basin sink and drain system
F. Covered light fixtures
G. Handwashing sink
IX. Pond size considerations

A. Slope and size of site available
B. Whether rotation of fish and land crops is planned
(NOTE: If crop rotation is anticipated, the area must be large enough to

economically use machinery in harvesting the land crop such as soybeans
or rice.)
C. The supply of good-quality water
D. Marketing demands and harvesting conditions
(NOTE: Is the equipment available to harvest a large quantity of fish at one

time? Is there a market available for a large quantity of fish? A general rule
of thumb is to have no ponds larger than can be harvested and processed
in a relatively short time with the equipment available.)
E. The economics of construction
(NOTE: Large ponds cost less per acre to construct than smaller ones, yet
while there is more surface area for aeration by wind, such water movement
makes levee or dam erosion a serious problem with large ponds.)
263
250
INFORMATION SHEET
F. Management capabilities
(NOTE: If parasites or diseases break out in a large pond, they are more
difficult to control and the resulting losses can be large. Small ponds of 1
to 5 acres provide more flexibility for management, can be drained and
refilled more quickly, allow for more gradual harvest, and allow for easier
treatment of disease and parasites.)
X. Pond layout and design considerations
A. Lay out for maximum efficiency of production for the type of program to be
follow3d.
EVAMPLES: In the layout of growing ponds, consideration should be given

to the source of fingerlingswhether produced or purchased.
Fingerling production requires three types of ponds: holding,
spawning, and rearing. These ponds usually occupy only a
small percentage of the total land in food-fish production. A
portion of the acreage in ponds is occupied by the levees;
therefore, the acreage of water in each pond is less than 10
acres. (Figure 1)
FIGURE 1
Area tor
drowirig Potid -4ibwing'Pond Storage
.(:16 aCnis) ':(10 dcresy and
Handling
Facilities
(13.3 acres)
'Growing Porld' , Lrowing. Pond:. ,Rearing Pond

(10 der's* (I a0e0 ,(4:4
Spawning Pond Holding Pond

(.75 acres) (.30 acres)
Food Fish Production 40.0 Acres

Rearing Pond 4.4 "
Spawning Pond .75 "
Holding Pond .30 "
Storage &Handling 13.3 "
TOTAL 58.75 Acres
AQ-251
INFORMATION SHEET
B. Shape pond to take into consideration the economics of construction and

harvesting.
(NOTE: A square pond requires less levee than a rectangular pond for the
same number of water acres, thus, it is more economical to construct.
Economy of harvesting, however, usually favors rectangular ponds because
less seine is required. Feeding from the dam is also facilitated by rectangular
ponds. Impoundment ponds follow the contours of the land, and thus have
irregular bottoms and shorelines that make harvesting difficult.)
C. If possible, construct ponds next to each other, so that both sides of the
levee function to hold water, thus reducing costs of construction per acre of
water.
D. Plan for maximum utilization of water supplies and drainage facilities. (Figure
2)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 2: Typical Pond and Facility Layout for a Commercial

Catfish Farm
Dr tnage Ditch
.1,.... *.----1-----
wells
/ water supply pipe
I Drain pipe
_____ -.-._._>.
0 feed bin
nStorage/Service
-76 \-----
Building
Not drawn to scale
4 s.-----1-1;a nag I Ditch I
From Commercial Production of Farm-Raised Catfish by Gary L. Jensen. With permission.
E. Locate the well head at a high elevation to avoid any flood water and to
take advantage of gravity flow through the supply pipes.
F. Locate wat3r lines at shallow end of pond where fish will be harvested and
at end opposite drain.
G. Lay out water lines to minimize the length of pipe from the well head of each
pond.
(NOTE. In order to minimize pipe length from the well head, wells are usually
located where the levees of four ponds intersect. See Figure 2.)
265
252
INFORMATION SHEET
H. Lay out pond(s) to permit independent draining of each by gravity flow.
I. Building ponds in series conserves water and requires less construction;

however, a parallel arrangement is usually bez-, since when ponds are built
in series whatever is in the upper ponds eventually finds its way into the
lower pondsincluding diseases, pollution, and unwanted organisms.
Xl. Advantages of small versus large ponds
A. Small ponds
1. Are easier and quicker to harvest
2. Can be drained and refilled more quickly
3. Are easier to treat disease, apply fertilizer, feed fish, etc.
4. Result in less financial loss if stock is lost
5. Have banks that are less subject to wind erosion
6. Offer safety factors if several ponds are constructed and disease strikes
one pond
7. Permit segregation of breeders, fish of different sizes, etc.
8. Permit more simultaneous experimentation
B. Laige ponds
1. Require less construction cost per area since less soil must be moved
to achieve equal surface area
2. Take up less space per area of water surface
3. Are more subject to wind aeration
4. Can be used to alternate fish and land crops, if levee pond
266
AQ-253
Typical Plot Plan 160-Acre

Catfish Farm
,
2640' (1/2 MILE)
41/4
.04-- 660. 660' DIRECTION

OF SLOPE
POND POND
POND CNJ
2 01 4
1 r-
ACCESS ROAD
I V
INLET
?
6'110P WIDTH
/
WATER
WELL 12' TOP WIDTH
POND POND
POND 8
5 7
+
0 \ <,..0
+
DRAIN
/
NOT TO SCALE
From Catfish Aquaculture by Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service. With pEirmission.
267
TM 1
AQ-255
Pond Detail, 20 Acres

OUTSIDE LEVEE TOE-I
I
--
DRAIN
0
I
I I
I
1
I
I
DEEP END
I I
WATER DEPTH: 4.1' - 6.0'
I
I
I
I
WATER LINE I
I
I
INSIDE TOE OF LEVEE I
I
I UNDERWATER I I
I
I
TOP OF LEVEE, 12' WIDE, I
GRAVELLED ROAD I I
I
SURFACE, EQUAL
I
ELEVATION ALL I
I AROUND POND I
I
660' I
I
I
WATER SURFACE AREA I
I APPROX. 17 ACRES I
I
I
CROSS SLOPE: 0 I
I
I
DIRECTION OF I
I
I 2 SLOPE I I
3
SLOPE: 0.1' / 100'
I
OR 021 100' 1 I
I
I
I
I
SHALLOW END I I
I WATER DEPTH 3.0' TO 4.0' I

I
I
I
I
WATER 1
I
INLET
----- WATER LINE VALVE I I
/ 1-_
ACCESS ROAD 16 TOP
---1=-11 lit NOT TO SCALE ill 111-'

From Catfish Aquaculture by Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service. With permission.
268
TM 2
Cross Section of a Typical Levee
FRONT OF LEVEE 10' - 16'

4:1 OR 3:1 SLOPE MINIMUM
un.r.w.. ALL-WEATHER ROAD
WATER 1' TO 2' FREEBOARD BACK OF LEVEE
4:1 OR 3:1 SLOPE
CORE TRENCH
1-
'MAY NOT BE NEEDED IF CLAY CORE* BASE 1/3

SOIL IS SUITABLE WIDTH OF LEVEE BASE
From Catfish Aquacufture by Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service. Wrth permission.
i'7; Rri
AQ-259

UNIT VI
HANDOUT #1 -- AQUACULTURE CONVERSION TABLES
TABLE 1: Miscellaneous Aquaculture Conversions
1 acre-foot 43,560 cubic feet

1 acre-foot 325,850 gallons
1 acre-foot of water 2,718,144 pounds
1 cubic-foot of water 62.4 pounds
1 gallon of water 8.34 pounds
1 gallon of water 3,785 grams
1,000 grams
1 liter of water
1 fluid ounce 29.57 grams

1.043 ounces
1 fluid ounce
1 grain per gallon 17.1 milligrams/liter

1 gram
1 milliliter of water
1 cubic meter of water 1 metric ton
1 quart of water 946 grams
1 teaspoon 4.9 mil!iliters
1 tablespoon 14.8 milliliters
1 cup 8 ounces
1 acre foot/day of water 226.3 gallons/minute
1 acre-inch/day of water 18.9 gallons/minute
1 acre-irch/hour of water 452.6 gallons/minute
1 second foot of water 448.8 gallons/minute
1 cubic foot/second of water 448.8 gallons/minute
1 foot of water
0.43 pounds/square inch
1 foot of water 0.88 inch of mercury (HG)
1 horsepower 550 foot-pounds/second
I horsepower 745.7 watts
1 kilowatt
1,000 watts
1 kilowatt 1.34 horsepower
1 hectare 10,000 square meters
1 hectare 2.47 acres
1 acre 4,048 square meters
With
All tables in this handout from Handbook for Common Calculations in Finfish Aquaculture by Gary L. Jensen
permission.
270
260
HANDOUT #1
TABLE 2: Conversions for Units of Weight

TO
FROM
gm kg gr oz lb
gm 1 0.001 15.43 0.0353 0.0022
kg 1000 1 1.54 x 104 35.27 2.205
gr 0.0648 6.48 x 10 1 0.0023 1.43 x 104

oz 28.35 0.0284 437.5 1 0.0625
lb 453.6 0.4536 7000 16 1
gm = gram; kg = kilogram; gr = grain; oz = ounce; lb = pound
TABLE 3: Conversions for Units of Length
FROM TO
cm m in. ft. yd.

cm 1 0.01 0.3937 0.0328 0.0109
m 100 1 39.37 3.281 1.0936
in. 2.540 0.0254 1 0.0833 0.0278
ft. 30.48 0.3048 12 1 0.3333
yd. 91.44 0.9144 36 3 1
cm = centimeter; m = meter; in. = inches; ft. = foot; yd. = yard
TABLE 4: Conversion for Units of Volume.

FROM
cm' liter m' in.' ft.' U. oz. fl. pt. II. qt. gal
cm' 1 0.001 1 x 10 0.0610 3.53 x 10s 0.0338 0.00211 0.00106 2.64 x 104
hter 1000 1 0.001 60.98 0.0353 33.81 2.113 1.057 0.2642
m' 1 x 10' 1000 1 6.1 x 104 5.31 3.38 x 10' 2113 1057 264.2
in.' 16.39 0.0164 1.64 x 10s 1 5.79 x 10-' 0.5541 0.0346 0.0173 0.0043
ft.' 2.83 x 104 28.32 0.0283 1728 1 957.5 59.84 29.92 7.481
fl. oz. 29.57 0.0296 2.96 x 10 s 1.805 0.00104 1 0.06.::. 0.0313 0.0078
H. pt. 473.2 0.4732 4.72 x 10 28.88 0.0167 16 1 0.5000 0.1250
0. qt. 946.4 0.9463 9.46 x 10'' 57.75 0.0334 32 2 1 0.2500
gal. 3185 3.785 0.0038 231.0 0.1337 128 8 4 1
cm' cubic centimeter . milliliter ml; cubic meter; in.' cubic inch; It. cubic foot, fl. oz.. fluid ounce.
H. pt.. fluid pint; fl. qt.. fluid quart; gal. gallon
271
AQ-261

UNIT Vi
HANDOUT #2 WATER REQUIREMENT AND EARTH CONSTRUCTION TABLES
TABLE 1: Water Flow Rates Equivalent to Acre-feet of Water per Day'
Flow Rate Acre-Feet

(gpm) Per Day
50 0.22
100 0.44
200 0.88
300 1.33
400 1.77
500 2.21
750 3.31
1,000 4.42
1,500 6.63
2,000 8.84
2,500 11.05
3,000 13.26
4.000 17.68
5,000 22.09
1N/a hes are not corrected for precipitation, evaporation, and seepage.
TABLE 2: Guide to Recommended Well Casing Sizes for Various Pumping Rates
Anticipated Nominal Size Smallest Size Optimum Size

Well Yield of Pump Bowls Well Casing Well Casing
(gpm) (Inches) (Inches)* (Inches)
150 to 400 6 8 ID 10 ID
350 to 650 8 10 ID 12 ID
600 to 900 10 12 ID 14 OD
850 to 1,300 12 14 OD 16 OD
1,200 to 1,800 14 16 OD 20 OD
1,600 to 3,000 16 20 OD 24 OD
*ID refers to inside diameter and OD refers to outside diameter. Consult

with local water well drillers for specific recommendations for your area.
2'22
262
HANDOUT #2
to
TABLE 3: Estimated Pond Filling Time in Days at Different Pumping Rates'
Pond Size Pumping Rate (gpm)

(acres)
200 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 3,000
1 4.5 1.8 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.3
2 9 3.6 1.8 1.2 0.9 0.6
=
.., 23 9 4.5 3 Q3 1.5
10 45 18 9 6 4.5 3
20 90 36 18 12 9 6
'Assume average water depth of 4 feet. Does not include losses or gains from rainfall,
seepage or evaporation.
TABLE 4: Estimated Average Discharge Rates for Short Drainpipes in Fish Ponds
of Various Sizes with Low Head Pressure'
Diameter of Pipe Approximate Discharge

(Inches) (gpm)
4 120
6 350
8 600
10 1,000
12 1,600
14 2,400
TABLE 5: Approximate Discharge Rates from Deep Wells of Various Sizes.
Well Size Maximum Discharge

(Inches) (gpm)
4 90
6 400
8 600
10 1,000
12 2,000
Tab Ifis 1-5 from Handbook for Common Calculations in Fin fish Acit aculture by Gary L. Jensen. With permisston.
2:?3
o
A0-263
e HANDOUT #2
TABLE 6: Natural Soil Seepage Losses
Natural Soil Seepage Losses

Type (In./day)
Sand 1 to 10
Sandy loam 0.52 to 3
Loam 0.32 to 0.8
Clayey loam 0.1 to 0.8
Loamy clay 0.01 to 0.2
Clay 0.05 to 0.4
TABLE 7: Puddled Soil Seepage Losses
Puddled Soil Seepage Losses

Type (In./day)
Sandy loam 0.12 to 0.24

Loam 0.08 to 0.12
Clayey loam 0.04 to 0.08
Loamy clay about 0.04
Clay about 0.04
274
-
AQ-265

UNIT VI
HANDOUT #3 - END AREAS AND FILL HEIGHTS
TABLE 1: End Areas (in Ft2) of Embankment Sections for Different Side Slopes
and Crown Widths'
Side slopes Crown width (ft)
Fin 2.5:1 2.5:1 3.1 3.5:1 4:1

Height 2 5:1 3:1 3.1 3.5:1 4:1 8 10 12 14 1G
(ft) 2:1 2:1 2.5:1 3:1 3:1

3:1 3.5:1 3.5:1 4:1 5:1
1.0 3 3 3 4 4 8 10 12 14 16
1.2 4 4 4 5 6 10 12 14 17 19
1.4 5 5 6 7 8 11 14 17 20 22
1.6 6 7 8 9 10 13 16 19 22 26
1.8 8 9 10 11 13 14 18 22 25 29
2.0 10 11 12 14 16 16 20 24 28 32
2.2 12 13 15 17 19 18 22 27 31 35
2.4 14 16 17 20 23 19 24 29 34 39
2.6 17 19 20 24 27 21 26 31 36 42
2.8 20 22 ?.3 27 31 22 28 34 39 45
3.0 22 25 27 32 30 36 42 as
3.2 26 28 31 36 34? 2264 32 38 45 51
3.4 29 32 35 40 46 27 34 41 47 55
3.6 32 36 39 45 52 29 36 43 50 58
3.8 36 40 43 50 58 30 38 46 53 61
4.0 40 44 48 56 64 32 40 as 56 64
42 44 49 53 62 71 34 42 50 59 67
4.4 as 53 58 ss 77 35 44 53 61 71
4.6 53 58 63 74 85 37 46 55 64 74
4.8 57 63 69 81 92 38 as 57 67 77
5.0 62 69 75 87 100 40 50 so 70 ea
5.2 67 74 81 94 108 42 52 62 73 83
5.4 73 80 87 102 117 43 54 65 75 87
5.6 78 86 94 110 125 45 56 67 78 so
58 84 93 101 118 135 46 58 69 81 93
6.0 so 99 108 126 144 48 so 72 84 96
62 96 106 115 135 154 50 62 74 87 99
6.4 102 113 123 143 164 51 64 77 89 103
6.6 109 123 131 152 174 53 66 79 92 106
68 116 128 139 162 185 54 68 81 95 109
7.0 123 135 147 172 196 56 70 84 98 112
7.2 130 143 156 182 207 58 72 86 101 115
7.4 138 152 165 193 219 59 74 8c 103 119
7.6 145 159 174 203 231 61 76 91 106 122
7.8 153 168 183 214 243 62 78 93 109 125
8.0 160 176 192 224 256 64 80 96 112 128
8.2 169 185 202 235 269 66 82 98 115 131
8.6 186 204 222 259 296 69 86 103 120 138
8.4 177 194 212 247 282 67 84 101 117 135
8.8 194 213 232 271 310 70 88 105 123 141
9.0 203 223 243 283 324 72 90 108 126 144
9.2 212 233 254 296 339 74 92 110 129 147
9.4 222 244 266 310 353 75 94 113 131 151
9.6 231 254 277 323 369 77 96 115 134 154
9.8 241 265 289 337 384 78 98 117 13" 157
10.0 250 275 300 350 400 80 100 120 140 163
10.2 260 286 313 364 416 102 122 143 163
10.4 271 298 325 379 433 104 125 145 167
10.6 281 309 338 394 449 106 127 148 170
10.8 292 321 350 409 467 108 129 151 173
11.0 302 333 363 424 484 110 132 154 176
11.2 313 344 376 440 502 112 134 157 179
11.4 325 357 390 456 520 114 137 159 183
11.6 336 370 404 472 538 116 139 162 186
11 8 348 333 418 488 557 118 141 165 189
12.0 360 396 432 504 576 120 144 168 192
12.2 372 409 447 522 595 122 146 171 195
Continued on next page.
2, 7 5
266
HANDOUT #3
TABLE 1 Continued
Side slopes Crown width ftt)

Fill 2.5:1 2.5:1 3.1 3.5:1 4:1
Height 2 5:1 3:1 3.1 3 5:1 4:1 8 10 12 14 16
(ft) 2:1 2:1 2.5:1 3:1 3:1
3:1 3.5:1 3.5:1 4:1 5:1
114 385 424 462 539 615 124 149 173 i 99

12.6 397 437 477 557 635 126 151 176 202
12.8 410 451 492 574 656 128 153 179 205
13.0 422 465 507 592 676 130 156 182 208
13.2 436 479 523 610 697 132 158 185 211
13.4 449 494 539 629 718 134 161 187 215
13.6 463 509 555 648 740 136 163 190 218
13.8 476 523 571 667 762 138 166 193 221
14.0 490 539 588 686 784 140 168 196 224
14 2 505 555 605 706 807 142 170 199 227
14.4 519 570 622 726 829 144 173 202 230
14.6 534 586 639 746 853 146 175 204 234
14.8 548 602 657 767 876 148 178 207 237
15.0 363 619 675 788 900 150 180 210 240
15 2 578 635 693 809 924 152 182 213 243
15.4 594 653 711 330 949 154 185 216 246
15.6 609 669 730 852 973 166 187 218 250
15.8 625 687 749 874 999 158 190 221 253
16.0 640 704 768 896 1.024 160 192 224 256
16.2 656 722 787 919 1.051 194 227 259
16.4 673 740 807 942 1.076 197 230 262
16.6 689 758 827 965 1.102 199 232 266
16.8 706 776 847 988 1,129 202 235 269
17.0 723 795 867 1012 1.156 204 238 272
17.2 740 814 888 1.036 1.183 206 241 275
17.4 757 833 909 1.060 1,211 209 244 278
17.6 774 852 930 1084 1239 211 246 282
17.8 792 871 951 1.109 1.267 214 249 285
18.0 810 891 972 1.134 1.296 216 252 288
18.2 828 911 994 1.160 1225 218 255 291
18.4 846 931 1.016 1.186 1254 221 258 294
18 6 865 951 1.038 1.212 1.384 223 260 298
18.8 884 972 1.060 1.238 1.414 226 263 301
19.0 903 993 1A83 1264 1,444 228 266 304
19.2 922 1.014 1,106 1.291 1.475 230 269 307
19.4 941 1.035 1,129 1,318 1.505 233 272 310
19 6 960 1056 1,152 1245 1.537 235 274 314
19.8 980 1.078 1.176 1.372 1.568 238 277 317
20.0 1.000 1.100 1200 1.400 1.600 240 280 320
20.2 1020 1.122 1.224 1.428 1.632 242 283 323
20.4 1.04C 1.144 1248 1.457 1.665 245 286 326
20.6 1.061 1.167 1,273 1,486 1697 247 288 330
20.8 1.082 1.190 1.298 1215 1.731 250 291 333
21.0 1,103 1.213 1.323 1244 1,764 252 294 336
21.2 1,124 1,236 1248 1,574 1.798 254 297 339
21.4 1.145 1254 1.374 1.604 1,832 257 300 342
21.G 1.166 1.283 1.400 1.634 1266 259 302 346
21.8 1,188 1.307 1.426 1.664 1201 262 305 349
22.0 1210 1,331 1,452 1.694 :,936 264 308 352
22.2 1,232 1256 1,479 1.725 1271 266 311 355
22.4 1254 1.380 1.506 1,756 2.307 269 314 358
22.6 1,277 1,405 1.533 1.788 2,043 271 316 362
22.8 1200 1.430 1.560 1220 2,079 274 319 365
23.0 1.323 1,455 1.587 1,852 2.116 276 322 368
'To find the end area for any fill height, add te given under staked side slopes to that under the top width
for total section. Example: 64-foot fill, 3:1 front and back slopes, 14.foot top width - 123 plus 89, or 212
ft2 for the section. My combination of slopes that adds to 5, 6, 7 may be used. A combination of 3.5:1 front
and 2.5:1 back gives the same results as 3:1 front and back
AQ-267
HANDOUT #3
TABLE 2: Approximate Volume of Dirt to Fin a 1-Foot

Length Section of Levee of
Various Sizes on Flatland'
Slopes Total 6:12 Slopes Total 7:13

Levee
Height Top Widths Top Widths
12 14 16 18 20 12 14 16 18 20
(Feet)
5.00 5.37 5.74 6.11 6.48 5.46 5.83 6.20 6.57 6.94
5
5.32 5.70 6.09 6.47 6.86 5.82 6.20 6.59 6.97 7.36
5.2
6.04 6.44 6.84 7.24 6.18 6.58 6.98 7.38 7.78
5.4 5.64
5.97 6.39 6.80 7.22 7.63 6.55 6.97 7.38 7.80 8.21
5.6
6.32 6.75 7.17 7.60 8.03 6.94 7.37 7.80 8.23 8.66
5.8
6.67 7.11 7.56 8.00 8.44 7.33 7.78 8.22 8.67 9.11
6.0
7.03 7.49 7.95 8.40 8.86 7.74 8.20 8.66 9.12 9.58
6.2
7.87 8.34 8.82 9.29 8.15 8.63 9.10 9.58 10 05
6.4 7.40
7.77 8.26 8.75 9.24 9.73 8.58 9.07 9.56 10.05 1014
6.6
8.16 8.66 9.17 9.67 10.17 9.02 9.52 10.02 10.53 11.03
6.8
'Values represent cubic yards of dirt per linear foot of the length of the levee.
26:1 total slope equals a levee with inside and outside slopes each of 3:1.
37:1 total slope equals a levee with a 3:1 slope on one side and a 4:1 slope on the other
side.
From Handbook for Common Calculations in Rash Aquaculture by Gary L Jensen. With permission.
277
AQ-269

UNIT VI
go
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1 ESTIMATE WATER REQUIREMENTS
Before you begin to design a pond, you will need to know whether your water supply is
sufficient to fill the size pond you want to build, to fill the pond in a reasonable length of
time, to compensate for seepage and evaporation losses, and to be able to operate your
pond continuously throughout the year.
It is also helpful to measure the available water flow to estimate the number of days it
will take to fill ponds of various sizes so that you will have some idea of the combination
possible. You should also know how much water can be provided each day by the
available water flow. This information will help you plan the number of ponds to be built,
the number and size of the tanks and vats needed for holding and hatching, and will help
you plan for future expansion.
This assignment sheet is divided into two parts. In the first part, you will be given informa-
tion necessary to calculate water requirements. In the second part, you will be given some
realistic situations to allow you to practice calculating these requirements.
PART I
MEASURING
Distance can be measured in any of the following ways:
Engineer's transit using the transit to survey the area;
Chaining using a field tape, making sure to reset it at the proper location when
measuring a long distance, and keeping track of the number of times the tape length is
repeated per side; or
Pacing determining the number of strides or paces along a measured distance of 100
feet, dividing this by the average number of your paces in 100 feet and multiplying by 100
feet.
EXAMPLE. After pacing a measured 100 foot distance three times, you determine
that your average was 41 paces or steps per 100 feet. The number of
paces along one shoreline was 387 the first trial and 395 the second
trial. What is the length of the shoreline in feet?
1. Find the average number of paces by adding each trial and dividing by the
number of trials:
387 paces + 395 paces = 782 paces
782 = 391 average paces

2
273
270
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
2. Now substitute your known figures into the basic formula for measuring
distances by pacing:
Total Number of Paces in Unknown Distance x 100 ft = Distance in Feet

Average Number of Your Paces in 100 Feet
391
41 x 100 ft = 9.54 x 100 ft = 954 feet of shoreline.
ESTIMATING POND SURFACE AREA
Square pond Multiply two sides. (Surface Area = Side x Side)
Rectangular pond Multiply length times width. (Surface Area = L x W)
irregular pond with straight sides Divide pond into smaller areas that can be easily
calculated, and then add these areas to fin s. the total surface area.
1. Draw a plan of the surfauJ area of the pond.
2. Divide the plan into squares, rectangles, and right (90 degree) triangles:
(NOTE: When dividing the surface area of a large, irregular pond, it is helpful
to create an xy axis the length of the plan. You can use this axis as a
reference line along which to construct squares, rectangles, and triangles.
See Figure 1.)
FIGURE 1
5
1 1
14
_L y
2 1-3
From Water for Freshwater Aquaculture by A. G. Coche. Used with permission.
0.7c)
AS P
AQ-271
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
3. Calculate the area of each shape, using accurate length, width, base, and
height measurements.
To find the area of a square, multiply two sides.
Area = Side 1 x Side 2
S1
To find the area of a rectangle, multaply the length times the width.
Area = Length (L) x Width (W)
To find the area of a right (90 degree) triangle, multiply the base by the
height and divide by 2.
Area = Height (Hi x Base (B)

2
4. Add all calculated smaller areas to find the total surface area.
5. Use conversion table in Handout #1 to convert square feet to acres:
Irregular pond with curving side Approximate the curved part.
1. Draw a line across the curved section of the pond so that the part outside
the line is approximately the same as the part inside Figure 2:
280
272
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
FIGURE 2
1)
1 2
1
From Wver for Freshwater Aquaculture by A.G. Coche. Used with permission.
2. Calculate area or areas as you did for the irregular pond with straight sides.
(NOTE: If the pond is very irregular, use surveying methods to accurately

determine the pond's surface area.)
ESTIMATING WATER DEPTH
Empty small pond

1. Future water level is marked with strings stretched across pond and tied to
stakes at AB, CD, and EF.
2. Measure depth at several places along each string, and calculate average
water depth. Figure 3
FIGURE 3
_ __,- _
1 4
I
2 5
I
3e 6
B D F
Average Water Depth = 1 + 2 + 3 . +9

9
From Water for Freshwater Aquaculture by A.G. Cache. Used with permission.
Empty large pond

1. Set an engineer's transit at the elevation of the future water level or on the
lip of the overflow pipe.
2. Move the Philadelphia level rod to different locations throughout the pond.
281
AQ-273
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
3. Add the height measurements, and divide the total by the number of
measurement sites to determine the average depth.
Full, small, regular pond with a constant bottom slope from one end to the other
1. Work in teams, with a long pole with yardsticks attached end to end.
2. Wade into the pond or use a boat, and take depth measurements at the five
points shown in Figure 4.
3. Calculate the average of these measurements.
FIGURE 4
r *1
2
Average Depth = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
5
From Water for Freshwater AquawIture by A.G. Coche. Used with permission.
Full, large, regular-shaped pond with constant slope from one end to the other
1. Using same method outlined for smal, regular ponds, measure depth at nine
or more points as shown in Figure 5.
2. Calculate the average of these measurements.
FIGURE 5
le 4* 7
2* 5 80
3 60 9.
Average Depth = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . .9
9
From Water for Freshwater Aquaculture by A.G. Coche. Used with permission.
222
274
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
Large filled pond with irregular shape and irregular bottom
1. Draw the approximate shape of the pond on a sheet of paper.
2. Create a grid pattern of 20 foot squares as shown in Figure 6.
3. Using the yardstick pole and a partner to record readings, measure the pond
depth at each of the grid intersections.
4. Add all measurements and divide by number of intersections to find average

depth.
FIGURE 6
Measure depth
Si Mir .1a1
Et ;ME
=MOW Vi 72
Average Water Depth = 1 + 2 + 3. . .+ 22

22
From Water for Freshwater Aquaculture by A.G. Coche. Used with permission.
CALCULATING WATER VOLUME
Ponds
1. Find the surface area of the pond.
2. Find the average water depth.
3. Multiply the surface area in square feet (ft) by the average water depth in
feet (ft) to get the volume in cubic feet (ft3)
4. Convert cuoic feet to acre-feet or gallons, using conversion tables in Handout

#1.
(NOTE: The water volume in ponds is usually measured in units of acre-

feet. If you refer to the conversion table in Handout #1, you will find that 1
acre-foot is equal to 43,560 cubic feet.)
283
--,M111111111P
AQ-275
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
Noncircular tanks, vats, troughs, and transport boxAs
These enclosures are generally rectangular. To determine volume, you need to

measure inside length of the enclosure, the inside width of the enclosure, and the
average water depth.
Tank with overflow pipe and flat bottom

EXAMPLE: What is the volume of a tank 10 feet long, 2 feet wide, with an overflow
pipe of 10 inches?
1. Convert to feet the water depth inch measurement.
10 inches = 10 x 1 foot = 0.83 feet

12
2. Determine tank volume in cubic feet by using the formula:
Water Volume = Length x Width x Water Depth.
= 10 ft x 2 ft x 0.83 ft
= 16.6 fe
3. Use conversion tables in Handout #1 to convert cubic feet to gallons:
16.6 fe x 7.48 gal/fe = 124.17 or about 124 gallons.
Trough or tank with overflow pipe and sloped bottom

EXAMPLE: A sloped-bottom tank has water depths of 3 feet at shallow end, 3 feet 4
inches in center, and 3 feet 8 inches at over-flow pipe. The tank is 50 feet
long and 4 feet 6 inches wide. What is ihe volume of the tank?
1. Add the three depth measurements, convert inches to feet, and divide by 3
to find the average depth of the water:
Average Water Depth = 3 ft + 3 ft 4 in + 3 ft 8 in

3
= 10 ft
3
= 3.33 ft.
2. Convert width of trough to a decimal so that all units are the same:
4 ft 6 in = 4 1/2 ft = 4.5 ft
284
276
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
3. Substitute these numbers in the formu!a:
Volume = Length x Width x Water Depth
.. 50 ft x 4.5 ft x 3.33 ft
= 749.25 fe
4. Convert cubic feet to gallons, using conversion table in Handout #1:
749.25 fe x 7.48 gale = 5,604 gallons that tank will hold.
Circular Tank with Center Overflow Pipe
EXAMPLE. A circular tank has an 8 foot diameter and a 3 foot center overflow pipe. How
much water can it hold?
1. Use the formula Volume = n x r2 x d
Where: 7C is a constant 3.14

r (radius) equals 1/2 the diameter
d equals water depth
r2 equals r times itself (r x :).
2. Substitute numbers into the formula:
Volume = 3.14 x 16 ft2 x 3 ft
= 150.7 C..1 ft (ft).

3. Convert to gallons, using conversion tables in Handout #1:
150.7 fe x 7.48 gale = 1,127.23 gallons that tank can hold.
ESTIMATING FLOW RATES
Aquaculturists often need to adjust the supply of water discharged into a tar:1; or pond.
To do so, they need to know flow rates in order to know whether enough water is
available for desired water exchanges in rearing troughs, vats, and raceways. The
aquaculturist also needs to know flow rates so that filling times can be calculated.
Small Pipes
1. To determine flow rate, you will need at least two 1-gallon or 5-gallon
containers and a stopwatch with a second hand.
2. Turn on your water source and place the container under the discharge pipe.
3. With your stopwatch, determine how long it takes for each container to fill.
285
AQ-277
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
4. Repeat this procedure, and then add the total times and divide by 4 (or the
number of containers filled) to find the accurate flow rate in seconds for your
water source:
1st container = 43 sec

2nd container = 44 sec
3rd container = 42 sec
4th container = 43 sec
Total = 172
172 = 43 seconds, average flow rate.

4
5. Use the following formula to find the flow rate in gpm:
Volume of Container in Gallons x 60 Seconds/Minute = Flow Rate in gpm

Total Seconds to Fill Container
5 oat container x 60 sec/min = 6.97 or about 7 aallons per minute

43 seconds
Large Pipes
1. Construct an L-shaped measuring instrument similar to that shown in Figure

1, making the short side 4 inches long and the long side any convenient
length.
2. Mark both sides in inch increments.
3. With water flowing normally from a horizontal discharge pipe, place tte long
side of the L along tho top of the discharge pipe as shown in Figure 1.
FIGURE 1
I X ----I
T
D
J_
4. Slide the L along the pipe until the 4-inch length barely touches the water flow.
5. Note the distance (X) traveled by the flow of water before it drops 4 inches.
EXAMPLE: 15 inches
6. Note the inside diameter of the pipe (D).
EXAMPLE: 8 inches
286
278
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #''
7. Consult Table 1 below, finding the horizontal distance (X) in the left-hand
cokrin and then moving horizontally to the right, stopping under the column
that shows the correct pipe diameter (8 inches). The discharge rate is 1160
gallons per minute.
TABLE 1
DISCHARGE RATE (Gallons per minute)

Horiz. Average
Dist.(X) Nominal Pipe Diameter Velocity
(Inches) 1 11/4 11/2 2 21/2 3 4 5 6 t3 10 12
4 5.7 9.8 13.3 22.0 31.3 48.5 83.5 2.1
5 7.1 12.2 16.6 27.5 39.0 61.0 104 163 2.4
6 8.5 14.7 20.0 33.0 47.0 73.0 125 195 285 3.1
7 10.0 17.1 23.2 38.5 55.0 85.0 146 228 334 580 3.7
8 11.3 19.6 26.5 44.0 62.5 97.5 166 260 380 669 1060 4.2
9 12.8 22.0 29.8 49.5 70.0 110 187 293 430 750 1190 1660 4.7
10 14.2 24.5 33.2 55.5 78.2 122 208 326 476 830 1330 1850 5.3
11 15.6 27.0 36.5 60,5 86.0 134 229 360 525 915 1460 2200 5.8
12 17.0 29.0 40.0 66.0 94.0 146 250 390 570 1003 1600 2220 6.2
13 18.5 31.5 43.0 71.5 102 158 270 425 620 1080 1730 2400 6.9
14 20.0 34.0 46.5 77.0 109 170 292 456 670 1160 1860 2590 7.4
15 21.3 36.3 50.0 82.5 117 183 312 490 710 1250 2000 2780 7.9
16 22.7 39.0 53.0 88.0 125 196 334 520 760 1330 2120 2960 8.4
17 41.5 56.5 93.0 133 207 355 550 810 1410 2260 3140 9.1
18 60.0 99.0 144 220 375 590 860 1500 2390 3330 9.7
19 110 148 232 395 620 910 1580 2520 3500 10.4
20 156 244 415 650 950 1660 2660 3700 10.6
21 256 435 685 1000 1750 2800 11.4
22 460 720 1050 1830 2920 11.8
23 750 1100 1910 3060 12.4
24 1140 2000 3200 13.0
Procedure, drawing, and table from Crisafulli Pump Co., Inc.
8. For other than standard pipes, the flow may be determined by using the
following formula:
gpm = X1.28D2
Where D = Inside pipe diameter
X = Horizontal open flow for drop of 4 inches
ESTIMATING FILLING TIMES
To determine water filling time, you must know the volume of water that a pond or tank
can hold and the flow rate of the water. The water should flow at a uniform rate
continuously from start to finish. You can figure flow rate as explained above, or you can
use the chart in Handout #2 for approximate pond filling times at different pumping rates.
287
AQ-279
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
Fill Time
EXAMPLE. An 84 acre-fo3t pond is supplied with a steady flow of 1,500 gpm. How long
will it take the pond to fill, assuming the soil is already moist?
1. Use the conversion table in Handout #1 to convert acre-feet to gallons:
Pond Volume = 84 acre ft x 325,851 gal/acre ft = 27,371,484 gallons.
2. To find the number of minutes it will take to fill the pond, divide the gallon
volume by the gpm of the water sources:
27 371,484 = 18,247.65 or about 18,248 minutes to fill pond.

1500 gpm
3. Divide the number of minutes by 60 to find the number of hours :t will take
to fill the pond:
18 248 = 304 hours to fill pond.
4. Divide the number of hours by :.,4 to find the number of days it will take to
fill the pond:
304 = 12.66 or 12 days 16 hours.

24
5. You may also use the following formula to quickly compute days needed to
fill:
Pond Volume in Gallons = Number of Days to Fill.

gpm x 60 min/hr x 24 hr/day
Water Exchange Rates
EXAMPLE. A trough contains 500 gallons of water with a flow rate of 23 gpm. How many
water exchanges per hour are possible?
1. Divide the trough volume by the gpm to find the full time in minutes:
500 = 21.7 minutes to fill trough.

23
2. Divide the number of minutes in an hour (60) by the number of Kil minutes
to find the number of exchanges in an hour:
60 = 2.76 complete water exchanges in 1 hour.

21.7
288
280
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
ESTIMATING WATER LOSSES CAUSED BY SEEPAGE
Water lost vertically through the bottom of the pond, horizontally through the levees or
dikes by infiltratiov, and through the drainage system of the pond is called seepage water.
If your levees or dikes are well built and well maintained, and if the drainage system is
watertight, the amount of seepage water lost horizontally will be very small. You will need
to calculate only vertical seepage.
Water seepage is greater from a new pond when it is filled for the first time. After the
pond has been filled for some time, the water tends to break down the soil structure and
the pores, or tiny spaces between the grains of soil, become sealed by organic matter that
collects on the pond bottom. As a result, seepage decreases.
Seepage from Natural (Unpuddled) Soils

1. Determine the soil type of which your pond is built.
2. Determine the surface area of your pond in square feet.
EXAMPLE: Assume that you have a 100 by 70 foot pond with a surface area
of 7,000 square feet. The soil is clayey loam, and you want to
determine the seepage losses in gallons over a 6-month (180 day)
period.
3. Using Table 6 in Handcut #2, find the average seepage loss per day:
EXAMPLE: Clayey loam seepage losses are from 0.1 to 0.6 inch per day so
the average loss will be 0.3 inch per day.
4. Convert the average daily seepage loss in inches to decimal feet:
0.3 = 0.025 feet

12
5. Now multiply the daily seepage loss in decimal feet by the surface area of the
pond in square feet, and use the conversion tables to convert cubic feet to
gallons:
0.025 feet x 7,000 square feet = 175 cubic feet per day
175 cubic feet x 7.481 gal/cu ft = 1,309 gallons per day.
6. Find the monthly loss by multiplying the number of gallons lost per day by the
number of days in 6 months:
1,309 gal/day x 180 days/six mo. = 235,560 gallons lost over 6 mo.
289
AQ-281
ASSIGNMLNT SHEET #1
Determining Drainage Time

EXAMPLE: You have a pond 300 feet by 450 feet that has an average depth of 5.1 feet
and is served by an 8-inch diameter drainpipe. How many days will it take
to drain the pond?
1. Find the number of square feet of the pond:
300 x 450 = 135,000 square feet
2. Use the conversion chart in Handout #1 to convert square feet to acres:
43,560 square feet = 1 acre

135 000 = 3.09 or 3.1 acre
43,560
3. Multiply number of acres times depth to find acre-feet:
3.1 x 5.1 = 15.81 acre-feet
4. Use Table 4 i,n Handout #2 to find approximate discharge rate for an 8-inch
diameter drainpipe.
8-inch diameter drainpipe = 600 gpm
5. Find the drain time in days by substituting these known values in the formula
below:
Drain Time in Days = Acre-feet Water x 325,851

Discharge gpm x 1440
= 15.81 x 325,851
600 x 1440
= 5,151 704.3
840,000
= 6.1 days
Seepage from Puddled Soils

One way to reduce seepage losses when constructing a pond is to break the soil steucture
on the pond bottom before it is filled with water. This is a common practice in irrigated
rice fields and is called puddling.
The soil in the pond bottom is first saturated with water. When the soil has soaked into
the pond bottom enough to permit working, 1;ie bottom is hoed, ploughed, or worked by
any other means. Seepage losses are much less from puddled soils.
Calculate seepage losses from puddled soils in the same way you calculated losses from
natural soils, but use the "Puddled Soil° table (Table 7) in Handout #2.
230 1
282
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
ESTIMATING WATER LOSSES BY EVAPORATION
Water that is lost to the air from the surface of a pond is called evaporation. The amount
of water lost by evaporation depends largely on local climate conditions. High air
temperatures, low humidity, strong winds and sunshine increase evaporation. Evaporation
also depends on the amount of water surface area. The larger the pond, the more water
will evaporate from its surface.
There are methods and formulas for computing evaporation loss, but because evaporation
varies considerably with local conditions, you should obtain local evaporation rates from
a meteorological station in yow particular area. Usually you will be able to obtain average
monthly evaporation rates, based on measurements mada over several years in your area.
2d .9 j.1
,....
AQ-283
s PART II
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
Practice computing water requirements by calculating the following problems. Use your
calculator and any necessary tables from Handouts #1 and #2. Round your answers to
the nearest whole number.
1. What is the volume of water in a pond that has a surface area of 17.5 acres
and depths of 4.4 feet, 4.2 feet, 4.5 feet, and 4.6 feet?
Acre-foot volume
Gallon volume
2. Your water supply has a flow rate of 500 gpm, and fills your pond in 58 hours.
How many acre-feet of water does your pond contain?
Acre-foot volume
3. A flat-bottomed trough is 15 feet long and 2 feet wide with a 10-inch high
overflow pipe. How many gallons of water does the tank hold?
Gallons
4. One of your hatching tanks is 40 feet long and 3 feet 6 inches wide. The
bottom is sloped with a depth at the shallow end of 3 feet; a middle depth of
3 feet 3 inches; and a depth at the drain of 3 feet 9 inches. How many
gallons of water does the tank hold?
Gallons
5. What is the volume of a circular tank with a 5-foot overflow pipe and a
diameter of 12 feet?
Cubic feet
Gallons
6. You want to construct four ponds in the same area and service all with 1
water well. The ponds vary in size-6 acres, 4.2 acres, 5.4 acres, and 4.5
acres. You want to be able to fill any pond within 6 days. The average water
depth in each pond is 5 feet. What flow rate in gpm is required from your
well to fill any one of ycur ponds in 6 days or less?
HINT: Determine the volume of the largest pond first. If it can be filled in six
days, then any of the smaller ponds will fill in six days or less.
Flow rate gpm
7. Using the gpm that you computed in problem 6, what would be the filling time
in days for the smallest pond of 4.2 acres and 5 foot average depth?
Number of days to fill
292
_
284
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
8. You are planning a hatchery that will include 8 holding tanks, each 4 feet wide
and 40 feet long. The average water depth in each tank is 3 feet 6 inches.
Your water supply to these tanks must supply at least 2 complete water
exchanges per hour in all tanks at the same time. You are also planning
on installing 20 troughs, each 15 feet long and 2 feet wide, with an average
depth of 1 foot. A flow rate of 5 gpm is required for each trough, and all may
need water at the same time. What is the minimum flow rate in gpm needed
for your facility?
Minimum flow rate gpm
9. You have designed a pond that can hold 75 acre-feet of water. Your supply
pipe provides a steady flow at 1,200 gpm. Assuming that the scil is already
moist, how long will it take you to fig your pond?
Fill time hours
Fill time days
10. A 5 gallon container is filled in 45 seconds. What is the water flow rate of
your supply pipe?
Flow rate gpm
11. A 3 gallon container filled in 1 minute and 28 seconds. What is the flow rate
of the supply pipe?
Flow rate gpm
12. What is the total surface area of the straight-sided but irregularly shaped pond
in Figure 6?
FIGURE 6
1=
2
3
4
5=
Total
Surface area of pond square feet

acres
293
AQ-285
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
13. Your pond has a surface area of 14,500 square feet. The soil of the pond
is loam. How many square feet of water are lost per day? How many
gallons of water are needed to compensate for seepage losses during a 6-
month (180-day) period? If the pond had been puddled, how many gallons
would be needed to compensate for seepage loss during the 6-month period?
Daily loss = square feet
Seepage loss for unpuddled soil = nallons
Seepage loss for puddled soil = gallons
14. You have a 17.5 acre pond with an average depth of 4.3 feet. It is drained
with a 12-inch diameter drainpipe. How many days will it take to drain the
pond?
No. of days
15. You have installed 4-inch drainpipe on your 3.4 acre pond that has an average
depth of 6.4 feet. How many days will it take you to drain the pond?
No. of days =
294
AQ-287

UNIT VI
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2 CALCULATE COMMON EARTH POND

CONSTRgCTION REQUIREMENTS
An important aspect of pond design and construction is the cost. The primary factor used
by engineers to set a price is the volume of earthfill required. Therefore, you may find it
useful to make your own estimate of the excavation, dam, or ievee system.
Methods for calculating these volumes are explained in Part 1 of this assignment sheet.
Part ll will provide you with some realistic problems so that you can practice your
calculations.
PART I
SIDE SLOPE
Once you :lave determined the surface area, depth, and water requirements for your pond,
you need to determine the angle of the side slopes. For the most part, your soil
characteristics determine the pond's side slope. Soil should not be stacked any higher
than its natural repose. Usually the steepest feasible slope is 2:1, and 3:1 or 4:1 is more
typical. Soils saturated with water at the time of excavation, and soft, sandy soils require
even gentler slopes. A representative of the U.S. Soil Conservation Service c.. in analyze
your soil and recommend a suitable slide slope.
VOLUME OF EXCAVATION
With the correct side slope in mind, you can roughly calculate the amount cf excavation
necessary. This estimate determines the cost of the pcnd and is used as a basis for
inviting bids and for making payment if work is to be done by a contractor.
EXAMPLE: You are planning a pond 200 feet long by 100 feet wide at the surface.
The average water depth is to be 4.5 feet, and your inside slope will be a
consistent 2:1.
1. Find the surface area (A) of the pond by multiplying length times width:
A = 200 x 100
= 20,000 square feet
2. Find the pond bottom area (C) in square feet:
(NOTE: The side slope is 2:1, therefore, for every 2 feet extending horizon-
tally into the water, there is a 1 foot increase in depth.)
a. Multiply pond depth times horizontal slope to find tt. 1.,orizontal distance
from the shoreline to the bottom of the excavatior
4.5 feet depth x 2 foot horizontal slope = 9 feet
295
-
288
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
b. Double this shoreline-to-bottom distance to allow for two sides (or

ends) of the pond, and you will find the difference between the top
and bottom length or width of the excavation:
9 feet x 2 = 18 feet
c. Subtract this figure from the top length and width to find the surface
area of the pond bottom:
C = (200 18) x (100 18)
= 182 x 82
= 14.924 square feet
3. Find area of excavation (B) at mid-depth by averaging the top and bottom
surface areas:
B = 20,000 + 14,924
2
= 17,462
4. Estimate total volume of excavation (V) by using the following formula:
V=A+4B+CxD
6 27
where V = Volume to be excavated in cubic yards

A ..- Surface area of pond in square feet
B = Area of excavation at mid-depth (Y2 D) in square feet
C = Pond bottom area in square feet
D = Average waiier depth of pond in square feet
27 = Constant to covert cubic feet to cubic yards
V = 20,000 + (4) (17,462) + 14,924 x 4.5

6 27
= 20,000 + 69,848 + 14,294 x 4.5

6 27
= 104 772 x 4.5

6 27
= 17,462 x 0.16
= 2793.92 or about 2,794 cubic yards of soil to be excavated
296
AQ-289
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
DIRT FILL FOR EMBANKMENT CONSTRUCTION
The amount of dirt required to build or fill a pond levee or dam can be estimated by
knowing the cross-sectional area and length of the levee or dam. For long levees or dams
with irregular heights, it is necessary to diJe the dam into sections to determine the
amount of dirt needed for each section. For levees or dams of uniform height, this step
is not necessary. It is simpler to estimate the fill volume of levees than of dams, since
the height of levees tends to be uniform from one end to the other.
Levees and dams are normally trapezoidal in cross section (Figure 1). The important
dimensions are height at the crown, freeboard, width at crown, thickness or width at base,
inside slope, and back slope.
c. 10'
FIGURE 1 ,
b. 6'
f. 3:1 e. 4:1 f
a. 10' 18'
d. 60'
a. Height at crown d. Width at base

b. Freeboard e. Outside slope
c. Width at crown I. Inside slc.pe
Levees or Dams of Uniform Height

EXAMPLE: Your pond plan requires a total levee length of 1,800 feet. You plan a top
width of 16 feet, a water height of 4.5 feet, and a freeboard of 1.5 feet. The
inside slope will be 3:1, and the outside slope will be 4:1. Dirt-moving costs
are $.75 a cubic yard.
1. Find the cross-sectional area in square feet by using the following formula:
S2
Cross-sectional area = H [T + (St + -2--) H]
where T = Top width of levee in feet

H = Height of levee in feet
S1 = Pond side slope of levee
S2 = Outside slope of levee
(NOTE: If both slopes are the same, substitute the value of one slope (S)
for S1 + S2.)
2
297
290
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
a. Find the average slope:
S = 1.55
2
b. Find the levee height by adding the desired water level to ine
freeboard:
4.5 foot water height + 1.5 foot freeboard = 6 foot levee height
C. Substitute these and other known dimensions into the formula:
Cross-sectional area = 6 [16 + (1.55)6]
= 6 [16 + 9.3]
= 6 [25.3]
= 151.8 square feet
2. Find the volume of dirt fill needed in cubic yards by using the following
formula:
V (yd3) = Cross-sectional Area x Levee Length

27
= 151.8 x 1 800
27
= 273 240
27
= 10,120 cubic yards of earth fill
3. Estimate earthmoving costs by multiplying the total cubic yards of dirt required
by the cost per 1 cubic yard.
10,120 cubic yards x $.751cu. yd. = $7,590
Levee or Dams of Uneven Heights
EXAMPLE: You want to build a dam 346 feet long by 12 feet wide at the crown, with
identical inside and back slopes of 3:1 set across a natural valley. Dirt-
moving costs are $.75 per cubic yard.
1. To estimate the volume of any unbuilt dam or levee of uneven height, you
must construct a table like that in sample Table 1:
AQ-291
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
TABLE 1: Sample of Table to Be Constructed in Estimating Volume of Earthfill

Needed for Unconstructed Dam*
Fill Sum of Double

Ground height' End area2 end areas Distance volume'
Station elevation ft sq ft sq ft ft cu ft
0 + 50 35.0 0 0
+ 68 32.7 2.3 44 44 18 792
1 + 00 25.9 9.1 357 401 32 12,832
+ A7 21.5 13.5 709 1,066 37 39,442
+ 53 20.0 15.0 855 1,564 16 25,024
+ 75 19.8 15.2 875 1,730 22 38,060
2 + 00 19.5 155 906 1,781 25 44,525
+ 19 20.3 14.7 824 1,730 19 32,870
+ 32 20.3 14.7 824 1,648 13 21,424
+ 36 18.8 16.2 981 1,805 4 7,220
+ 40 18.2 16.8 1,049 2,030 4 8,120
+ 43 18.5 16.5 1,015 2,064 3 6,192
+ 46 19.6 15.4 896 1,911 3 5,733
+ 59 19.8 15.2 875 1,771 13 23,023
3 + 00 20.8 14.2 775 1,650 41 67,650
+ 35 27.7 7.3 248 1,023 35 35,805
+ 60 31.6 3.4 76 324 25 8,100
3 + 96 35.0 0.0 0 76 36 2,736
Total' 379,548
' Elevation of top of dam without allowance for settlement.
2 End areas based on 12-foot top width and 3:1 slopes on both sides.
3 Divide double volume in ft3 by 54 to obtain volume in yd3, e.g.,
*Figures are based on Figure 2 on the following page and on dimensions in example.
0 99
292
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
2. Sketch a profile of the dam and determine the elevation at a number of points
along the centerline of the space to be filled (Figure 2).
(NOTE: A centerline survey can be made by an engineer, or you can survey

the centerline by measuring abrupt elevation changes or measuring every 5
to 50 feet, depending on the steepness of the site. If you cannot obtain the
actual elevation above sea level, designate the low point on the profile as
zero elevation, and make further measurements as distances above that
point.)
FIGURE 2
0 1+00 2+00 2+40 3+00 3+60 3+95
3.4'
Ow. 35-0
9.1 15.5' 16.8' 14.2'
3. Record these elevations in the second column of your table.

4 Find fill heights by subtracting each ground elevation from the top elevation
of the dam; record fill heights in the third column of your table.
5. Find the cross-sectional end area in one of the following ways:
a. Use section lengths and the general cross-sectional formula you used
in determining levee cross-sectional area.
b. Use Table 1 in Handout 43:
EXAMPLE: Assume you want to find a cross-sectional end area at a

15-foot height
1) Find 15 foot fill height under first column in table.
(NOTE: If your exact fill height doesn't appear on the

table, use the next highest figure-15.6 for 15.5, for
instance.)
2) Now find the numbers at this fill height under the

appropriate side slope (3:5:1/4:1) and crown width
(16) columns-675 and 180.
3) Add these two numbers to find an end area of 855
square feet at this point.
300
AQ-293
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
6. To find the total volume in cubic feet of fill between two points for which the
end areas have been computed, add the two end areas (column 5 on your
table) and multiply by the distance between the two points in feet; record in
final column on your table.
EXAMPLE: The volume of fill required between Station 1 + 53 and the next
station, 1 + 75 is computed as follows:
(855 sq. ft. + 875 sq. ft.) (22 feet) = 38,060 cubic feet
7 Now that your table is complete, add all the volumes in the last column, and
divide by 54 to obtain The volume in cubic yards:
379 548 = 7,029 cubic yards of fill dirt needed for dam
54
8. Now add a percentage for settling of the dam; if you do not have an
engineer's estimate based on the type of soil in the dam and its foundation,
10 pe--...ent is a good approximation.
.10 .. 7,209 = 703 cubic yards
7,209 + 703 = 7,732 cubic yards of fill dirt needed after adjustment
9. Multiply total cubic yards needed by cost per 1 cubic yard to estimate
construction costs.
7,732 x .75 = $5,799
1 01
294
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
PART 11
Solve the following prot,eins to practice calculating excavation and dirt fill volurras. Use
Table 2 in Handout #3 as desired.
1_ You are planning to construct a 432-foot long dam across a natural valley. The dam
will be 16 feet wide at the crown with an inside slope of 3:5:1 and an outside slope
of 4:1. Complete the columns on the measurement chart below. How many cubic
yards of fill dirt will you need, including dirt to compensate for settling? What will
the construction cost be if earth-moving costs are $.60 a cubic yard?
Fill Sum of Double

Ground height' End area2 end areas Distance volume3
Station elevation ft sq ft sq ft ft cu ft
0 + 50 48.0
+ 61 44.8 11
1 00 40.5 39
+ 50 34.5 50
2 + 00 33.2 50
+ 34 35.3 34
+ 53 32.4 19
3 + 00 32.0 47
+ 48 35.5 48
+ 76 39.6 28
4 00 44.1 24
+ 32 48.0 32
Cubic yards of fill dirt =
Cost of earth-moving =
2. Calculate the number of cubic yards of earth needed to fill the fillowing levees, all
of which are not of uniform height. Include dirt needed to compensate for settling,
and calculate construction cost where indicated
302
AQ-295
ASSIGNMENT'SHEET #2
-
a. Length of levee = 1,500 feet
Construction cost = $.65 per cubic yard
i-16'i
Water
Depth 4.5'
3:1
Fill dirt required = cubic yards
Construction cost = $
b. Total length of levee = 1,648

Construction cost = $.65 cubic yard
14'--I
1.5' Freeboard
Water 2:1 3:1

Depth 4'
Construction cost = $
c. Total length of levee = 826 feet
1----12'i
1.5' Freeboard
........................kw,_ Water
Depth 5'
3:1
3:1
303
AQ-297
e FACILITY DESIGN AND LAYOUT

UNIT VI
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3 DESIGN AND LAY OUT A POND
In this assignment sheet you will design and lay out on paper a pond or raceway system
to fit your specific enterprise, topography, and needs.
1. Study iayouts, designs, and specifications in literature supplied by your

instructor, and in your library's source materials. Look also at the layouts in
the transparencies, and at any other source materials that contain design and
layout ideas. Use these designs and layouts as inspiration, but do not
attempt to copy any one exactly. Because the topography of your land and
your specific needs are unique, no two pond or raceway layouts will be
exactly the same.
2. Draw a topographical map of the area of the proposed site, indicating hills,
rock outcrops, streams, wooded areas, roads, buildings, etc. Indicate any
areas that must be cleared to build the rearing unit (s).
3. Now sketch a map showing the proposed shape and layout of your pond(s)
or raceway and facility. Label well or water source, piping, drainage,
landscaping, and buildings, etc. Indicate all dimensions.
4. Complete a facility profile in which you list or explain the following information.
a. Type of pond J. Pond surface area
b. Purposes: k. Pond depth
Principal Maxim um
Secondary Average
c. Production Minimum
d. Species I. Pond shape
e. Water supply m. Embankment slopes
f. Topography n. Water inlet structure
g. Type of construction o. Water outlet structure
h. Access p. Special features
i. Use of surrounding land q. Comments
0004
298
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3
After you have completed your sketches, maps, and pond profile, use the knowledge
gained in Assignment Sheets #1 and #2 to calculate all water requirements and earth-
moving volumes. These figures will help you estimate costs in Assignment Shset #5.
1. Water volume needed to fill pond
2. Water volumes needed to fill troughs and vats
3. Water flow rate
4. Estimated filling and water exchange times
5. Estimated discharge times
6. Estimated seepage and evaporation losses
7. Volume of excavation necessary
8. Volume of dirt fill for embankment construction
0 05
AQ-299

UNIT VI
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #4 DETERMINE COSTS OF LOCAL WELL DRILLING,

EARTH-MOV1NG, AND CONSTRUCTION SERVICES
In this assignment sheet, you will compare costs of local well drillinn, excavating, ear"i-
moving, and construction services. In order to compare costs, you must first assess which
aspects of tt.e construction you are equipped to do yourself and whict spects you need
to contract.
You must also consider what type(s) of excavation and earthmoving equipment is best
suited for the job at hand. For example, if a dragline excavator is used, the length of the
boom usually determines the maximum width of excavation that can be made with proper
placement of waste material. Also, a dragline excavator leaves a borrow ditch inside the
pond and compacts levees poorly ard unevenly. Bulldozers cannot lift earth, and pushing
earth over considerable distances can be costly. For large ponds, earth buckets and
scrapers are used to build levees economically. Sheepsfoot rollers do a good job at
compacting the soil layers, but frequent back and forth traffic by heavy equipment also
works satisfactorily. Almost any type of heavy equipment can be used to construct a
pondfrom a backhoe to a tractor equipped with a bulldozer bladebut it is wise to select
the equipment that can do the job most efficiently and economically.
The first place to turn is the U.S. Soil Conservation Service, which offers a variety of
publications as well as free consultation service. Next, survey the services offered in your
locality. List contractors and costs per unit below, and then calculate total costs based on
the dimensions and needs of the facility you laid out in Assignment Sheet #3.
Service Contractor Cost/Unit Total Cost
Soil survey
Dam centerline survey
Surveying & staking
for construction
Site clearing
Excavation &
earth moving
Well drilling
Levee and dam
earth filling
Landscaping
Gravel placement
Riprap placement
Pipe placement
Other
306
_
AQ-301

UNIT VI
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #5 COMPLETE A FEASIBIITY STUDY FOR A SELECTED

SITE BY ESTIMATING CONSTRUCTION COSTS
The investment requirements for pond construction vary depending on location, size of
pond, type of enterprise, whether the ;and is owned or purchased, and whether there are
existing ponds and facilities. Other factors include how much equipment is already owned
and whether needed equipment is purchased used or new or is home-built. Some
producers build their ponds, cages, or raceways to reduce costs. Others use family rather
than hired labor.
Many construction costs are determined by site-specific factors such as topography, depth
to groundwater, and size of ponds or wells. Also land prices can differ from one area tn
another. The costs of building ponds is determined by dirt-moving costs that vary with
location and size of pond. Investment costs per acre generally decrease as farm size
increases.
Because of the wide range of enterprises and investment requirements, use of the
following estimation worksheet and tables as guidelines only. You will have to research
and compare costs in your locality, and you will have to tailo the worksheet to fit your
individual situation.
First determine a dollar amount for each line item that is appropriate for your layout plan.
For a more detailed explanation, refer to the explanations that correspond by number to
each line item. Put a zero for total cost if an item is not appropriate or required. Add line
items that are required by your specific enterprise.
ESTIMATION WORK SHEET AND REFERENCE KEY
Reference
Number Item: Land Cost
1 Land, total acres x cost/acre

Land Total Cost:
1. Marginal land that drains poorly, or produces low crop yields, is

often used for catfish farming. Figure about 85% to 90% of the land
area will be water depending on size of ponds and levees; the rest
will be levees, buildings or drainage.
30 7
302
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #5
Reference
Number Item: Pond Construction Cost
2 Land clearing, acres x cost/acre

3 Dirt moving, cubic yards x cost/cubic yard
4 Drain structure, units x cost/unit
5 Water supply line/valve, units x cost/unit
6 Ground cover, acres x cost/acre
7 Gravel or shellrock, cubic yards x cost/cubic yard
8 Drainage ditch, cubic yards x cost/cubic yard
9 Water well and casine, units x cost/unit
10 Pump and engine, units x cost/unit
11 Power source and installation, units x cost/unit
Pond Construction Total Cost:
2. Land with trees or other obstacles needs to be cleared before
ponds are constructed.
3. Dirt moving costs vary with location and condition of soil at

the construction site. In flatland areas with large levees, about
6.2 cubic yards of dirt are moved per linear foot of levee. The
actual amount depends on the dimensions of the levee.
4. Each pond should have a drain structure that permits pond

draining in several days. Drains should be designed to
prevent entry of wild fish and can be located either inside or
outside of the pond. Various designs are suitable. The
structure should be screened and fitted with a valve as
needed.
5. Water supply lines should be large enougn to carry the

desired flow and be straight as possible. The discharge water
should be aerated before it enters the pond.
6. Unprotected areas of the levees should be covered with

vegetation to minimize erosion and stabilize the soil. The
vegetation should be suited for your area and may require
lime and fertilizer.
7. Gravel or other material should be spread on at least the

main levees where traffic is heaviest and fish are harvested.
The road surface should be at least six inches thick to permit
all-weather access.
8. An outside drainage canal is recommended on one side of

the pond(s) to carry discharge water away from the pond
area. The size and cost of the canal depend on the slope of
the land and volume of water that drains at one time. Under-
ground main drain lines are also used instead of open canals.
AQ-303
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #5
9. A water supply from a pumped well is recommended for

intensive catfish production. Water can be added when
needed. The well should be located to serve as many ponds
as possible, that is, one well per iuur or more ponds.
Adequate water should be available to fill the largest pond in
about 10 days or less. This is equal to at least 25 gpm per
acre-foot of water in the largest pond. Wells of 1,500 to 2,000
gpm capacity normally serve four ponds of 15 acres each
with an average depth of four feet. For watershed or hill
ponds, an adequate watershed area to pond area ratio is
needed for ponds to fill beiwaen winter and spring.
10. Depth and size of the well and desired discharge will deter-
mine the size of pump and motor. Pump and motor should be
properly selected for maximum pumping efficiency and
economy of operation.
11. Power is required to operate wells and aerators. The avail-

ability and cost of single or three-phase electricity vary with
location. Determine installation fees to run lines to your
ponds, and estimate the operating costs. In areas without
electricity, diesel-electric generators or diesel engines are
used as a power source. Evaluate your power alternatives,
and compare ownership and operating costs.
This assignment sheet is adapted from the Louisiana Agricultural Expenment Station and Louisiana Cooperative
Extension book Commacial Production of Farm-Raised Catfish by Gary L. Jensen. With permission.
0
09
UNIT VI
ANSWERS TO ASSIGNMENT SHEETS
Assignment Sheet 1
Part II
1. 77 acre-feet
25 million gallons
2. 5.34 or 5 acre-feet
3. 186 gallons
4. 3,487 gallons
5. 565.2 or 565 cubic feet
4,228 gallons
6. 1,131 gpm
7. 4.2 days to fill pond
8. 1,217 gpm
9. 339 hours
14.2 days
10. 2.85 or 3 gpm
11. 2.04 or 2 gpm
12. 15,140 square feet
0.35 acres
13. 725 square feet per day
130,500 gallons unpuddled
20,880 gallons puddled
14. 10.6 days
15. 39.4 days
306
Assignment Sheet #2
PART II
1. 10.428 cubic yards

$6,257
Station Ground Fill End Area Sum of end Distance Double vol.
elev. I.eight sq. ft. areas sq. ft. ft. in cu. ft.
0 + 50 40.3 0.0 00
+ 61 44.8 3.2 87 87 11 957
1 + 00 40.5 7.5 325 412 39 16,068
+ 50 34.5 13.5 866 1191 50 59,550
2 + 00 33.2 14.8 1004 1870 50 93,500
+ 34 5.3 12.7 779 1783 34 60,622
+ 53 32.4 15.6 1102 1881 19 35,739
3 + 00 32.0 16.0 1152 2254 47 105,938
+ 48 35.5 12.5 759 1911 48 91,728
+ 76 39.6 8.4 382 1141 28 31,948
4 ,. 00 44.1 3.9 120 502 24 12,048
+ 32 48.0 0.0 000 120 32 3,840
Total = 511,938
2. a. 11,933 cubic yards
$ 7,756
b. 9,500 cubic yards

$6,175
c. 6,393 cubic yards
Assignment Sheets #3 - #5 Evaluated to the satisfaction of the instructor
311
AQ-307

UNIT VI
JOB SHEET #1 CONSTRUCT A CAGE FOR FISH CULTURE
1. Twenty feet of 16-gauge, plastic-coated welded wire, 48-inches wide with a

mesh of 1/2 inch by 1 inch
2. Three dozen stainless steel C-rings and C-ring pliers
3. Pair of tinsnips
4. Five stymfoam squares 12 x 6 x 6 inches
5. Plastic-coated 1/8 inch feeding mesh 1 foot wide and 11 and 1/4 feet long
6. Plastic paint or rust-proof paint and small brush
7. Strapping material
8. Plastic-coated bell wire, 50 feet
9. Cinder block and length of rope for an anchor
B. Procedure (Figure 1)
1. Cut the wire mesh into a piece 11% feet long.
2. Form the mesh into a cylinder with a 4 to 6 inch overlap where the ends meet.
3. Space C-rings 1 to 2 inches apart along the length of ihe joint.
4. Clamp C-rings from inside the cylinder so that any sharp edges will poi:It to
the outskie to avoid injury to fish and people working inside the cage.
5. Place either end of the cylinder on an area of the remaining welded wire, and
cut to size the two pieces needed to form the top and bottom of the cage.
6. Attach the bottom of the cage with C-rings, working from the inside out so all
sharp points will be outside.
7. Cut the fine-wire feeding mesh into a piece 1174 feet long and 1 foot wide.
8. Place the feeding mesh around the extreme upper part of the cage on the
inside, fit it around the sides of the cage and attach it by twisting pieces of
bell wire at 6 to 8 inch intervals at the top and bottom edges of the feeding
mesh. (See Figure 1.)
312
308
JOS SHEET #1
9 Place the five styrofoam squares at even intervals around the top edge of the
cage and secure them wito pit:on of bell wire or strapping.
(NOTE Strapping is recommended because it will not cut the styrofoam like
bell wire does.)
FIGURE 1
Secure top
--- wi t il bell wire.
Styrofoam
Flotation
Bell Wire Secure overlap arid bottom

with C-rings, and point all
sharp edges outward.
Courtesy Langston University Agncultural Research
10. Attach the top of the cage with bell wire, but secure only one side of the top
so that it can be easily lifted for stocking fish, and can be fully secured when
it is placed in use.
11. Use the plastic or rust-proof paint to coat any cut edges of the wire or mesh
to assure that cut spots will not rust.
12. Tie a cinder block with an appropriate length of rope to anchor the cam near
shore or an access dock.
(CAUTION: Take care not to bend the cage during construction or use
because an ill-fitting top will cause a vo.ume loss in the cage.)
AQ-309

UNIT VI
PRACTICAL TEST #1
JOB SHEET #1 CONSTRUCT A CAGE FOR FISH CULTURE
Student's Name Date
When you are ready to perform Job Sheet #2, ask your instructor to observe the proce-
dure and complete this form. All items listed under "Process Evaluation" must receive
a "Yes" for you to receive an overall performance evaluation.
PROCESS EVALUATION
The student: Yes No
1. Gathered correct equipment and materials. 0 0

2. Measured materials correctly. L 0
3. Cut materials accurately. 0 0
4. Constructed cage properly. 0 0
5. Returned equipment and materials to proper storage. 0 0
EVALUATOR'S COMMENTS
310

PRODUCT EVALUATION
evaluation.)
Criteria:
Properly Properly Poorly Improperly
Equipment selected and selected and selected selected
and Materials properly used acceptably used and/or used and/or used
4 3 2 1
Construction Well Acceptably Poorly Improperly

Procedure followed followed followed followed
4 3 2 1
Cage Almost all Somewhat Inaccurate

Dimensions Accurate accurate accurate
4 3 2 1
Floatability Excellent Good Fair Poor

4 3 2 1
Usability Excellent Good Fair Unusable

4 3 2 1

2 Limited skill Has performed job during training program; additional training
is required to develop skill.
1 Unskilled Is familiar eh process, but is unable to perform job.
(EVALUATOR'S NOTE: If an average score is needed to complete a competency profile,

total the designated points in "Product Evaluation" and divide by the total number of
criteria.)
315
li
AQ-311

UNIT VI
TEST
NAMF SCORF
1. Match terms related to facility design and layout with their correct definitions. Write
a. Distance between pond surface and top 1. Baffle

of levees or dam; generally between.1
and 2 feet 2. Seine
b. Earth dike used to enclose water 3. Overflow pipe
c. Mechanism for stirring up and thus 4. Intensive production

aerating water in hatching
. tanks and
troughs 5. Extensive production
d. To gather and enclose water for fish 6. Freeboard

pond or irrigation
7. Levee
e. Harvesting net
8. Live car
f. Raising of fish in densities higher than
could be supported in the natural 9. Agitator
environment; requires feeding of
formulated feeds 10. Impound
___ _9. Vertical pipe placed in a tank so that

top is at desired water height; water
above this height drains from the tank
h. Raising of fish in low densities in ponds

where the fish feed primarily on natural
feeds
I. Device such as a screen that interferes

with water flow, thus stirring up and
aerating the water
Seine attached to harvesting seine and

used to crowd, grade, and hold fish in
the pond
ti
312
TEST
2. Match basic types of farm water enclosures with their characteristics. Write the
Earth ponds
a. Usually square or rectangular enclosure 1. Excavated pond

constructed by building earth dikes to
contain water; the pond bottom is above 2. Levee pond
or nearly level with the surrounding soil
3. Impoundment pond
b. Irregularly shaped basin created by
damming water that would normally run
off
c. Regularly shaped basin on flat or gently

sloping land created by removing earth
and using it to build embankments or
levees
Fabricated ponds or rearing units

d. Small regular rearing unit typically 100 4. Circular concrete
feet long, 40 feet wide and 8 feet deep; rearing unit
used for fingerling or hobby fish or for
holding pond 5. Rectangular concrete
rearing unit
e. Sloping, series of narrow concrete units
in which a frequent interchange of water 6. Raceway
is possible by maintaining a fast rate of
water flow down the length of the units;
a typical ratio of depth to width to
length would be 1:3:30
f. Medium-sized rearing unit into which

water enters through a jet at the side
and leaves through a center overflow
pipe; the body of the water is kept in
rotation; because the water is rapidly
and continuously exchanged, it is
possible to keep very high densities of
fish; typical diameter is 16 feet with a
water depth of 4 feet
317
AQ-313
TEST
Tanks, vats, and other enclosures
.9. Used to confine spawning pairs, these 7. Holding tank or vat

5 by 10 foot enclosures are made of
heavy-duty vinyl-covered wire with a 2- 8. Hatching/fry trough
inch mesh, and steel or treated wooden
posts 9. Spawning pens
h. Floated in ponds and used for grow-out, 10. Floating cages

these net units may be round, square,
or rectangular; they are made of
noncorrosive materials such as vinyl-
covered wire, plastic, and aluminum and
range in size from 3 by 3 feet to 8 by
8 feet
i. Made of galvanized metal, concrete

block, poured concrete, or fiberglass,
these enclosures are used to grade fish
into size classes, hold fish fo, sale, as
temporary storage, and to segregate
diseased fish for treatment; sizes vary
but 30 feet long by 4 feet wide by 3
feet deep is typical
Made of marine plywood, metal, or

fiberglass, these enclosures are typically
10, 12, or 15 feet long, 20 inches wide,
and 10 inches or more deep; the water
is kept in motion with agitators that
circulate it among the fish eggs, which
rest in the water on trays
3. List four facility requirements for food-fish production.
a.
b.
C.
d.
3I2
314
TEST
4. List five facility requirements for channel catfish fingerling production.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
5. List six facility requirements for rainbow trout fingerling production.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
6. List 6 facility requirements for fee-fish operation.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
7 Arrange is order initial steps in planning an on-site processing facility. Write a "1"
before the first step, a "2" before the second step, and so on.
a. Draw up plans (you don't need an architect) for the facility and send
or take them to the state health office for approval.
b. Contact your county health and sanitation officer and discuss your plans
to learn the specific requirements needed in the design of your facility.
c. Find out if your county has planning and zoning laws and make legal
notification of your plans to build a facility if necessary.
319
- _
AQ-315
TEST
d. Receive final approval from state inspector.
e. Build your facility according to approved plans.
8. List five facility requirements for an on-site processing facility.
a.
b.
C.
d.
e.
9. List factors to consider when planning pond size.
a.
b.
C.
d.
e.
f.
10. Complete statements about layout and design considerations. Write the correct
a. Lay out pond for for the type of program to be followed.
1) maximum efficiency of production

2) maximum profit
3) maximum amount of excavation
b. to take into consideration the economics of construction and

harvesting.
1) Select dam width

2,,, Choose equipment
3) Shape pond
c. If possible, construct ponds to reduce costs of construction per

acre of water.
1) close to land crops

2) next to each other
3) near the processing facility
320
-
316
TEST
d. Plan for of water supplies and drainage facilities.
1) maximum utilization
2) minimum utilization
3) supplementary use
e. Locate the at a high elevation to avoid any flood water and to

take advantage of gravity flow through the supply pipes.
1) outlet pipe
2) well head
3) drainage canal
f. Locate water lines at the end of pond where fish will be

harvested, and at end opposite
1) deep; drain
2) shallow; inflow pipe
3) shallow; drain
9. Lay out water lines to minimize from the well head of each
pond.
1) the length of pipe
h.
2)
3)
the water pressure
number of connections
Lay out pond(s) to permit independent draining of each by

e
1) gravity flow
2) pumping
3) overflow pipe
i. Building ponds conserves water and requires less construction;

however a(n) arrangement is usually best.
1) parallel; in series
2) in series; circular
3) in series; parallel
11. Distinguish between advantages of small versus large ponds. Write an "S" in the
blanks before advantages of small ponds, and an "L" in the blanks before large
pond advantages.
a. Are easier and quicker to harvest
b. Permit segregation of breeders, lish of different sizes, etc.

c. Take up less space per area of water surface
d. Are more subject to wind aeration
3 21
_
i
AQ-317
TEST
e. Can be drained and refilled more quickly
f. Offer safety factors if several ponds are constructed and disease strikes
one pond
g. Can be used to alternate fish and land crops
h. Have banks that are less subject to wind erosion
i. Result in less financial loss if stock is lost
Require less construction cost per area since less soil must be moved
to achieve equal surface area
k. Permit more simultaneous experimentation
I. Are easier to treat disease, apply fertilizer, feed fish, etc.
(NOTE. If the following activities have not been accomplished prior to the test, ask
your instructor when they should be completed.)
12. Estimate water requirements. (Assignment Sheet #1)
o 13.
14.
Calculate common earth pond construction requirements.
Design and lay out a pond. (Assignment Sheet #3)

15. Determine costs of local well drilling, earthmoving, and construction services.
16. Complete a feasibility study of a selected site by estimating construction costs.

17. Demonstrate the ability to construct a cage for fish culture. (Job Sheet #1)
"2
01.
AQ-319

UNIT VI
ANSWERS TO TEST
1. a. 6 f. 4
b. 7 g. 3
C. 9 h. 5
d. 10 i. 1
e. 2 j. 8
2. a. 2 f. 4
b. 3 g. 9
c. 1 h. 10
d. 5 I. 7
e. 6 j. 8
3. Answer should include any four of the following
a. Pond or raceway of appropriate size for present and future needs

b. Valves, screens, pumps, and other fixtures necessary for water control
c. Drainage system
d. Road system that allows for movement of vehicles when mowing, stocking,
aerating, and harvesting
e. Small storage and utility buildings and feed storage bins
a. Broodfish holding ponds of 1 acre or less to maintain broodfish between

spawning seasons
b. Spawning pond of 1 to 5 acres, or spawning pens
c. Spawning nests
d. Hatching and fry troughs or fry ponds, depending on method of hatching
desired
e. Rearing ponds for growing fry into fingerlings
f. Holding vats of various sizes
g. Drainage, storage, and road systems as for food-fish production
5. Answer should include any s'lx of the following
a. Longitudinal earthen raceway for broodfish

b. Divided raceway for separating males and females when they near spawning
condition
c. Hatching trough with tray hatching system, or hatching jars
d. Small rearing troughs to handle fry to 2.5 inches
e. Raceways for rearing fish 2.5 inches or over
f. Settling basin
0 23
320
ANSWERS TO TEST
g. Hatching building with tank room, incubation room, some feed storage, and
general storage
h. Garage and shop building
i. Feed storage building or bins
6. Answer should include any six of the following
a. Drainable pond(s) in area with eractive vegetation and with shade available
near the water
b. Drainage system
c. Fishing piers and platfomis
d. All-weather parking facilities
e. Bait, tackle, food, and drink concession stands, if not using vending machines
f. Fish cleaning tables
g. Restrooms
7. a. 3
b. 2
C. 1
d. 5
e. 4

a. Enclosed structure with concrete floor aod wash-down walls
b. Lagoon for waste
c. Potable water system
d. Running water or aeration system
e. Three-basin sink and drain system
f. Covered light fixtures
g. Handwashing sink
9. a. Slope and size of site available

b. Whether rotation of fish and land crops is planned
c. The supply of good-quality water
d. Marketing demands and harvesting conditions
e. The economics of construction
f. Management capabilities
10. a. 1 f. 3
b. 3 g. 1
c. 2 h. 1
d. 1 i. 3
e. 2
3 24
AQ-321
ANSWERS TO TEST
11. a. S g. L
b. S h. S
c. L I S
d. L j. L
e. S k. S
f. S I. S
12-16. Evaluated to the satisfaction of the instructor
17. Evaluated according to criteria in Practical Test #1
325
A0-323
WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT

UNIT VII
UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completion of this unit, the student should be able to mcnitor and test for water
quality problems and correct or prevent those problems through proper management.
These competencies will be evidenced by correctly completing the procedures in the
assignment and job sheets and by scoring a minimum of 85 percent on the unit test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Match terms related to water quality management with their definitions.
2. Match compounds and elements with their chemical formulas and symbols.
3. Discuss the importance of oxygen in water quality management.
4. Discuss the role of temperature in oxygen management.
5. Match natural sources of water temperature variation with their effects.
6. Match types of thermometers for measuring water temperature with their

descriptions.
7. Select facts about temperature management techniques.
8. List causes of DO loss.
9. List signs of DO def iciency.
10. Select facts about the prevention of DO depletion.
11. Select from a list guidelines for measuring DO.
12. Match DO measuring equipment with its descriptions.
13. Select from a list true statements about methods of correcting DO deficiency.
14. Identify types of mechanical aerators.
32G
324
OBJECTIVE SHEET
15. Select facts about turbidity remedies.
16. Complete statements about the importance of nitrogen compounds in water

quality management.
17. Complete statements about pH and water quality.

18. Select from a list methods of managing the pH cycle.
19. List the purposes of liming.
20. Select from a list general guidelines for water chemistry management.
21. Match aquatic plant control methods with their descriptions .
22. Calculate dosages for chemical treatments. (Assignment Sheet #1)
23. Analyze facility aerator needs. (Assignment Sheet #2)
a. Use a Secchi disc to meastIe turbiaity. (Job Sheet #1)

b. Use an 02 meter to measure DO. (Job Sheet #2)
c. Use a water analysis kit to test water quality parameters. (Job Sheet
#3)
d. Predict low DO levels, using Secchi disc, projection, and chart methods.
(Job Sheet #4)
327
AO-325

UNIT VII
A. Obtain copies of Guide to Oxygen Management and Aeration in Commercial Fish

Ponds for each of your students so that they may complete Job Sheet #3. If this is
impractical or costly, make a copy available through your school library.
B. Make transparency.
C. Make copies of Handout #1 so that students may complete assignment sheets.
D. Provide students with objective sheet. Discuss unit and specific objectives.
E. Provide students with information sheet. Discuss information sheet, adapting and
adding information specific to your state or locality.
F. Provide students with assignment sheets. Explain assignment sheets, and work
additional problems relevant to the situations in your class.
G. Schedule job sheets and complete practical and product test forms.
H. Give written test.
A. Belusz, Larry. Fish Farming Techniques. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri,

B. Boyd, Claude E., et al. Water Quality in Channel Catfish Ponds (A Report from the
Water Quality Subcommittee of Regional Research Project S-168). Southern
Cooperative Series Bullefin 290. Mississippi State, Mississippi: Agricultural and
Forestry Experiment Station, 1983.
C. Boyd, Claude E., and Frank Lichtkoppler. Water Quality Management in Pond Fish
Culture. Auburn, Alabama. Auburn Universitv International Center for Aquaculture,
Agricultural Experiment Station, 1979.
D. Dupree, Harry K., and Jay V. Huner, eds. Third Report to the Fish Farmers: The
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984.
E. Fritz Aquaculture Catalog 1987. Dallas, Texas: Fritz Aquaculture, 1987.
F. Jensen, Gary L., arid Joseph D. Bankston. Guide to Oxygen Management and
Aeration in Commercial Fish Ponds. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State
329
i
326
G. McLarney, William. The Freshwater Aquaculture Book. A h landbook for Small Scale
Fish Culture in North America. Point Roberts, Washington. Hartley and Marks, Inc.,
1984.
H. Piper, Robert G., et al Fish Hatchery Management. Washington, D.C.: United

I. Pond Management in Cklahoma. Oklahoma City: Fish Division, Oklahoma

J. Reigh, Robert C., ed. Proceedings of the Louisiana Aquaculture Conference 1988.
Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, 1988.
K. Romaire, R. P., and C. E. Boyd. Predicting Nightime Oxygen Depletion in Catfish

Ponds. Auburn, Alabama: Alabama Experiment Station, Auburn University, Bulletin
505, n. d.
AQ-327

UNIT VII
INFORMATION SHEET
A. Oxidation The union of a substance with oxygen resulting in an increased

positive or decreased negative valence or ion
EXAMPLE. When oxygen combines with ferrous iron (Fe++) it gains a positive
ion. Its ionized form, ferric iron (Fe+++), in sufficient quantities
can clog the gills of young fishes.
B. Turbidity Muddy or cloudy water caused by suspended particles of soil

or plankton
C. Sediment Matter that settles to the bottom of the pond
D. Aerobes Organisms that can live and grow only where free oxygen is
present
EXAMPLES: Man, fishes, aerobic bacteria
E. Anaerobes Organisms that can live and grow where there is no free
oxygen.
EXAMPLE: Anaerobic bacteria
F. Toxicity Poisonous
G. Mortality Death, particularly death from disease or on a large scale
H. Alkalinity Measure of pH buffering capacity
I. Buffer Any substance in a solution that tends to stabilize the hydrogen

ion concentration by neutralizing any added acid or alkali
EXAMPLE: Lime is used to buffer or stabilize pH.
J. Turbulence Swirling agitation of water
K. Precipitate To separate out from a solution
L. Salinity Measure of salt in water
M. Secchi disc Instrument used to measure light penetration and thus turbidity
N. B.O.D. Biochemical oxygen demand; based on total mass (biomass) and

not on individual numbers of stock
0. Supersaturation Greater than normal solubility of a chemical (oxygen,

nitrogen) as a result of unusual temperatures or pressures
330
INFORMATION SHEET
P. Effluent Water discharge from a rearing unit
Q. Oxygen transfer efficiency A measure of the percent of the total oxygen

used that a device is able to put into solution
II. Chemical formulas and symbols for compounds and elements
POINT OF INTEREST: So far, twenty chemical elements have been shown to

be important in aquatic ecosystems. Quality water management requires the
aquaculturist to know the symbols and formulas for various chemical compounds
and elements that will be encountered often on labels and in the literature
outlining detection, prevention, and correction measures.
A. DO Dissolved oxygen
B. 02 Oxygen gas
C. N2 - Nitrogen gas
D. NH3 Ammonia
E. NH, Ammonium
F. NO2 Nitrite
G. NO3 Nitrate
H. H2S Hydrogen sulfide
I. Fe2 Ferrous iron
J. Fe3 Ferric iron
K. CaCO3 Lime (calcium carbonate)
L. Ca(HCO3)2 Calcium bicarbonate
M. Ca0 Quicklime
N. Ca(OH), Hydrated lime
0. CO2 Carbon dioxide
P. NaHCO3 Sodium bicorbonate
Q. H2Co3 Carbonic acid
R. KMnO4 Potassium permanganate
S. Ca Calcium
AQ-329
INFORMATION SHEET
T. Zn Zinc
U. Pb Lead
V. Cu Copper
Importance of oxygen in water quality management
A. Of the many dissolved substances natural water contains, oxygen, nitrogen

compounds, pH, alkalines, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, and iron are
those most important to water quality management.
B. To the aquaculturist and aquatic animal alike, dissolved oxygen (DO) is the
most important chemical part of natural water.
C. Dissolved oxygen is not the oxygen in H20, which is bound to two hydrogen
molecules; instead it is pure gaseous oxygen (02) in the same form as is
found in the air.
D. All aquatic animals and plants need a certain minimal amount of DO to

survive. dawn DO readings in warmwater systems should ideally be mair.tained
at above 4 ppm.
E. Water quality management is not as simple as maintaining a certain minimum

DO to ensure survival, the aquaculturist is interested in maximizing growth,
and at minimum DO levels, fish may survive yet fail to grow at all.
F. It is possible to have too much DO, but such cases are rare, and the
aquacuiturist can generally proceed on the rule of thumb that "more DO is
better than less."
G. The primary natural source of oxygen in the atmosphere is photosynthesis--

the process by which green plants convert carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H20),
and solar energy to sugars, with oxygen (02) as a by-product
H. In raceways and troughs, oxygen is supplied by continuously flowing fresh

water; a raceway's production capability is regulated by the amount of
available DO in the inflow water.
(NOTE: The available DO in the trout water is typically greater than 5 to 6

ppm. Five ppm is the minimum acceptable level.)
IV. Temperature and oxygen management
A. The temperature of water affects the amount of oxygen that can be dissolved
in it: the higher the water temperature the less oxygen it will hold.
High temperatures cause increased transpiration in plants and increased decay

of organic materials, thus reducing DO levels.
332
330
INFORMA110101E0
V. 4ffecla of,,natiirat,sourcee of WaterieMperatare varlatiob
A. So:04010On Heate -Water, and-alSO causes; evaporatieb; which redtrces
,depth.arid' volurhe, itfusacCélerating.-ihe rate Of heating; :ehade moderates
theSe effeets.
B. Air teMperature --,-Affects the 'water ,below- it"by, changing, its

temperaturethough, water changes -temperature mere slowly- thab,air, the
larger the,water .surfebe in, obritedi With ,the,air,, The:more 'rapidly the water
heate or cools; 'dee* seaSohat water temperature variatione that may,be
C. Water depth
1. Causee.thallow 'bodies , of watérto warrh and cool more, rapidly than

,deepertOdieS of 'Water
2. May Cate deep water to stratify With the,colder, denser iNater sinking
to lhe 'LOOM
o. Color of mate!' and bOttom Affects-heat. *oration; dark water and

cOlorlese water over a dark,bottonaboorp heat :faSter them their opposites.
(NOTE: Turbidity, which colors while reducing transparency, may concentrate

,solar heating,in the surface layer.)
E. Circulation- ---r-Gravitpinduced 'flow; ,and wind-induced waves may cause

cooling currents,that serve to ,equalize pond terhperatures.
Vi. Types of, thermometers for meaturinvivater teinperature (Figures 1=5)
A. ,Aquariurbthermometer Variously designeOctolloat,,clip to tank or trough

Wails, or .to reSt` upright- on bottoM, thieAypetherniometer is handy-for small
enClesures:
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 1
;
AQ=331
iNk:IRMATION SHEET
B. Fisher Man's thermorneter ,-- A-highly:portable thermometer,ina rugged case

so it .cannot be easily broken, thistherMometerusually has a top eyelet to
add.weightand to provide space4Or attaching a cord-so that the thermometer
can be- handily dropped to different water levels.
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 2
C. Maximum-minimim -thermometer Designed to record h!ghest and lowest

temperatures over a specified period, this thermometer is useful in monitoring
daily temperature variations.
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 3
3:41
332
INFORMATION SHEET
D. Electronic probe thermometer-- Designed to measure air, Rquids, surfaces,

and semi-solid materials, this battery-powered OigitakdisplaY thermometer is
easy to read -and 'practical for quick and-consistent measurements.
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 4
VII. Temperature management techniques
A. It is difficult and costly to manage water temperature, so aquaculturists are

often limited to culturing only species that thrive within specified ranges of
their local temperature extremes.
suPOINT OF INTEREST: Some cage farmers in the South Central United States
r find it possible to raise warmwater species, such as catfish, in the spring and
mmer, and cool-water species, such as trout, in the fall and winter.
B. Water that is too cold can be warnied in warming ponds=shallow ponds

through which the water passes before reaching the main pond.
C. Water that isloo warm, can be cooled by removing some warm water and
adding an-equal amount of cool water.
D. Water that is too warm can also be cooled naturally by wind action and by
laying out ponds and raceways so that they will be partially shaded for some
period of the day.
E. In very small ponds or in tanks, water can be heated- mechanically, though

this process is expensive and impractical for larger facilities.
VIII. Causes of DO loss
A. Respiration by aerobes is the primary cause of DO loss; all animals and

aerobic bacteria respire by oxidizing 02 tO CO2*
AQ-333
INFORMATION SHEET
B. High temperatures cause DO loss by increasing the respiration rate and

thus demand, while at the same time reducing the amount of 02 that water
wi!1 hold.
C. Oxidation of organic matter as it is decomposing, dead organisms, uneaten

feed, and organic pollutants reduces the water's DO level.
D. Oxidation of inorganic substances also causes a loss of DO.
EXAMPLE: Ferrous iron (Fe2) is oxidized to ferric iron (Fe3) by the DO in

water and uses oxygen in the process.
E. Diffusion, the release of 02 into the air from the water surface, also causes
DO loss, but occurs only when the water is supersaturated.
(NOTE. Diffusion losses can be significant if aeration devices are used when
the vrter is supersaturated with 02 in the afternoon or when strong wind
occurs during this time.)
IX. Signs of DO deficiency
A. Fish not eating food and acting more sluggish than usual;
B. Fish gasping (piping) for air at water surface;
C. Fish grouped near water inflow pipe;
D. Other aquatic animals such as crayfish and snails crawling out of the water
in numbers;
E. Fish-eating birds gathering at pond, especially in the morning;
(NOTE. This behavior often means dead or stressed fish are near the surface
of the pond.)
F. Turbidity caused by heavy plankton die-offs;
(NOTE: A brown or yellow turbidity or a detergent-like odor are signs that a

plankton syst:..ri is experiencing low DO. Emergency aeration measures
should be taken.)
G. Repeated outbreaks of stress-related disease and parasites;
H. Slow growth.
X. Guidelines for preventing DO depletion through water management
A. Avoid overstocking.
B. Avoid overfeeding.
C. Avoid over-fertilizing; it causes organic pollution.
336
334
INFORMATION SHEET
D. Control plant growth, remembering that in the absence of sunlight aquatic

green plants compete with crop species for available DO.
E. Monitor temperature, and routinely measure DO levels. (Job Sheets #2 and

#3)
F. Keep the water in circulation, and provide routine supplemental aeration.

G. Monitor turbidity that interferes with sunlight penetration and thus prevents
photosynthesis. (Job Sheet #1)
H. Attempt to predict when DO will fall below minimum acceptable levels, so

that you can take preventive action before DO depletion occurs. (Job Sheet
#4)
Xl. Guidelines for measuring DO
A. Measure DO daily, so that measurements can be used as a preventive rather

than a diagnostic tool.
B. Take measurements at dawn, when DO is at its daily low point Just before
photosynthesis begins; at dusk, after a full day of DO production, and two
hours later to see how fast the DO level is declining.
(NOTE: The difference between the DO concentration at dawn and dusk

represents net DO production, while the difference between dusk and dawn
represents DO demand. If demand increases and production does not increase
proportionally, a depletion can occur. On the other hand, if net production is
reduced, the following day's demand may reduce DO to critically low levels.)
C. Measure DO levels throughout the night during hot, cloudy weather, during
intensive feeding or fertilization programs, or at any time when there is a
sudden increase in B.O.D. and DO is apt to fall to critically low levels.
D. Measure DO at least 6 inches below tne surface and at a variety of locations

and depths because DO is generally highest at the surface and around inflows
and aerators and lowest at the bottom.
(NOTE: Never take DO readings near inflowing waters, aeration equipment,

immediately next to the bank, in scums of floating algae, nor right at the pond
surface or bottom. Such measurements will be inaccurate, showing false
highs and lows.)
E. The best places to measure DO in a trout raceway are near the head of the
rearing unit and in its effluent; the difference between the two readings is the
net DO used.
F. The best time to measure DO in trout rearing units is approximately 1 hour

after feeding when the fishes' metabolism is high and they are using the most
DO.
33 7
AQ-335
INFORMATION. SHEET
XII. DO measuring equipment (Figures 5 and 6)
A. Colorimetric test kit inexpensive and not very accurate, this method
depends on discriminating among colors that indicate 02 levels.
B. Titration test kit Inexp4nsive and more precise, but also more time
consuming, this methodreobires collecting water samples and analyzing them
chemically.
EXAMPLE: Figure 5
C. Battery operated meters -- Expensive, but highly accurate and convenient,

this method requires, inserling a probe at various locations and recording
instant Alectronic readings.
(NOTE: Most oxygen meters today include a thermometer, and some can be
set to compensate for variables such as temperature, salinity, and altitude.
Meters may cost from $500 to over $1,Q00 and may break down. A
colorimetric or titration kit should be kept on hand in case of breakdown.)
EXAMPLE: Figure 6
aaR
336
INFORMATION SHEET
XIII Methods of correcting DO deficiency
POINT OF INTEREST: The addition of oxygen through the diffusion and

absorption of pure oxygen gas (02) is now becoming more economically feasible
in raceway and tank culture. There are a variety of methods, each with its own
transfer efficiency. Bulk liquid oxygen tanks or oxygen generators are the
preferred sources for extended use.
A. Add oxygen to water through mechanical aeration.
(NOTE: This is the most effective method of quickly increasing DO levels.)
B. Reduce the demand for oxygen.
1. Reduce the fish population.
2. Remove excess vegetation.
3. Remove excess organic sediment with siphon or pump.
4. Draw off the most polluted water and replace it with new, oxygenated
water.
C. Alter physical or chemical factors related to 02 supply and use.
1. Increase pond volume by adding clean water to reduce quantity of

organic material relative to total volume
2. Add an oxidizing agent so that organic material is "burned up" quickly.
EXAMPLE: Add (hydrated lime, Ca(OH)2) at a rate of 30 to 50 pounds

per acre.
(NOTE: This process does not affect DO, but removes CO2, a competing
gas in the water. It requires that the water be well buffered. It is a
temporary solution only and will not solve the basic problem.)
XIV. Types of aerators (Figures 7-14)
A. Gravity aerator System in which water falling through the air is broken
into drops, greatly increasing its surface area; further aeration is provided
with the turbulence created when the falling water strikes the pond surface.
(NOTE. Gravity aeration is especially useful if the water supply is located at

a higher elevation than the pond, since the energy used is free. The degree
of oxygenation is directly proportional to the distance of the fall, though it can
be increased by allowing the water to be broken up further by passing through
baffles, screens, or over steps as in raceway aeration.)
339
:
s-
lr,f,
AQ-337
INFORMATION SHEET
FIGURE 7
From Guide to Oxygen Management in Pond Fish Culture by Claude E. Boyd. Used with permission.
B. Surface aerator Device that irnreases the surface area of water and
exposes it to the air by using a rotor or paddlewheel to break up and agitate
the water surface.
(NOTE: Surface aerators are used for small ponds. Some surface aerators
pick up water and spray it across the water surface, while others merely
increase turbulence and waves. Motors may be above or below the water, but
those above water may freeze in the winter.)
FIGURE 8
/SPLASH CONE
AND WEIGHT
FLOAT
SUBMERSED MOTOR
AND PROPELLER
From Guide to Oxygen Management in Pond Fig) Culture by Claude E. Boyd. Used with permission.
340
338
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Diffused air aerator Device that uses a compressor or blower to introduce

air bubbles into the water; the smaller the bubble and the further it travels
before reaching the surface, the more oxygenated the water.
(NOTE: Diffused air aerators are used in the winter to maintain open water.
They are not efficient in shallow ponds.)
FIGURE 9
/BLOWER
POROUS PIPE-1
From Guide to Oxygen Management in Pond Fish Culture by Claude E. Boyd. Used with permission.
341
AQ-339
KEORMATiON-SHEEt
D. Venturi aerator Device that sucks air into-the water so -that bubbles are
formed; a rotor may be added to the motor to ctqate additional turbulence.
(NOTE: Venturi aerators are used for small ponds.)
FIGURE 10
rAIR
From Guide to Oxygen Management In Pond Ptah Culture by Claude E. Boyd. Used with permission.
E. riurnpsprayer Device with suction, lift, or turbine pump that pumps water
throUgh diScharge slits on a sprayer pipe:
(NOTE: Pump sprayers typically have no gear teduction. This means less
risk.of mechanical failures. These aerators do not erode the pond bottom.)
FIGURE 11Aquaculture workshop participants watching sprayer pipe

demonstration.
irtiForimAtiowski,Eq
F. AWifft_pornp: aetatO bevice coinOOtertaan operifendedpiOe or tulle into

teleaSecf at the _sUOinerged TOO; air tiubbleriSing through-,the
-toOd,battrOyfiip::aii0 oXygeriateilhi§-iyater.
(NOTE: the aiFlift' pump ..derator used,for Smali-Oonds.),
FIGURE 1
WATER: _ANP1
AI
AIR-
*- !
01.1.
ON.
BUBBLES'
.1
. 7!..=-
to::
--
awe/.
,Froiii Guide to-pxyti,en.kfanacjemOlit in,PandFistrCultute by:Claudp.E.'Boyd. 'Mjed withiiermission.
G. Padcifewheal,aeratok-- PeVics,havinkfinkorOaddieS-attached:to,a:notating-
4r010?t0.0,T,P0:-Orthait0P0h.0,-Water ISurfaCe.
(NOTE: Paddlewheel' deratOte,:haye? been-used on ,catfiSh fatinS for rhany

years. they:::Oan-ti'a,O0Weiacl,13y ,traotOrfripla:orbe. self...00Weted:),
.F16* la
AQ-341
INFORMATION SHEET
H. U-tube aerator Highly efficient, deeply submerged device that combines

diffuser aeration with running water by pumping water over a bubbler in one
leg, trapping it momentarily in the bottom, and releasing it via the other leg.
(NOTE: Because U-tube aerators hold the bubbles longer and provide for
prolonged contact of the bubbles with the water before surfacing, this aerator
is capable of producing supersaturation. This type aerator is also difficult and
expensive to construct and works best at water depths that are impractical in
fish farming. It is used with liquid oxyvn in some intensive systems.)
FIGURE 14
From Guide to Oxygen Management In Pond Fi5n Culture by Claude E. Boyd. Used with permission
XV. Turbidity remedies

(NOTE. Turbidity remedies are based on acidifying the water so that positive
electrical charges on suspended particles become negative, causing the particles
to precipitate out and settle on the bottom. The farmer must watch for swing back.
Some particles may not settle out. The usual procedure is to employ the remedy
and then wait two days and sample again. There are both long-term and short-
term remedies.)
A. Silt turbidity
1. Add gypsum incrementally at a rate of 100 to 1,000 pounds per acre

until precipitation occurs.
3d4
342
INFORMATION SHEET
2. Add alum incrementally at a rate of 15 to 25 pounds per acre until

precipitation occurs.
(NOTE: Alum treatment is less expensive than gypsum, but a possible

side effect is the reduction of the availability of phosphorus.)
3. Scatter old hay in shallow water at a rate of 7 to 10 bales per acre.
B. Organic turbidity Broadcast 440 pounds of agricultural lime (CaCo3) per

acre while monitcring pH so that it never exceeds 9.5.
(NOTE: Agricultural lime is often applied just before, during, or after manuring
to nrevent excessive turbidity from organic fertilizing.)
XVI. Importance of nitrogen compounds in water quality management (Transparency

#1)
A. Because air contains 78 percent nitrogen gas (N2) and only about 21 percent
oxygen gas (02), there is more dissolved nitrogen than DO in water.
B. Nitrogen gas is a problem in water quality management in spring and pumped

well water when the surrounding water becomes supersaturated with N2; the
blood of nearby fish can become supersaturated with N2, leading to the same
gas bubble disease that occurs with 02 supersaturation.
C. The real importance of nitrogen in water quality management, lies primarily

in understanding its intermediate forms, all of which are pollutants that can
become toxic to aquatic animals.
D. Organic waste is the main source of all nitrogen compounds normally found
dissolved in water.
E. As organic waste decomposes, most of the nitrogen in it is converted to un-

ionized ammonia (NH3) and ionized ammonia (NH,), which in turn are reduuad
by Nitrosomonas bacteria to nitrite (NO2), which is then oxidized to nitrate
(NO) by Nitrobacter bacteria. (Transparency 1)
F. Un-ionized ammonia and nitrite are the most harmful intermediate forms of
nitrogen.
G. Un-ionized ammonia (NH3) is potentially the most dangerous intermediate form

of nitrogen; even very small concentrations call for remedial action.
EXAMPLES: Concentrations ot as little as 0.1 ppm endanger catfish.

Concentrations of 0.0125 ppm cause reduced growth and gill
damage in trout.
H. Ionized ammonia (NH4) is 75 to 100 times less toxic than un-ionized ammonia.
34 5
AQ-343
INFORMATION SHEET
I. Un-ionized and ionized ammonia in solution exist in equilibrium with each

other and are measured as total ammonia (NH, + NH,), the proportion of the
two substances in equilibrium is determined by pH, and temperature.
(NOTE: This fact is very important in managing water quality. Beginning

intensive aquaculturists often measure total ammonia and then interpret the
results without allowing for pH-related differences in ionization. At acid or
neutral pH, ammonia makes up a very small amount of the total, yet at a high
basic pH, it may predominate. See Table 1.)
TABLE 1: Percentage of Total Ammonia in Relationship

to Water Temperature and pH
Temperature in F
pH 32 41 50 59 68 77 86 95
6.0 0.008 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

6.2 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.09 0.1 0.2
6.4 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.07 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3
6.6 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.1 02 0.3 0.3 0.4
6.8 0.05 0.08 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7
7.0 0.08 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.1
7.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.3 1.8
7.4 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.4 2.0 2.8
7.6 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.1 1.6 2.2 3.1 4.3
7.8 0.5 0.8 1.2 1.7 2.5 3.5 4.8 6.7
8.0 0.8 1.2 1.8 2.7 3.8 5.4 7.5 10.2
8.2 1.3 1.9 2.9 4.1 5.9 8.3 11.3 15.2
8.4 2.0 3.0 4.5 6.4 9.1 12.5 16.9 22.1
8.6 3.2 4.7 6.9 9.8 13.7 18.4 24.3 31.0
8.8 5.0 7.3 10.5 14.7 20.1 26.4 33.7 41.6
9.0 7.7 11.1 15.7 21.4 28.5 36.2 44.7 53.0
9.2 11.6 16.5 22.8 30.2 38.7 47.4 56.1 64.2
9.4 17.2 23.9 31.8 40.7 50.0 58.8 67.0 73.9
9.6 24.8 33.2 42.5 52.1 61.3 69.3 76.3 81.8
9.8 34.3 44.1 54.0 63.2 71.5 78.2 83.6 87.7
10.0 48.3 55.5 65.0 73.2 79.9 85.0 89.0 91.9
J. Any system in which nitrite (NO2) is detectable by normal methods is

suspect: a concentration of as litt:a as 0.5 ppm can be critical, depending
on species and amount of chlorides in the water.
K. Nitrate (NO3) acts as a fertilizer, being the form of inorganic nitrogen most
useful to higher plants and many bacteria; however, over-fertilizing with
synthetic nitrogenous fertilizer can cause nitrate pollution, but toxic levels of
nitrate are 50 to 100 times those of nitrite.
L. Generally ammonia, nitrite, and aitrate pollution and toxicity are problems
only in intensive cultures and closed systems.
34 6
344
INFORMATION SHEET
XVII. pH and water quality

A. The pH of water is influenced by the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) in
solution; most natural bodies of freshwater have a pH between 6 and 9.
B. The acid and basic death points for fishes are about 4 and 11 respectively,
though critical pH levels vary slightly for different species.
EXAMPLES: Critical basic pH levels are 9.2 for trout, 10.8 for common
carp.
C. Respiration raises CO, and thus lowers pH; therefore, intensive aquacultural
enterprises are more susceptible to pH fluctuations than extensive
enterprises.
D. Photosynthesis lowers CO, and thus raises pH; therefore, pH will rise during
daylight hours and fall in the absence of daylight. (Figure 15)
\
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 15
pH
10
7 . . .
6 a.m. noon 6 p.m. 12 p.m. 6 a.m.
Time of Day
From Fish Farming Techniques by Larry Belusz. With Permission.
E. Aquaculturists use calcium carbonates (limes) to buffer pH and control

fluctuations; sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 is used in tanks.
F. Calcium-poor waters diluted by heavy rain or snowmelt may become very

acidic.
34 7
I
AQ-345
INFORMATION SHEET
XVIII. Managing the pH cycle
A. Aquaculturists should try to maintain a pH between 6.5 (slightly acidic) and

9.0 (somewhat basic). (Figure 16)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 16
pH
4
1 Acid death point
no reproduclon
5
Slow growth
7
Desirable range for fish
8 production
10
11 Alkaline death point
From Fish Farming Techniques by Larry Behisz. With permission.
B. Though it is important to maintain water at an optimal pH for your species,

it is more important to prevent sudden fluctuations that shock and stress the
stock.
C. Determine pH at start-up and then check morning, afternoon, and evening

once a month in extensive enterprises with satisfactory growth, and once
a week for intensive enterprises.
D. Monitor pH during any kind of fertilizer or chemical treatments.
E. The two basic preventive management techniques are avoiding organic

overloading and adding calcium carbonate.
F. If pH is too high or too low and remains so, it can be adjusted by liming
or pumping in well-buffered well water.
XIX. Purposes of liming
A. Raising the pH of the water
B. Raising the pH of the mud, upon which the effedveness of phosphorus

fertilizers depends
C. Buffering or stabilizing pH
-- ..
34 8
346
INFORMATION SHEET
D. Increasing alkalinity of water by making more calcium available
(NOTE: It is advisable to check alkalinity whenever you suspect pH

fluctuations, when setting up pH buffers, or when liming. Alkalinity should
also be measured at start-up.)
E. Accelerating the decomposition and mineralization of organic matter, making

it available without depleting DO
F. Killing many fish parasites without harming the fish
G. Precipitating out excessive suspended organic material
H. Increasing the amount of carbon available for photosynthesis by increasing

the amount of bicarbonate in the system
XX. General guidelines for water chemistry management

A. Get baseline data on temperature, DO, pH, alkalinity, hardness, and
chlorides before you start, and check your water supply particularly if it
is a well or groundwater for hydrogen sulfide and iron.
(NOTE: Hydrogen sulfide is a very toxic substance produced by the

decomposition of organic materials in an anaerobic state. It can be detected
by its rotten-egg smell.)
B. Before you start, find the closest person who can help you if you encounter
a problem you cannot diagnose or treat perhaps an experienced fish
farmer, country extension agent, or someone in a university.
C. Know your water and the variables and chemicals that affect it.
D. Give priority to DO management.
E. Monitor chemistry and appropriate variables, keep complete and accurate

records and do not wait until there is a problem to do chemical testing.
(Job Sheet #3)
F. Always know what is going into your water, and do not add any substance
without considering the possible effects on all important chemical
parameters.
G. Perform chemical tests after any change in the system.
H. Avoid organic overloading by being cautious with feed and fertilizer, and
avoid it from the start by choosing the least intensive system that will satisfy
your needs.
I. Monitor your stock's growth; it is the biomass, not the number of fish, that
determines B.O.D. and volume of wastes.
349
A0-347
INFORMATION SHEET
J. Do everything you can in terms of diet and disease control to keep your
stock healthy and to keep the water free of harmful disease-producing
organisms.
XXI. Aquatic plant control and water quality management
A. Biological methods
1. Fertilizer
a. Controls the growth of vascular plants (macrophytes) by

creating plankton turbidity, which shades pond bottom and
prevents photosynthesis;
b. Is most effective on ponds with no areas shallower than 2

feet;
c. May create DO depletion if plankton die off.
2. Grass carps
a. Eat tremendous quantities of vascular plants when stocked

10 to 40 per acre;
b. Grow rapidly to several pounds and may injure farm species

when seined;
c. Cannot legally be stocked in many states as they are an

Asian exotic fish.
3. Manual control Cutting, pulling, or raking of rooted plants.
EXAMPLE: Small stand of cattails
B. Chemical control methods
1. Herbicide
EXAMPLES: Casoron, copper (from copper carbonate), 2,4-D,

endothall.
a. Used to control macrophytes;
b. Administered according to label instructions and cautions;
c. Harmless to fish in recommended concentrations;
d. Has no residual toxicity, so macrophytes will regrow and

require repeated applications;
e. Decaying macrophytes may lead to DO depletion.
350
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348
INFORMATION SHEET
2. Natural algicide
EXAMPLES: Cooper sulfate, kelated copper compounds (buffered

compounds)
a. Used to control phytoplankton;
b. Administered by dissolving in water and distributing over

pond surface;
(NOTE: Copper sulfate crystals are often placed in a burlap

bag and towed behind a boat until dissolved. Crystals may
also be placed in a mesh bag and left to gradually dissolve.
Powdered copper sulfate can be sprinkled directly on the
pond surface, and is often used locally to spot-treat algae
scums.)
c. Will kill fish if administered in doses of 0.5 to 1.0 ppm to

waters with alkalinity below 20 ppm;
(NOTE: Dosage rates are dependent on alkalinity levels. It

is generally believed that 50 ppm total alkalinity is the
minimum level needed before copper sulfate algicides can
be used at their level of effectiveness.)
d. Has no residual toxicity, so phytoplankton will resume growth

and require repeated applications;
e. Rapidly decaying phytoplankton may lead to DO depletion.
3. Synthetic algicide
EXAMPLES: Simazine, Dichlone
a. Is extremely toxic to phytoplankton;
b. Is applied by dissolving in water according to label

instructions and cautions;
c. Is not harmful to fish when applied in recommended doses;
d. Has long residual action, prohibiting regrowth;
e. Rapidly decaying phytoplankton may lead to DO depletion.

AQ-349
Nitrogen Cycle
Food
Atmosphere
Fixation Phytoplankton / Other

Higher Plants .4....-.... Fish Aquatic
Bacteria Animals
Nitrate
NO;
Decomposing
Organic
Wastes
Oxidation by I
Nitrobacter Ammonification
i_
Gas Nitrite -4
Nitrification by
.
Ammonia Ammonium
N2 NO2 Mtrosomonas NH3 --4=4..NHt
352
AQ-351

UNIT VII
HANDOUT #1
TABLE OF CRITICAL SECCHI DISC READINGS FOR
DIFFERENT STANDING CROP WEIGHTS OF CHANNEL CATFISH
TABLE 3: Critical Secchi disc readings (inches) for earthen ponds containing different
(pounds per
standing crop weights of channel catfish. For each standing crop density
than that shown for any combination of temperature and
acre), a lower Secchi disc reading
dissolved oxygen concentration taken in late afternoon indicates that dissolved oxygen
will fall below 2 ppm before dawn. For combinations of temperature and dissolved oxygen
drop to 2 ppm
that are designated safe (S), the dissolved oxygen concentration should not
regardless of the Secchi disc reading.
Water Temperature Dissolved Oxygen

in Late Afternoon Concentration (ppm) in Late Afternoon
9 10 11 12
SSS SS SSSS
°F 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
°C
SSSS SSS
SS S
20
22
68.0
71.6
10
23 13
SSSS
S
SS
S S S
24
26
28
30
75.2
78.8
82.4
86.0
34
39
39
39
23
29
34
36
SSSS
15
21
27
29SS
9
15
21
25
9
15
20
10
15
S
7
10
S
7
12 9 6
S
S
S
89.6 39 38 33 27 23 19 16
32
SS SSSS
Standing crop 1,000 pounds per acre
SSS
20
22
24
26
68.0
71.6
75.2
78.8
15
31
39
39
S
17
27
34
555555
SS S
5555S
9
SSSS
17
25
S
S
10
19
S
S
5
13 7
S
28
30
82.4
86.0
39
39
39
38
39
39
r 29
34
36
SS 23
31
18
23
26
13
18
22
9
14
18
10
15
7
12 7 S
32 89.6
SS SSS
5555555
SS SS
20
22
24
26
68.0
71.6
75.2
78.8
19
36
39
39
7
19
31
36
10
21
27
5
13
21
7
15
SSSSSS
SS SSS
SS
9
28
30
82.4
86.0
39
39
39
39
39
39
35
37
39
26
30
34
21
25
29
15
21
24
10
16
21
7
13
17
9
14 10
SSS
7
32 89.6
353
352
HANDOUT #1

In Late Afternoon Concentration (ppm) in Late Afternoon
°C °F 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

20 68.0 23 9 SS SSSSSS
SSSSSSS
SSSSS
22 S
71.6 39 23 13 S
24
26
28
30
75.2
78.8
82.4
86.0
39
39
39
35
39
39
23
31
36
15
23
29
9
17
23
10 555SS
17 13 7 SSS
S
39 39 39 35 27 22 18 14 10 7
32 S
89.6 39 39 39 36 31 26 23 19 15 12 8

20 68.0 28 10 SSSSS
SSSSSS 0r.
SSSSS
S S S
22 71.6 39 25 15 7
7 SSSS
24 S
75.2 39 36 25 17 9
26 78.8 S
39 39 33 25 18 12
28 82.4 39 39 38 31 25 19 14 10 S S S
30 86.0 39 39 39 36 29 24 19 16 12 7 S
32 89.6 39 39 39 38 33 28 24 21 17 13 10

20 68.0 31 13 SS SSSSSS
SSSSSS S
22
2(
26
28
71.6
75.2
78.8
82.4
39
39
39
27
39
39
17
27
36
9
19
27
10
19
SSSS S
13 9 SSSS
S
S
39 39 39 34 26 21 15 10 7
30 S S
86.0 39 39 39 38 31 25 21 17 13 9 S
32 89.6 39 39 39 39 36 31 26 22 19 15 10

20 68.0 35 15 SS SSS
SSSSSSS
SS
79
SSSSS
22 S S
71.6 39 31 19 9
24
26
28
30
75.2
78.8
82.4
86.0
39
39
39
39
39
39
29
38
39
21
29
36
13
21
27
15
22
SSSS
17 13 9 S S
39 39 39 39 34 27 23 19 15 10 7
32 89.6 39 39 39 39 37 31 27 24 20 16 13
354
AQ-353
HANDOUT #1

In Late Afternoon Concentration (ppm) in Late Afternoon
oc oF 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
20 68.0 39 19 7 S S S S S S S S
22 71.6 39 36 21 10 S S S S S S S
24 75.2 39 39 31 23 15 8 S S S S S
26 78.8 39 39 39 31 23 17 10 S S S S
28 82.4 39 39 39 38 29 23 19 15 10 S S
30 86.0 39 39 39 39 36 29 25 20 16 12 8
32 89.6 39 39 39 39 39 34 29 25 21 18 14
Modified from R. P. Romaire and C. E. Boyd. 1978. "Predicting Nighttime Oxygen Depletion in Catfish
Ponds." Alabama Experiment Station, Auburn University Bulletin 505.
os
355
1
tiNIT VII
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
CALCULATE DOSAGES FOR CHEMICAL TRilATMENTS
AQ-355
All commercial aquaculturists should know how 1 'alculate treatment rates, determine
7
the amount of chemical or material needed, and )ly the tre-Ament. When leeatment
rates are not correctly calculated, high economic losses result.
In Unit VI, you learned how to calculate pond volumos. Once the volume of a pond is
known, you can calculate dosages foi chemical trcItmt..ots ith little difficulty. You need
to be comfortable working in both metric and English systcais of measurerr.m1 because
product instructions, reports, and publications may use either one. You will want to use the
conversion tables in Unit VI, Handout #1, and the conversion factor (C.F.) table below.
TABLE 1: Conversion Factors (C.F.)
2.72 pounds per acre foot 1 ppm

1,233 grams per acre-foot 1 ppm
0.0283 grams per cubic foot 1 PIpm
0.0000624 pounds per cubic foot 1 PPm
0.0038 grams per gallon 1 1313m
0.0584 grains per gallon 1 ppm

1 milligram per liter 1 ppm
0.001 gram per liter 1 ppm
8.34 pounds per million gallons of water 1 ppm
1 gram per cubic meter 1 ppm
1 milligram per kilogram 1 PPm
10 kilograms per hectare-meter 1 ppm
This assignment sheet is presented in two parts. Part I provides you with instructions and
examples for calculatIng treatment dosages. Part II presents you Nith some problems so
that you can practice what you have learned.
356
356
ASSIGNMENT SHEET- #1
PART I
Using the Basic Treatment Formula
Most treatments can be calculated using the basic formula:
Amount of Chemical Needed = V x C.F. x ppm desired x 100

%A.I.
Where: V = Volume of water to be treated
C.F. = Conversion factor representing the weight of the chemical that

must be used to equal 1 ppm in one unit of the volume (V) of
water to be treated. The unit of measurement for the results is
the same as the unit used for the C.F. (pounds, grams, etc.)
lapm = The desired concentration of chemical in the volume (V) of water

to be treated expressed in parts per million
100 = 10( divided by the percent of active irgredient (A.I.)

%A.I. contained in the treatment to be used
(NOTE: Most chemicals are 100% A.I. unless otherwise specified,

so this value is usually 1. The percent Al is usually found on the
label of most chemicals.)
EXAMPLE: Agricultural gypsum is 80% pure. How much agricultural
gypsum is needed
to treat a pond with a surface area of 8 acres and an average depth of 31/2
feet to produce a gypsum concentration of 25 ppm?
1. Find the volume of the pond in acre-feet by multiplying the surface
average depth:
area times the
Pon, volume = 8 x
= 28 acre-feet
2. Find conversioa factor for acre-feet on Table 1:
C.F. = 2.7
3. The concentration of gypsum desired is the parts per million:
ppm = 25
357
AQ-357
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
4. Divide 100 by the percent of the active ingredient (A.L):
%A.l. = 80%
100 = 1.25
80
5. P'ug all of these known figures into the basic formula to calculate total amount of
gypsum needed:
Amount of Chemical Needed= V x C.F. x ppm Desired x 100

%A.l.
= 28 x 2.7 x 25 x 1.25
= 56.1 pounds of gypsum needed to treat the pond
Copper Sulfate
The treatment rate for copper sulfate is determined by the total alkalinity of the water to
be treated because its toxicity varies with the alkalinity of the water. The rule of thumb
for copper sulfate use states, "For every 100 ppm alkalinity, you can safely use 0.75 ppm
copper sulfate."
Use the following formula to determine the treatment rate of copper sulfate in ppm when
the water alkalinity is known. Total alkalinity is expressed in ppm as calcium carbonate.
ppm Copper Sulfate = Total Alkalinity (pPrn)

100
EXAMPLE. A pond contains 25 acre-feet of water and has a total alkalinity of 150 ppm.
How many pounds of copper sulfate are needed to control an algae problem?
1. Determine the treatment rate of copper sulfate in ppm:
ppm Copper Sulfate = 150

100
= 1.5 ppm
358
358
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
2. Use the basic treatment formula to determine the number of pounds needed to
treat the pond at a rate of 1.5 ppm:
Amount of Copper Sulfate Needed = V x C.F. x ppm desired x 100

%A.I.
= 25 x 2.7 x 1.5 x 100

100
= 101.25 pounds
Aquatic Herbicide Treatments
The recommended dosage to control a particular plant is found on the label of the product.
However, herbicides come in liquid, powder, and granule forms. Liquid herbicides are often
mixed with water before application. The following examples show how to calculate
treatments using various herbicides under different conditions.
EXAMPLE 1: A pond owner wants to use a herbicide as a foliar spray to control

cattails. He wants to apply a 11/2% solution in a 3-gallon pump sprayer.
He also needs to add spreader as a wetting agent at a rate of 1/20!0
solution. How many ounces of herbicide and spreader are required?
Given: 1 gallon = 128 fluid ounces.
1. Find the number of ounces in the sprayer by multiplyidg the sprayer capacity in
gallons times the number of ounces in a gallon:
3 gal x 128 oz/gal = 384 oz
2. Calculate ounces of herbicide needed by finding 11/2% of volume capacity:
11/2% = 1.5
100
= 0.015
384 oz x 0.015 = 5.76 or 6 oz of herbicide needed
3. Calculate ounces of spreader needed by findingy2% of volume capacity:
1/2% = 0.5
100
= 0.005
384 oz x 0.005 = 1.9 or 2 oz of spreader needed
'35 a
_
AQ-359
ASSIGNMENT SHE7T #1
EXAMPLE 2: A granular herbicide is to be used to control the lilypads in a 31/4-acre

pond. Only half of the pond is covered with lilypads. The recommended
treatment rate is 100 pounds per surface acre. How many pounds of
herbicide are needed?
1. The area to be treated is 1/2 the total pond area:
31/2 = 3.5
1/2 = 0.5
3.5 = 1.75 acres to treat

0.5
2. Find the amount of herbicide needed by multiplying the number of pounds per acre
by the number of acres to be treated:
100 lb/acre x 1.75 acre = 175 pounds of granular herbicide
Salt Treatment for Nitrite Management

Salt (sodium chloride) is used to raise chloride levels in ponds to solve problems
associated with high nitrite levels. To calculate the amount of the salt needed in a pond
with detectable nitrite concentrations, use the formula below. Salt produces a source of
chloride equivalent to 1 ppm when 4.5 pounds are added per acre-foot.
(5 x N)-C = Concentration of Chloride Needed in ppm
Where: N = ppm of nitrate in pond water
C = ppm of chloride in pond water
EXAMPLE. A water sample contains 4 ppm nitrite and 15 ppm chloride. How much salt
is needed to treat an 8-acre pond with an average depth of 6 feet?
1. Find the concentration of chloride needed by using the nitrite formula:
ppm chloride needed = (5 x N) - C

= (5 x 4) - 15
= 20 - 15
= 5 ppm chloride
-
360
360
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
2. Determine the amount of salt needed by using the basic treatment formula, but
substitute 4.5 pounds for the C.F. because this much salt give 1 ppm chloride per
acre-foot.
Amount of Salt Needed = V x C.F. x Desired ppm x 100

%A.I.
= (8 acres x 6 feet) x 4.5 lb. x 5 ppm x 100
100
= 48 x 4.5 x 5 x 1
= 1,080 pounds of salt
PART II
Solve the following problems to practice computing dosages for chemical treatment of
ponds and rearing units.
1. How much potassium permanganate is needed to treat a circular tank with a 6-foot
diameter and a water depth of 4 feet when you need a concentration of 4 ppm?
Potassium permanganate is 100% active.
2. A water sample contains 3 ppm nitrite and 12 ppm chloride. How much salt is
needed to treat an 8 acre pond with an average depth of 6 feet?
3. You want to treat high silt turbidity in a pond with a surface area of 0.26 hectare
and an average depth of 1.15 meters. How much 100% pure alum must you apply
to give the pond an alum concentration of 25 milligrams per liter?
4. A pond with a volume of 1,000 cubic meters must be treated with a liquid herbicide
that has a 75% active ingredient content and a density of 0.85 gram per milliliter
(0.85 kilogram per liter). How many liters of the herbicide must be applied to the
pond to give a concentration of 1 milligram per liter of active ingredient?
5. A pond contains 54 acre-feet of water and has a total alkalinity of 150 ppm. How
many pounds of copper sulfate are needed to control a total-pond algae problem?
6. How many ounces of formalin, a liquid, 100%-pure chemical are needed to treat a
holding tank 20 feet by 4 feet with a water depth of 2 1/2 feet to give a
concentration of 250 ppm?
(HINT: Formaiin is a liquid; therefore, the unit of weight in grams must be converted
to a volume unit. Do this by dividing the number of grams by 1.08, the specific
gravity of formalin.)
361
AQ-361
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
7. A 5-acre pond is choked with several aquatic weeds. You want to control the weeds
by applying a powder herbicide which is 100% pure. The recommended dosage is
3 pounds per acre-foot. The average depth of the pond is 41/2 feet. How many
pounds are required for trbdtment?
8. The average depth of a pond is 0.57 meter and the surface area is 0.01 hectare.
How much agricultural gypsum (80% pure) must be applied to produce a gypsum
concentration of 50 milligrams per liter?
9. How much algicide (100% active) is needed to treat a 10-acre pond with an average
water depth of 4 feet to produce a 1.3 ppm treatment?
10. How much herbicide is needed to treat a 17.5-acre pond with an average depth of
4 feet to obtain a concentration of 0.25 ppm? The herbicide has 75% A.l.
AQ-363

UNIT VII
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
ANALYZE FACILITY AERATOR NEEDS
You must have an aerator if you are commercially producing fish. However, if you are
culturing fish at a very low density (under 500 pounds per acre) you may not need an
aerator.
This assignment sheet is designed to help you become more familiar with the performance
of various types of mechanical aerators now on the market. Choosing the proper aerator
for your needs is very important. Before you make a decision or investment, find the
answers to the following questions.
Use the Louisiana State University Agricultural Center's publication, Guide to Oxygen
Management and Aeration in Commercial Fish Ponds, and informatio I obtained from
aeration equipment manufacturers, some of which are listed with addresses and phone
numbers in the back of the Louisiana publication. If you are not presently engaged in an
aquaculture enterprise, you will want to answer these questions based on your projected
needs at start-up.
1. What is the need for additional oxygen in the present aquaculture enterprise?
2. What special characteristics of the aquaculture enterprise need to be taken into

account?
EXAMPLES. Extensive, intensive, cage culture, water depth, regularity of shoreline,

expansion plans
3. To what seasonal extremes will the aerator be subjected?
4. How effective is the aerator?
How long will it take to raise the DO level in the entire pond? An increase in DO
near the aerator may be helpful in emergencies, but will have little effect on stock
growth in a healthy pond system. Cage cultured fish, however, might benefit from
a small aerator placed near the cage.
5. What type of energy do I want to use to power the equipment? Which power source
is most convenient and least expensive?
Aerators can be powered by tractor PTO's, electric motors, or gasoline propane,

or diesel engines. It is also possible to run an aerator on wind power with an electric
motor as back-up.
6. What will be the initial cost, including purchase or manufacture and installation?
7. How reliable is the system I am considering? Is a back-up necessary?
363
364
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
8. How well-built is the system? Will it require regular service? Is it warranted? Are
parts and service available locally?
9. What will be my operating costs?
Your costs are usually based on the efficiency of the machine and the cost of fuel
or electricity. Don't forget about probable increases in utility rates, and remember that
DO monitoring is a must for keeping aeration costs down.
10. What will be the value of additional fish produued, feed and health costs reduced,
etc.?
It may be i.npossible to predict results in your enterprise, but there are certain things
you can count on. If without aeration lethal DO levels would occur, the value of
aeration is the difference between a crop and no crop. If DO levels without aeration
are near the critical level for your species much of the time, then aeration coula lead
to better health, feed conversion, or growth. If DO levels are above the critical level
much of the time, ask yourself whether additional aeration would bring improvements
that would justify the cost?
364
AQ-365

UNIT VII
ANSWERS TO ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
1. 32 grams
2. 648 pounds
3. 74.75 kilograms or about 165 pounds
4. 1.56 liters
5. 218.7 or 219 pounds
6. 44.3 fluid ounces
7. 67.5 pounds
8. 3.56 kilograms
9. 140.4 pounds
10. 62.8 pounds
365
AQ-367

UNIT VII
JOB SHEET #1
CONSTRUCT AND USE A SECCHI DISC
TO MEASURE TURBIDITY
(NOTE. Secchi discs are 20 centimeters (approximately 8 inches) in diameter and

may be purchased from scientific supply companies or constructed of sheet metal,
plexiglass, or masonite.)
1. 12" x 12" piece of sheet metal
2. Sheet metal snips
3. Eye bolt
4. Lead weight with hole in center
(NOTE: The weight will be attached to the underside of the disc to allow it to
sink readily. A diving weight works well on discs of sheet metal, plexiglass,
or masonite. A large heavy magnet can be used on a disc made of sheet
metal.)
5. Compass
6. Awl
7. Flat black and flat white marine paint that will adhere to sheet metal
8. 5 feet of calibrated line
9. Rule
10. Pen or pencil and data book for recording results
11. Small open boat for reaching testing locations
B. Procedure for constructing Secchi disc
1. Use compass (or pencil and string) to mark an 8-inch (20 centimeter) circle
on the square of sheet metal.
2. Cut out circle evenly with sheet ,etal snips, taking care not to bend the
metal or cut your fingers on the sharp edges.
3. Measure 4 inches (10 centimeters) in from outside edge and make a small
hole in the center with the awl.
366
368
JOB SHEET #1
4. Paint the top of the disc with flat white paint and allow to dry.
5. Draw two perpendicular diameter lines on the white surface to create

quadrants as shown in Figure 1.
FIGURE 1
1/4.
graduated rope
From Water Quality Management in Pond Fish Culture by Claude E. Boyd and Frank Lichtkoppler. With
permission of Auburn University.
6. Paint two opposite quadrants flat black and allow to dry.
7. Attach lead weight and graduated line with eye bolt as shown in Figure 1.
(NOTE: If you do not have a graduated line, you can use a ruled 1-meter
stick instead.)
8. Clean work area and put away equipment and materials used to construct
the disc.
C. Procedure for measuring turbidity with Secchi disc
(NOTE. Conditions for taking Secchi disc readings should be standardized. It is wise
to take measurements on clear, sunny, calm days betwi. .1n 9 A.M. and 3 Rm.)
1. Work with a partner, and position boat so that you can take the
measurement on the downwind side of the boat with the sun behind you.
2. Record in your data book the date, time, and location of test.
3. Lower disc into water until it just disappears.
4. Viewing the disc directly from above, read the calibrated line or meter stick
and have your partner record this measurement in the data book.
367 40 1
AQ-369
JOB SHEET #1
5. Lower tile disc a little more, and then raise it until it just reappears.
6. Viewing the disc directly from above, read the calibrated i;ne or meter
stick and have your partner record this measurement in the data book.
7. Add the two readings and divide by 2 to find the average; this figure will
be the Secchi disc visibility measurement.
8. Change roles and repeat the test several times for comparison and
practice.
9. Clean all equipment and return it to proper storage.
238
AQ-371

UNIT VII
JOB SHEET #2
USE AN OXYGEN METER TO MEASURE DO
1. DO meter
2. Pen or pencil and data book
3. Small open boat for reaching testing locations
B. Procedure
(NOTE: Take readings at dawn and dusk several feet from the shoreline, at both
encN of the pond, and near the center of the pond.)
1. Begin at dawn, and position boat at one end of pond; record in data book
date, time of day, and approximate location.
2. Following manufacturer's instructions, calibrate meter accuracy.
3. Insert meter probe about six inches into water and move probe slowly back
and forth to obtain surface reading; record reading in data book.
4. Repeat this procedure at mid-depth and then at near bottom depth, recording
each reading in data book.
5. Move to the center of the pond ana then to the opposite end; measure
surface, mid-depth, and near bottom DO levels at each of these locations as
described in Steps 3 and 4; record measurements in data book.
6. Repeat measuring procedure at dusk and again the following dawn.
7. Find net DO production by subtracting the dawn reading 11-om the dusk
reading.
8. Find DO demand by subtracting the dusk reading from the following dawn
reading.
(NOTE: You will interpret readings and predict depletion in Job Sheet #4.)
9. Return equipment and materials to proper storage.
369
AQ-373

UNIT VII
JOB SHEET #3
USE A WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS KIT
TO TEST WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
1. Water analysis kit
2. Length of chain or stick 2 feet longer than greatest depth of pond i

L.,
3. 6 eyebolts
4. Length of cord 2 feet longer than greatest depth of pond
5. Lead weigh,
6. Pen or penci. id data book
7. Small, open boat for reaching sampling locations
B. Proceduo3
1. Construct a device for lowering sampler bottle to collection derts (similar to

that in Figure 1 or Figure 2 below).
FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2
\
Rubber Stopper
Eye Hook Eye Hooks
Eye Bolt
/ Rubber Stoppir
.
,
, Weight
Latch
Rubber Strap
From Water Quality Management in Pond Fish Culture by Claude E. Boyd end Frank Lichtkoppler. With
permission of Aubum University.
370
374
JOB SHEET #3
2. Collect water samples for DO and CO2 analyses from surface, mid-depth, and
bottom water layers from the center of the pond and several feet from
shoreline at both ends of the pond; avoid sample sites near inflow pipe or
near aerator.
(NOTE: Water samples for DO and CO2 analyses must be collected so that
they do not come in contact with the atmosphere because gases can oe lost
or absorbed from the atmosphere.)
a. Collect surface sample.
1) Place sampler bottle and stopper below water surface.
2) Invert both bottle and stopper to allow all trapped air to escape.
3) Place stopper snugly in bottle before lifting bottle from water.
4) Label bottle "02 & CO2 Sample"; note also on label the date,
time of collection, depth collected and location collected.
b. Collect lepth samples.
1) Lower snugly stoppered bottle to desired depth.
2) Pull on cord to jerk out stopper and allow bottle to fill.

3) Lift bottle slowly to surface.
i
4) Label mid-depth and bottom sample bottles as you did for surface
sample.
3. CoHect water samples for total alkalinity, total hardness, pH, ammonia, nitrite,
and hydrogen sulfide analyses from surface, mid-depth, and bottom water
layers from the center of the pond and several feet from shoreline at both
ends of the pond.
4. Return to classroom or laboratory and analyze your samples.
a. Carefully follow all directions in your water analysis kit.
b. Measure and perform each procedure with as much precision as

possible: even small errors in measuring the sample or chemical reagent
volumes can greatly exaggerate the final results.
5. Repeat sampling and analyses as required.
3 71
AQ-375

UNIT VII
JOB SHEET #4
PREDICT LOW DO LEVELS USING
SECCH1 DISC, PROJECTION, AND CHART METHODS
1. Secchi disc
2. Water thermometer
3. DO meter
4. Pen or pencil and data book
5. Graph paper
6. Rule
7. Handout #1 (chart on critical Secchi disc readings for different standing crop
weights of channel catfish)
B. Procedure for Secchi disc method of predicting low DO levels
(NOTE. This predictive method does not work in ponds having more than 4,000
pounds of fish per acre, in ponds with excessive silt or clay turbidity, or in ponds
with water temperatures over 90°F.)
1. Measure Secchi disc depth and water temperature in the late afternoon.
2. Use table in Handout #1 to determine minimum allowable Secchi disc reading.
EXAMPLES: If DO level in late afternoon is 10 ppm, temperature of water

is 82°F, and the standing crop of fish is 500 pounds per acre,
any Secchi disc reading should predict continuing safe levels of
DO. If the DO level is less than 7 ppm, however, any Secchi
disc reading less than 7 inches would indicate the potential for
impending unsafe DO levels.
C. Procedure for Boyd projection method of predicting low DO levels
1. Use DO meter to measure DO at dusk and 2 to 4 hours later, taking readings

at the surface and about one-quarter, one-half, and three-quarters of total
depth at each point of measurement.
2. Find the average reading for aach depth.
3. Find an overall average by adding the averages of each site and dividing by
the Number of locations measured.
372
JOB SHEET #4
4. Plot these values against the measurement times on a graph similar that in
Figure 1.
(NOTE: Here, dissolved oxygen was 8 ppm at 8:00 p.m. and 6 ppm at 11:00
p.m. The DO concentration at 6:00 a.m. wn 1 ppm.)
FIGURE 1
9-
. Measured
Values
ots
co
Projected
so
. Values
sr
es
I I s 1
8-00 11:CO MO 6-00

p.m curs. am. am.
Test Times
Adapted from R. P. Romaire and C. E. Boyd, 1978, 'Predicting Nighttime Oxygen Depletion in Catfish
Ponds." Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn University, Bulletin 505. As found in Third
Report to the Fish Framers, page 25.
5. Draw a straighi line through the two points to estimate the DO at later hours
during the night.
D. Procedure for chart method of predicting low DO
1. Take dawn and dusk DO readings at the same locations and depths for one
week.
(NOTE: Aquaculturists take these readings throughout the summer and chart
them separately for each pond. The one-week ;nterval specified here is for
instructional purposes only.)
3 73
AQ-377
JOB SHEET #4
2. Chart readings on a graph set up like that in Figure 2.
(NOTE: The difference between DO concentration at dawn and dusk

represents net DO production. The difference between dusk and dawn
represents DO demand.)
FIGURE 2 Daily dissolved oxygen readings taken at dusk (circles) and

dawn (squares). (A) represents increased oxygen demand and
(B) represents decreased oxygen production without decreased
oxygen demand.
I I I
MN 4 a.m. 8 a.m. 8 p.m. MN 4 a.m. 8 a.m.

TIME
From Water Quality in Channel Catfish Ponds. With permission.
3 7 el
A0-379

UNIT VII
PRACTICAL TEST #1
JOB SHEET #1
CONSTRUCT AND USE A SECCHI DISC TO MEASURE TURBIDITY
Student's name Date
Student instructions. When you are ready to perform this task, ask your instructor to
PROCESS EVALUATION
(EVALUATOR NOTE. Place a check mark in the ''Yes" or "No" boxes to designate whether
or not the tudent has satisfactorily achieved each step in this procedure. If the student
is unable to achieve this competency, have the student review the mdterials and try again.)
The student: Yes No
1. Laid out and cut disc to proper dimensions. O0

2. Painted disc with proper colors in proper quadrants. O0
3. Attached weight and graduated line properly. 0
4. Worked with partner to position boat correctly. O0
5. Made readings and recorded data accurately. O0
6. Measured turbidity accurately. O0
7. Cleaned equipment and returned to proper storage. O0
,375
380
PRODUCT EVALUATION
-
numbers. Each item rni.:: be rated at least a "3" for mastery to be demonstrated. [See
evaluation.)
Criteria: Good Acceptable Fair Poor
Secchi disc preparation 4 3 2 1
Boat positioning 4 3 2 1
Readings and data 4 3 2 1
Turbidity measurement 4 3 2 1
4 SkilledCan perform job with no additional training.

3 Moderately skilled Has performed job during training program; additional
training may be required.
2 Limited skill Has performed job during training program; additional training is
required to develop skill.
(EVALUATOR NOTE: If an average score is needed to coincide with a competency profile,

total the designated points In "Product Evaluation" and divide by the total number of
criteria.)
3 76
AQ-381

UNIT VII
PRACTICAL TEST #2
JOB SHEET #2
USE AN OXYGEN METER TO MEASURE DO
Student's name Date
PROCESS EVALUATION
(EVALUATOR NOTE: Place a check mark in the "Yes" or "No" boxes to desianate whether
The student: Yes No
1. Began at dawn with correct boat position.
2. Calibrated DO meter to specifications.
3. Made surface, mid-depth, and bottom readings.
4. Repeated readings at strategic pond locations.
5. Repeated procedure at dusk and at followIng

dawn.
6. Properly recorded DO production.
7. Properly calculated DO demand.
8. Returned equipment to proper storage.
an
382
PRODUCT EVALUATION
evaluation.)
Procedure and timing 4 3 2 1
DO meter calibration 4 3 2 1
DO production measurement 4 3 2 1
DO demand measurement 4 3 2 1
4 SkilledCan perform job with no additional training. -

3 Moderately skilled Has performed job during training program, limited additional
2 Limited skill Has performed job during training program, additional training is
required to develop ski:.
(EVALUATOR NOTE: If an average score is needed to coincide with a competency profile,

criteria.)
378
AQ-383

UNIT VII
PRACTICAL TEST #3
JOB SHEET #3
USE A WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS KIT TO TEST
WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
Student's name Date
PROCESS EVALUATION
(EVALUATOR NOTE. Place a check mark in the "Yes" or "No" boxes to designate whether
The student: Yes No
1. Prepared sampler bottle properly. ID ID
2. Collected surface, mid-depth, and bottom samples

at critical pond locations for DO and CO2 analysis.
00
3. Collected surface, mid-depth, and bottom samples ID ID
at critical pond locations for chemical and pH anaiysis.
4. Made lab analyses according to kit manufacturer

specifications.
00
5. Evaluated analyses properly. ID ID
6. Repeated sampling and analyses as required. 00

7. Returned equipment to proper storage. 00
Evaluator's comments*
379
384
PRODUCT EVALUATION
(EVALUATOR NOTE. Rate the student on the following criteria by circling the appropriate
performance evaluation key below.] !f the student is unable te demonstrate mastery,
student materials should be reviewed and another test procedur,1 must be submitted for
evaluation.)
Sampler bottle preparation 4 3 2 1
DO and CO2 sample collection 4 3 2 1
Chemical and pH sample collection 4 3 2 1
Lab analyses 4 3 2 1
4 SkilledCan perform jnb' with no additional training.

2 Limited skill Has performed job during training program, additional trainktg is
(EVALUATOR NOTE. If an average score is needed to coincide with a competency profile,

criteria.)
380
AQ-385

UNIT VII
PRACTICAL TEST #4
JOB SHEET #4
PREDICT LOW DO LEVELS USING SECCH1 DISC,
PROJECTION, AND CHART METHODS
Student's name Date
Evaluator's name Attempt no
Student instructions. When you are ready to perform this task, ask your instructor to I
Evaluation" must receive a "Yes" for you to receive an overall performance evaluation. i
PROCESS EVALUATION
try again.)
The student: Yes No
1. Made late afternoon Secchi disc measurements El El

and evaluations.
2. Took DO meter readings for projection method. 00

3. Plotted DO measurements and obtained projected O0
values.
4. Took week-long DO readings for chart method. O0

5. Plotted DO readings on chart. O0
6. Returned equipment to proper storage. 00
Evaluator's comments-
381
PRODUCT EVALUATION
evaluation.)
Secchi disc method 4 3 2 1
Projection method 4 3 2 1
Chart method 4 3 2 1
EVALUATOR'S COMMENTS:
4 SkilledCan perform job with no additional training.

1 Unskilled Is familiar with pcess, but is unable to perform job.

total the designated points in "Product Evaluation" and divide by the total numbe, of
criteria.)
3 82
AQ-387

UNIT VII
TEST
NAME SCORE
1. Match terms related to water quality management with their definitions. Write the
a. Muddy or cloudy water caused by 1. B.O.D

suspended particles of soil or plankton
2. Oxidation
b. Swirling agitation of water
3. Turbidity
c. Organisms that can live and grow
where there is no free oxygen 4. Sediment
d. Measure of salt in water 5. Aerobes
e. The union of a substance with oxygen 6. Secchi disc

resulting in increased positive or
decreased negative valence or ion 7. Anaerobes
f. Death, particularly death from disease 8. Toxicity

or on a large scale
9. Mortality
Measure of pH buffering abiiity
10. Alkalinity
To separate out from solution
11. Buffer
i. Matter that settles to the bottom of the
pond 12. Turbulence
______l. Poisonous
k. Any substance in a solution that tends

to stabilize the hydrogen ion
concentration by neutralizing any added
acid or alkali
I. Organisms that can live or grow only

where free oxygen is present
rn. Greater than normal solubility of a

chemical (oxygen, nitrogen) as a result
of unusual temperatures or pressures
s 383
388
TEST
n. Instrument used to measure light 13. Salinity

penetration and thus turbidity
14. Precipitate
o. Biochemical oxygen demand; based on
total mass (biomass) and not on 15. Supersaturation
individual numbers of stock
16. Oxygen transfer
_____s. A measure of the percent of the total efficiency
oxygen used that a device is able to
put into solution 17. Effluent
q. Water disdiarge from a rearing unit
Match compounds and elements with their chemical formulas and symbols. Write
a. Lime (calcium carbonate) 1. DO
Dissolved oxygen 2. 02
c. Copper 3. N2
d. Hydrogen sal. 4. CaHCO,
e. Arnmonium 5. NH,
f. Ammonia 6. NH,
A. Sodium bicarbonate 7. NO2
h. Nitrogen gas 8. NO,
Calcium 9. H2S
Potassium permanganate 10. Fe,
k. Oxygen gas 11. Fe,
Lead 12. Ca Co,
m. Nitrite 13. Ca(HCO3)2
n. Quicklime 14. Ca0

o. Zinc 15. Ca(OH),
Nitrate 16. CO2
Ferrous iron 17. H2Co3
r. Ferric iron 18. KMnO,

s. Calcium bicarbonate 19. Cu
OQA
AQ-389
TEST
t. Hydrated lime 20. Pb
u. Carbon dioxide 21. Zn
v. Carbonic acid 22. Ca
3. Discuss the importance of oxygen in water quality management by answering the

following questions.
a. What are the seven mcst important dissolved substances in natural water?
1) 5)
2) 6)
3) 7)
4)
b. What, in the aquaculturist's view, is the most important chemicai part of water?
c. What is the difference between the "0" in DO and the "0" in H20?
d. What is the ideal dawn DO reading in warmwater systems?
e. Why is water quality management not as simple as maintaining a certain

minimum DO to ensure survival?
f. What is the general rule of thumb for DO management?
g. What is the primary natural source of oxygen in the atmosphere?
h. How is DO supplied te raceways and troughs?
-, 385
390
TEST
4. Discuss the role of temperature in oxygen management by answering the following

questions.
a. How does temperature affect the amount of oxygen that can be dissolved in
water?
b. What happens to DO when high temperatures cause increased transpiration

in plants and increased decay of organic materials?
5. Match natural sources of water temperature variation with their effects. Write the
a. Affects heat absorption; dark water and 1. Solar radiation

colorless water over dark bottom absorb
heat faster than their opposites 2. Air temperature
b. Gravity-induced flow, and wind-induced 3. Water depth

waves may cause cooling currents that
serve to equalize pond temperature 4. Color of water and
bottom
c. Heats water and also causes
evaporation, which reduces depth and 5. Circulation
volume, thus accelerating the rate of
heating; shade moderates these effects
d. Causes shallow bodies of water to

warm and cool more rapidly than
deeper bodies of water; may cause
deep water to stratify, with the colder,
denser water sinking to the bottom
e. Affects the water below it by changing

its temperature, though water changes
temperature more slowly than air; the
larger the water surface in contact with
theair, the more rapidly the water
heats and cools; creates seasonal
water temperature variations that may
be limiting
386
A0-391
TEST
6. Match types of thermometers for measuring water temperature with their descriptions.
a. Designed to measure air, liquids, 1. Electronic probe

surfaces, and semi-solid materials, this thermometer
battery-powered digital-display
thermometer is easy to read and 2. Maximum-minimum
practical for quick and consistent thermometer
measurements
3. Fisherman's
b. A highly portable thermometer in a thermometer
rugged case so it cannot be easily
broken, this thermometer usually has a 4. Aquarium
top eyelet *n add weight and to provide thermometer
space for attaching a cord so that the
thermometer can be handily dropped to
different water levels.
c. Variously designed to float, clip to tank

or trough walls, or to rest upright on
bottom, this type of thermometer is
handy for small enclosures.
d. Designed to recoid highest and lowest

temperatures over a specified period,
this thermometer is useful in monitoring
daily temperature variations.
7. Select facts about temperature management techniques. Write the correct numbers
in the blanks.
a. Why are aquaculturists often limited to culturing only species that thrive
within specified ranges of their local temperature extremes?
1) It is difficult and cosfiy to manage water temperature.

2) No two species thrive at the same temperatures.
3) Species can only be cultured in their native habitats.
b. Which of the òllowing is a way of warming water that is too cool?
1) Adding heated water

2) Passing it through warming ponds
3) Using radiant heat form electric lights
c. Which of the following is NOT a way of cooling water that is too warm?
1) Removing some warm water and replacing with an equal amount

of cool water
2) Using mechanical coolers
3) Providing for shade and wind action
387
392
TEST
8. List four causes of DO loss.
9. List six signs of oxygen deficiency.
10. Select facts about preventing DO depletion. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. What are the three major actions to avoid?
1) Over-aerating, over-warming, over-harvesting

2) Over-seining, over-planting, over-medicating
3) Over-feeding, over-stocking, over-fertilizing
b. Why must you control green plant growth?
1) Plants compete with fish for available DO

2) Plants compete with fish for available 02
3) Plants compete with fish for available CO2
c. Which two variables should be routinely monitored and measured?
1) Water volume and plankton content

2) Turbidity and pH
3) Temperature and DO
d. Why must silt and plankton turbidity be monitored?
1) Interferes with sunlight penetration and prevents photosynthesis

2) Interferes with sunlight penetration and prevents transpiration
3) Interferes with sunlight penetration and prevents oxidation
4388
AQ-393
TEST
e. Why should you attempt to predict when DO wili fall below acceptable
levels?
1) So that you will know what size aerator to purchase

2) So that you can keep accurate records
3) So that you can take preventive action
11. Select from a list guidelines for measuring DO. Write an "X" in the blank before
each true statement.
a. Measure DO weekly so that measurements can be used as a preventive

rather than as a diagnostic tool.
b. Take measurements at dawn, at noon, and two hours later to see how
fast the DO level is declining.
c. Measure DO levels throughout the night during hot, cloudy weather,

during intense feeding or fertilization programs, or at any time when
there is a sudden increase in B.O.D., and DO is apt to fall to critically
low levels.
d. Measure DO at least 6 inches below the surface and at a variety of

locations and depths because DO is generally highest at the surface and
around inflows and aerators and lowest at the bottom.
e. The best places to measure DO in a trout raceway are near the head
of the rearing unit and in its effluent; the difference between the two
readings is the neat DO used.
f. The best time to measure DO in trout rearing units is 1 hour before

feeding when the fishes' metabolism is low and they are not using much
DO.
12. Match DO measuring equipment with its descriptions. Write the coaect numbers
in the blanks.
a. Inexpensive and more precise, but also 1. Battery operated

more time consuming, this method meters
requires collecting water samples and
analyzing them chemically 2. Colormetric test kit
b. inexpensive and not very accurate, this 3. Titration test kit

method depends on discriminating
among colors that indicate 02 levels
c. Expensive but highly accurate and

convenient, this method requires
inserting a probe at various locations
and recording instant electronic
readings
6.8 9
394
TEST
13. Select from a list true statements about methods of correcting DO deficiency. Write
an "X" in the blank before each true statement.
a. The three major methods of correcting DO deficiency are mechanical

aeration, reducing demand, and altering physical or chemical factors.
b. The aquaculturist can reduce the demand for oxygen by removing

excess vegetation from the pond banks.
c. Increasing pond volume corrects DO deficiency by reducing the quantity

of organic material in proportion to total water volume.
d. Liming a pond is the quickest and most effective method of correcting

DO deficiency.
e. Adding an oxidizing agent corrects DO deficiency by "burning up"

organic material
14. Identify each of the following types of aerators. Write the correct names in the
blanks above the descriptions.
zSPLASH CONE
/ AND WEIGHT
7Ak FLOAT
ILI 4W ei
111
)
SUBMERSED MOTOR
AND PROPELLER
Device that increases the surface area of the water and exposes it to the air by
using a rotor or paddlewheel to break up and agitate the water surface.
AQ-395
TEST
AIR BLOWER
0
b
Highly efficient, deeply submerged device that combines diffuser aeration with
running water by running it over a bubbler, trapping it, an releasing it.
'391
396
TEST
rAIR
oa 4,
-al
I')Utt4P
Device that sucks air into the water so that bubbles are formed; a roto. may be
added to the motor to create additional turbulence.
System in which water falling through the air is broken into drops, increasing its
surface area.
392
AQ-397
TEST
* 7
WATER AND
17.0
* -... AIR
0
0
\I
.....\ _...
- -
_^ _-
_1- ......
..... .1-
.6
-
_
1111=
OP.
on..
. OM.
OM.
Ont.
Avow
OEM
4...
-_
.... ....
BUBBLESr" OM.
.. -- omm...
- MM.
- ...ow
-
e
Device composed of an open-ended pipe or tube into which air is released at the
submerged end.
/BLOWER
POROUS PIPE}
f.
Device that uses a compressor or blower to inuoduce air bubbles into the water.
..
333
TEST
'
Device having fins or paddles attached to a rotating drum; breaks up and agitates
the water surface.
h.
Device with suction, lift, or turbine pump that pumps water through lischarge slits
on a sprayer pipe.
394
AQ-399
TEST
15. Select facts about turbidity remedies. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. What two compounds can be added to water to reduce silt turbidity?
1) Gypsum and boric acid

2) Alum and gypsum
3) Lime and chloride
b. What is an organic method of reducing silt turbidity?
1) Adding compost
2) Scattering old hay
3) Broadcasting agricultural lime
c. When remedying organic turbidity, the aquamilturist must monitor pH.

What is the cut-off pH level?
1) 7.5
2) 8.5
3) 9.5
16. Complete statements about the importance of nitrogen compounds in water quality
management. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. Because air contains percent nitrogen gas and only about

percent oxygen gas, there is more dissolved nitrogen than DO in water.
1) 68; 31
2) 71. 28
3) 78; 21
b. Nitrogen gas is a probleim in water quality management only when .
1) 02 evaporates out of water and leaves it supersaturated with
2) water drops from a considerable height and the surrounding water

becomes supersaturated with N2.
3) electrical storms release the N2 in air and it diffuses into the
surrounding water, supersaturating it.
c. The blood of nearby fish can become supersaturated with N2, leading
to the same gas bubble disease that occurs in saturation.
1) hydrogen
2) carbon dioxide
3) oxygen
d. All of the forms of nitrogen are pollutants that can become toxic
to aquatic animals.
1) intermediate
2) saturated
3) hydrated
3 95
400
TEST
e. is the main source of all nitrogen compounds normaly found is

dissolved water.
1) Organic waste
2) Plant respiration
3) Nitrogen fixation
f. In the nitrogen cycle, nitrogen is converted to ammonia and ammonium,

which in turn are reducld by Nitrosomonas to nitrate, which is
then to nitrate by Nitrobacter
1) parasites; fertilized
2) bacteria; oxidized
3) plankton; pulverized
___ and are the most harmful intermediate forms of nitrogen.

1) ammoniurn; nitrite
2) ammonia; nitrate
3) ammonia; nitrite
h. is pntentially the most dangerous intermediate form of nitrogen;

concentrations of or more call for remedial action.
1) Ammonia; 0.1
2) Nitrite; .01
3) Ammonium; 1.0
I. Ammonium is times less toxic than ammonia.
1) 75 to 300
2) 75 to 200
3) 75 to 100
.______i The proportion of ammonia and ammonium in equilibrium is determined

by .
1) water temperature
2) pH and temperature
3) photosynthesis
k. A concentration of ppm of nitrite can be critical, depending on

species and amount of chlorides in the water.
1) 0.5
2) 0.05
3) 5.0
396
AQ-401
TEST
I. Nitrate acts as a but can become a pollutant, though toxic levels

are 50 to 100 times those of nitrite.
1) buffer
2) oxidizing agent
3) fertilizer
m. Generally ammonia, nitrite and nitrate pollution and toxicity are problems
only in .
1) raceways
2) intensive cultures and closed systems
3) large levee ponds
17. Complete statements about pH and water quality. Write the correct numbers in the
blanks.
a. The pH of water is influenced by the amount of in solution; most

natural bodies of freshwater have a pH between .
1) carbon dioxide; 6 and 9

2) calcium carbonate; 4 and 11
3) calcium bicarbonate; 7 and 14
b. The acid and basic death points for fishes are about respectively,
though critical levels vary slightly for different species.
1) 6 and 9
2) 4 and 11
3) 7 and 14
c. raises CO2 and thus lowers pH; therefore, intensive aquacultural
enterprises are more susceptible to pH fluctuations than extensive
enterprises.
1) Re4iration
2) Photosynthesis
3) Decomposing waste
d. lowers CO2, and thus raises pH

1) Respiration
2) Photosynthesis
3) Decomposing waste
37
402
TEST
e. Aquaculturists use (limes) to buffer pH and control fluctuations.
1) potassium permanganates
2) hydrogen sulfides
3) calcium carbonates
f. waters diluted by heavy rain or snowmelt may become very acidic.
1) Potassium-poor
2) Nitrogen-poor
3) Calcium-poor
18. Select from the following list methods of managing the pH cycle. Write an "X" in
the blank before each true statement.
a. Aquaculturists should try to maintain pH between 6.5 (slightly acidic)

and 9.0 (somewhat basic).
b. Water does not have to be maintained at a minimum pH for the species

as long as sudden fluctuations that shock and stress the stock are
prevented.
c. Determine pH at start-up and then check morning, noon, and evening

once a week for extensive enterprises with satisfactory growth, and
once a day for intensive enterprises.
d. Monitor pH before, after, and constantly during fertilizer or lime

treatments.
e. The two basic preventive management techniques are avoiding organic

overloading and adding calcium carbonate, either through filtration or
liming.
f. If pH is too high and remains so, it can be adjusted by liming or

pumping in well-buffered well water.
19. List six purposes of liming.
f.
398
AQ-403
TEST
20. Select from a list general guidelines for water chemistry management. Write an "X"
in the blank before each true statement.
a. Get baseline data on temperature, DO, pH, and alkalinity after stocking
and check your water supplyparticularly if it is well or groundwaterfor
hydrogen sulfide and iron.
b. Before your start, find the closest person who can help you if you
encounter a problem you cannot diagnose or treat, perhaps an
experienced fish farmer, a county extension agent, or someone in a
university.
c. Know your water, and the variables and chemicals that affect it.
d. Give priority to CO2 management.
e. Monitor chemistry and appropriate variables, keep complete and accurate

records, and do not wait until there is a problem to do chemical testing.
f. Always know what is going into your water, and do not add any
substance without considerinp the possible effects on all important
chemical parameters.
Avoid organic overloading by being cautious with feed and fertilizer,

and avoid it from the start by choosing the most intensive system you
can afford.
h. Perform chemical tests daily.
i. Monitor your stock's growth; it is biomass, not the number of fish, that
determines B.O.D. and volume of wastes.
_____.1- Do everything you can in terms of diet and disease control to keep your
3tock healthy and to keep the water free of harmful disease-producing
organisms.
339
404
TEST
21. Match aquatic plant control methods with their descriptions. Write the correct
numbers in the blanks. Numbers will be used more than once.
a. Grow rapidly to several pounds and 1. Herbicide

may injure farm species when seined
2. Natural algicide
b. Used to control macrophytes;
administered according to labei 3. Synthetic algicide
instructions and cautions; and harmless
to fish in recommended concentrations 4. Fertilizer
c. Used to control phytoplankton, though 5. Crass carps
rapidly decaying phytoplankton may
lead to DO depletion 6. Manual control
d. Cutting, pulling, or raking of rooted
plants
e. Controls the growth of vascular plants

(macrophytes) by creating plankton
turbitt,y, which shades pond bottom
and prevents photosynthesis
f. Eat tremendous quantities of vascular

plants when stocked 10 to 40 per acre,
but cannot legally be stocked in many
states
g. Is applied by dissolving in water

according to label instructions; is not
harmful to fish when applied in
recommended doses, but rapidly
decaying phytoplankton may lead to
DO depletion
h. Is extremely toxic to phytoplankton, and

has long residual toxicity, prohibiting
regrowth
i. Has no residual toxicity, so

macrophytes will rrigrow and require
repeated applications; decaying
macrophytes may lead to DO dep:etion
____i. Will kill fish if administered in doses of

0.5 to 1.0 ppm to waters with alkalinity
below 20 ppm
k. Is most effective on ponds with no

areas shallower than 2 feet, but may
create DO depletion if plankton die off
400
AQ-405
TEST
(NOTE: If the following activities have not been accomplished prior to the test, ask your
22. Calculate dosages for chemical treatments. (Assignment Sheet #1)
23. Analyze facility aerator needs. (Assignment Sheet #2)
a. Use a Secchi disc to measure turbidity. (Job Sheet #1)
b. Use an 02 meter to measure DO. (Job Sheet #2)
c. Use a water analysis kit to test water quality parameters. (Job Sheet #3)
d. Predict low DO levels, using Secchi disc, projection, and chart methods.
(Job Sheet #4)
401
* WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
UNIT VII
AQ-407
£
ANSWERS TO TEST
1. a. 3 j. 8
b. 12 k. 11
C. 7 I. 5
d. 13 m. 15
e. 2 n. 6
f. 9 o. 1
g. 10 p. 16
h. 14 q. 17
i. 4
2. a. 12 I. 20
b. 1 m. 7
c. 19 n. 14
d. 9 o. 21
e. 6 p. 8
f. 5 q. 10
g. 4 r. 11
h. 3 s. 13
i. 22 t. 15
j. 18 u. 16
k. 2 v. 17
3. a. 1) Oxygen
2) Nitrogen compounds
3) Alkalines
4) Hydrogen sulfide
5) Carbon dioxide
6) Iron
7) pH
b. Dissolved oxygen
c. 02 is pure oxygen; the 0 in water is bound by hydrogen
d. Above 4 ppm
e. Fish may not grow
f. More DO is better than less
g. Photosynthesis
h. By continuously flowing fresh water
4. a. The higher the water temperature the less oxygen it will hold
b. Reduces DO levels
5. a. 4
b. 5
c. 1
d. 3
e. 2
402
408
ANSWERS TO TEST
6. a. 1
b. 3
C. 4
d. 2
e. 2
7. a. 1
b. 2
C. 2
8. Answer should include any four of the following:
a. Respiration by aerobes
b. High temperatures
c. Oxidation of organic matter
d. Oxidation of inorganic substances
e. Diffusion
9. Answer should include any six of the following:
a. Fish not eating food and acting more sluggish than usual
b. Fish gasping (piping) for air at water surface
c. Fish grouped near the water inflow pipe
d. Other aquatic animals such as crayfish and snaHs crawling out of the water
in numbers
e. Fish-eating birds gathering at pond, especially in the morning
f. Turbidity caused by heavy plankton die-offs
g. Repeated outbreaks of stress-related disease and parasites
h. Slow growth
10. a. 3
b. 1
c. 3
d. 1
e. 3
11. c, d, e
12. a. 3
b. 2
c. 1
13. a, c, e
403
AQ-409
ANSWERS TO TEST
6 14. a.
b.
Surface aerator
U-tube aerator
c. Venturi aerator
d. Gravity aerator
e. Air-lift pump aerator
f. Diffused air aerator
g. Paddlewheel aerator
h. Pump sprayer
15. a. 2
b. 2
c. 3
16. a. 3 h. 1
b. 2 i. 3
c. 3 j. 2
d. 1 k. 1
e. 1 I. 3
f. 2 m. 2
g. 3
17. a. 1
b. 2
41) C. 1
d. 2
e. 3
f. 3
18. a, d, e, f
19. Answer should include any six of the following
a. Raising the pH of the water

b. Raising the pH of the mud, upon which the effectiveness of fertilizers depends
c. Buffering or stabilizing pH
d. Increasing alkalinity of water by making more caicium available
e. Accelerating the decomposition and mineralization of organic matter, making
it available without depleting DO
f. Killing many fish parasites without harming the fish
g. Precipitating out excessive suspended organic material
h. Increasing the amount of carbon available for photosynthesis by increasing
the amount of bicarbonate in the system
20. b, c, e, f, i, j
404
410
ANSWERS TO TEST
21. a. 5 g. 3
ta
b. 1 h. 3
c. 2 I. 1
d. 6 j. 2
e. 4 k. 4
f. 5
ai. Evaluated to the satisfaction of the instructor

c. Evaluated according to criteria in Practical Test #3
d. Evaluated according to criteria in Practical Test #4
to
AQ-411
FISH HEALTH MANAGEMENT

UNIT VIII
+.,
UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completion of this unit, the student should be able to recognize signs and symptoms
of common diseases of commercially cultured fish, discuss measures used for disease
prevention and control, calculate treatment rates, prepare specimens for laboratory
diagnosis, and keep accurate health management records. These competencies will be
evidenced by correctly completing the procedures outlined in assignment and job sheets,
and by scoring a minimum of 85 percent on the unit (est.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Match terms associated with fish health management with their correct
definitions.
2. Match terms associated with skin and tissue conditions with their correct
definitions.
3. Match terms associated with severity of disease or condition with their correct
definitions.
4. Match terms associated with behavior or appearance of sick fish with their
correct definitions.
5. Discuss the role of stress in fish diseases.
6. List common stressors of fish.
7. Select from a list signs of stress and disease.
8. Select factual statements about common pathogenic viruses.
9. Select factual statements about common pathogenic bacteria.
10. Complete statements about common pathogenic fungi.
11. Complete statements about common pathogenic protozoan parasites.
12. Complete statements about common pathogenic crustacean parasites.
13. Select factual statements about common pathogenic worm parasites.
40,.
412
OBJECTIVE SHEET
14. Select factual statements about general management measures for preventing
disease outbreaks.
15. Select factual statements about basic hygiene for disease prevention and
corrective management.
16. Match treatment methods with their administration specifics.
17. Complete a list of general guidelines for treatment of fish diseases.
18. Select factual statements about regulations for chemical application in fish
production.
19. Solve problems related to common diseases and conditions of fish.

20. Calculate treatment rates. (Assignment Sheet #2)
21. Prepare a list of local, area, or state specialists to contact in the event of a
disease emergency. (Assignment Sheet #3)
22. Report on the activities and procedures observed at a disease diagnostic

laboratory. (Assignment Sheet #4)
23. Complete record-keeping forms on fish health management practices.

N. Demonstrate the ability to prepare and package a specimen for shipment to

a diagnostic laboratory. (Job Sheet #1)
407
AO-4 i3

UNIT VIII
A. Invite a representative from a diagnostic laboratory to speak to the class.
B. Urge students to acquire the latest edition of A Guide to Approved Chemicals in Fish
Production and Fishery Resource Management (or a comparable resource) for their
libraries. Copies can be obtained from the University of Arkansas Cooperative
Extension Service.
C. Make transparencies.
D. Provide students with objective sheet. Discuss unit and specific objectives.
E. Provide students with information sheet. Discuss information sheet, tailoring

information to fit local needs.
F. Provide students with assignment sheets. Discuss and schedule assignment sheets,
critique in class.
G. Use overheads to demonstrate completion of record keeping forms in Assignment

Sheet #5.
H. Schedule and demonstrate job sheet, complete Practical Test to evaluate student
performance.
I. Give written test.
A. Belusz, Larry. Fish Farming Techniques. Columbia, Missnuri. University of Missouri

Instructional Materials Laboratory, 1987.
B. Hoffman, Glenn L., and Andrew J. Mitchell. Some Parasites and Diseases of
Warmwater Fishes, Fish and Wildlife Leaflet 6. Stuttgart, Arkansas. Fish Farming
Experiment Station/U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1986.
C. Jensen, Gary L. Handbook for Common Calculations in Finfish Aquaculture. Baton

Rovge, Louisiana: Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service/Louisiana State
Agrbultural Center, 1987.
D. Meyer, Fred P. Treatment Tips: How to Determine Chemical Treatments in Fish

Farming. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979.
E. Meyer, Fred P., J.W. Warren, and T. G. Carey. A Guide to Integrated Fish Health
Management in the Great Lakes BasA Ann Arbor, Michigan. Great Lakes Fishery
Commission, 1983.
408
414
F. Moore, Brenda Rogers. "Parasites and Diseases in Pond Fish" in Third Report to
the Fish Farmers. The Status of Warmwater Fish Faaning and Progress in Fish
G. Plumb, John A., ed. Principal Diseases of Farm Raised Catfish, Southern
Cooperative Series Bulletin No. 225. Auburn University, Alabama: Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station, rev. 1985.
H. Post, George. Textbook of Fish Health. Neptune City, New Jersey: T.F.H.
Publications, 1987.
Schnick, Rosalie A., Fred P. Meyer, and D. Leroy Gray. A Guide to Approved
Chemicals in Fish Production and Fishery Resource Management. Little Rock,
Arkansas. Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service/U.S. Fish a Id Wildlife Service,
1989.
J. Schubert, Dr. Gottfried. Fish Diseases. A Complete Introduction. Neptune City, New
Jersey: T.F.H. Publications, 1987.
K. Van Ramshorst, Dr. J.D., ed. Aquarium Encyclopedia of Tropical Freshwater Fish.
Tucson, Arizona: H.P. Books, 1981.
49
AQ-415

UNIT VIII
INFORMATION SHEET
A. Stress Physical strain or weakening caused by changes in the environ-

ment that require the fish to use energy to adjust
B. Pathogen Disease-causing organism
C. Pathogenic Producing disease
D. Parasite Plant or animal that lives on or in another animal, usually causing

harm
EXAMPLES: Fungi, bacteria, protozoa, worms, grubs, flukes, lice
E. Host Animal on or in which a parasite lives
1. Cyst Round, thick membrane with which some pa,asites are surrounded
when in the resting state (Transparency 1)
G. Encyst To encipse or become enclosed in a cyst, capsule. or sac
H. Prophylactic Preventing or protecting against disease
EXAMPL'i: Fry are often prophylactically treatQl with oxytetracycline

(Terramycin) before stocking in order to lessen their susceptibility
to disease caused by the stresses of handling.
I. Hemorrhage Bleeding
J. Pus Yellowish-white liquid produced in certain infections
K. Ciliated Having short, fine, hairlike growths that aid in movement, as found
on many adult protozoans
L. Spore Single-cell reproductive unit capable of creating a new adult

individual
M. Tolerance Residue levels of a drug or chemical that are permitted by

regulatory agencies in food eaten by humans
EXAMPLE: The tolerance for oxytetracycline (Terramycin) is 0.1 ppm in

salmonids and catfish. This means that any of these fish sold for
food may contain no more than 0.1 ppm of the drug at the time
of slaughter.
N. Pesticide Broad name for chemicals tnat control or kill insects, fungi,
parasites, and other pests
410
416
INFORMATION SHEET
0. Withdrawal timc Period of time that must pass after drug, chemical, or
pesticide treatment before an animal can be eaten
EXAMPLE: The withdrawal time for oxytetracycline (Terramycin) is 20 days.

This means that oxytetracyciine treatment must be stopped 20
days before fish are marketed for food.
P. Facultative Capable of living under varying conditions
EXAMPLE: Some bacteria are capable of living in the presence or absence

of oxygen; some parasites can live on dead organic matter or
living tissues.
Q. Opportunistic Waiting for a combination of favorable circumstances
EXAMPLE: Opportunistic bacteria and parasites live harmlessly in the same

water with fish, infecting only fish weakened by stress, or infecting
only under specific circumstances such as a particular temperature
range.
II. Terms associated with skin and tissue conditions

A. Lesion An injury, damage, or wound
B. Cyst An abnormal pocket or sac-like structure filled with fluid or diseased

matter
C. Ulcer An open sore (other than a wound) on the skin or membrane that
festers and contains pus
D. Fistula An abnormal tube-like passcage from an abscess or hollow organ

to the skin
E. Abscess Swollen area in the body tissue where pus gathers
F. Necrosis Condition in which tissue is dead or decayed
G. Nodule Small knot, knob, or lump of tissue
H. Edema Fluid-filled, swollen tissue condition
Ill. Terms associated with severity of disease or condition

A. Chronic Disease lasting a long time or recurring
B. Acute Disease of severe but short duration; not chronic
C. Virulent Extremely infectious or malignant
D. Malignant Very harmful; causing or likely to cause death
E. Benign Doing little or no harm; not malignant
4 1.1
AQ-417
INFORMATION SHEET
F. lafectious Said of diseases that are caused by pathogens; catching;

capable ot being transmitted from one fish or animal to another
EXAMPLE: Infectious disease may be caused by bacteria, viruses, or other

parasites.
G. Noninfectious Said of conditions, disorders, and abnormalities that are not

caused by pathogens and cannot be transmitted from one fish or animal to
another
EXAMPLES: Nutritional disorders, contaminant problems (brown blood
disease), environmental stressors, behavioral and physical
abnormalities
IV. Terms associated with behavior or appearance of sick fish
A. Flashing Twisting, turning sideways, and rubbing on plants or objects when

swimming
B. Tarring Rising to the water surface
C. Piping Gasping at water surface
D. Erratic swimming Abnormal swim patterns such as whirling or spiraling,

head standing, or darting wildly
E. Lethargy Listlessness; slow, weak movements
F. Edema Abnormal accumulation of fluid in the cells that causes swelling,

protruding scales, and bulging eyes
V. The role of stress in fish diseases (Transparency 1)
A. Three factors must occur together for an infectious disease outbreak to

develop:
1. The presence of a pathogen,
2. Susceptible fish,
3. A predisposing (stressful) condition.
(NOTE: Experienced fish farmers take precautions to prevent the

simultaneous occurrence of these three factors. Their precautions make
up the preventive medicine or health maintenance program of an
aquacultural program.)
B. Many fish pathogens are common in ponds and natural water systems where
fish are present, but they cause problems only when fish are weakened or
made susceptible by a predisposing environmental factor (stressor).
C. When fish are unable to adjust to environmental stressors they become

stressed.
42
418
INFORMATION SHEET
D. Stress reduces the resistance of fish to bacterial and parasitic infections, and
an infectious diseasp condition often develops.
EXAMPLES: Experienced catfish farmers know that they should expect

outbreaks of bacterial diseases shortly after a near depletion of
oxygen in a rearing pond.
E. The key to disease control lies in reducing stress factors through good
management.
VL Common stressors
A. Low DO levels
B. Sudden changes in water temperature
C. Poor nutrition caused by inadequate diet
EXAMPLES: Inadequate feed formula, old feed, feed exposed to high

temperature.
D. Water chemistry imbalances
EXAMPLES: pH levels and levels of nitrate, ammonia, metabolic wastes that

are sublethal but beyond the acceptable range for the species;
DO deficiency
E. External parasites
F. Handling during stocking, grading, sampling, or harvesting
G. Crowding
H. Sublethal levels of water pollutants such as pesticides
I. Injuries
VH. Sions of stress and disease

A. Behavioral signs
1. Lethargy
2. Loss of appetite
3. Clamped or folded fins
4. Frantic, erratic swimming
5. Sluggish swimming
6. Long periods of bottom resting
413
A0-419
INFORMATION SHEET
7. Flashing, scratching, and rubbing against objects
8. Loss of equilibrium
9. Loss of ability to adjust buoyancyfloating/sinking behavior
10. Topping and/or piping
11. Crowding the inflow area
B. Clinical signs
1. Mortality
2. Hollow-bellied profile
3. Blood in fins; ragged fins
4. Hemorrhage (bloody appearance of skin)
5. Lesions on body
6. Abnormal growth or swelling on body
7. Spinal deformity
8. Visible parasites
9. Splotches, spots, discoloration, scale loss
10. Milky turbidity of skin
11. Edema
12. Popeye
VIII. Common pathogenic viruses (See Handout #1 and Assignment Sheet #1 for a
reference chart of common fish diseases caused by these pathogens)
(NOTE: The presence of bacterial and viral pathogens can be verified only by
laboratory culture. Most parasites can be verified by microscopic examination, and
a few are visible to the naked eye.)
A. Viruses are ultramicroscopic or submicroscopic pathogens capable of

multiplying only in living cells, and regarded both as living organisms and as
complex proteins.
B. Viral diseases are generally acute, marked by high mortality.
C. In most cases, there is no effective treatment for viral diseases; the only
control is through prevention.
414
420
INFORMATION SHEET
D. Any time a viral disease is suspected, samples of fish should be checked at

a laboratory capable of doing virological work.
IX. Common pathogenic bacteria
A. Bacteria are one-celled microorganisms that can be pathogenic or benign.
(NOTE: Pathogenic bacteria cause such fish diseases as ESC, "hole-in-the-

head" disease of catfish, and ulcer disease of goldfish. Benign bacteria are
necessary for fermentation and nitrogen fixation, among other beneficial
functions.)
B. Diseases caused by bacteria are often chronic rather than acute, but may
also cause a high percentage of deaths.
C Bacterial diseases are often associated with environmental stressors because

bacteria pathogens are usually opportunistic, occurring naturally in most waters
and causing infections only when most resistance is lowered.
D Some species of bacteria can develop resistance to commonly used antibiotics

if exposed to the drug too often or for extended periods; for this reason, it
may be unwise to use oxytetracycline as a prophylactic treatment, or to use
it as a long-term food additive or "cure-all."
E. Minimizing stress is the bed method of preventing bacterial diseases.
X. Common pathogenic fungi

A. Fungi are plants without chlorophyll that grow on organic matter as a mass
of threads. (Figure 1)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 1 A fish infected with fungi
B. The fungi that cause fish diseases are always present in water and are
facultative, living on dead or decaying organic matter or on living tissue.
C. Generally fungi are secondary invaders to other diseases, injury due to
handling, temperature shock, or the presence of dead eggs or tissues.
D. When a fish is injured or diseased, waterborne fungi spores attach to dead

or injured tissue and establish a colony; once the fungi are established, they
spread to healthy tissue and if untreated, eventually causes death.
415
AQ-421
INFORMATION SHEET
XI. Common pathogenic protozoan parasites (Transparencies 2 and 3)
A. Protozoan parasites are microscopic single-celled animals that live in water.

(Figures 2 and 3)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 2 Adult parasite of the Trichodina genus

1111 i
EXAMPLE; FIGURE 3 Adult Ich protozoan (Ichthyophthiriasis multifiliis)
B. Most protozoan parasites require a fish host, but some are facultative,
becoming a problem only when poor water quality, low oxygen, or poor
nutrition stress fish.
C. Nearly all iosses of fish due to parasites are caused by protozoans.
D. Some protozoan parasites are called sporozoa; these parasites encyst in the
skin, organs, or ovaries, where they multiply and rupture, releasing hundreds
of infectious spores.
XII. Common pathogenic crustacean parasites
A. Crustacean parasites are small parasites related to insects; they have a hard
outer shell and jointed appendages.
B. The two main crustacean parasites that infect commercially cultured fish are
the anchor parasite and the fish louse. (Figures 4 and 5)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 4 Anchor parasite (Lernaea cyprinacea)
416
422
INFORMATION SHEET
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 5 Fish louse of the genus Argulus
C. These parasites attach themselves to or burrow into the skin or gills, and
can be seen with the naked eye.
(NOTE: The female anchor parasite burrows into the skin and then anchors
herself by expanding her head. Only the thornlike egg sacs remain outside
the fish's body.)
D. Crustacean parasites injure the skin and may transmit infectious disease from
one fish to another, but they do not generally cause death unless in large
numbers.
E. Movement of wildlife, such as ducks or muskrats, from pond to pond can

spread the parasite.
XIII. Common pathogenic worm parasites

A. Fish may be primary, intermediary, and sometimes final hosts to a numb61 of
parasitic worms, all of which cause organ or tissue damage, and some of
which are potential disease agents.
B. Flukes (and their larvae, grubs) are microscopic to medium-sized trernatodes

that attach th..rnselves with a special organ surrounded with hooklets; some
flukes live in the gills or eyes only, and others live on or in the body and on
the fins. (Figure 6)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 6 Monogenetic fluke (body fluke)
.)'-'\"cc:k
-4-'4 `----
4.3
/Nfrt-r-
4l7
AQ-423
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Tapeworms (cestoda) have complicated life cycles that involve one or more
intermediate hosts. (Figure 7 and Transparency 4)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 7 Tapeworm
ADULT
TAPEWORM
HEAD
SECTION OF
A TAPEWORM
D. Roundworms (nematoda) have a life cycle involving one or two intermediate

hosts; sometimes the fish is the final host and other times the fish is the
intermedialt; host; adult round worms can be seen with the naked eye and
usually occur in the intestine; larval forms often infest the body cavity where
they cause much damage.
E. Leeches attach themselves externally, take a blood meal, and leave the fish
for varying periods of time; the damage done to the fish depends on the
number and the size of the leeches, and the amount of blood removed.
XIV. General management measures for preventing disease outbreaks
A. If possible, use high-quality spring or well water that is free of wild fish and
contains no harmful contaminants.
B. Monitor and maintain water quality.
C. If you must obtain stock from a supplier, make sure that the supplier is
reputable and that the stock has no history of serious health problems.
(NOTE: Some states require fish health inspection of salmonids before

importation. Check with the state fish and game department.)
D. Treat fish for external parasites before stocking.
E. Acclimate fish before transporting or stocking.
F. Avoid overcrowding fish at any time and especially during hot weather.
G. Inspect your stock daily; learn and look for signs of stress or disease.
H. Know your water, your fish, and the diseases that affect your species.
I. Feed a nutritionally balanced ration specifically formulated for the species

being cultured; adjust amounts as needed, and feed at regular intervals.
416
i
424
INFORMATION SHEET
J. Avoid anything that causes unnecessary slit ss to the fish.
EXAMPLES:Visitors at pondside or in the vicinity of cages, excessive or

prolonged handling, sudden changes in feed or environment
XV. Basic hygiene for disease prevention and corrective mai.:19ement

A. When water from streams or lakes must be used, disinfect water or install
Saran sock or sand-gravel filters to prevent the introduction of wild fishes and
most parasites.
(NOTE: Ultra-violet filters have been used to disinfect or sterilize water at

some trout ar;d salmon hatcheries, but these require clear water to be
effective.)
B. Disinfect or sterilize nets, buckets, holding and transporting tanks to prevent

fish from becoming infected before they are stocked, and to prevent disease
spread from pond to pond.
C. Kill residual disease organisms, spores, and unharvested fish that may be a
reservoir of disease by draining and disinfecting ponds before stocking.
XVI. Treatment methods and their administration (Handouts #3 and #4 and

Assignment Sheets #2 - #5)
A. Dip Fish is dipped into a concentrated chemical solutior for 15 to 45

seconds.
B. Flush Chemical is added to systems such as raceways, tanks, and egg

incubators and allowed to flush through the unit within a predetermined time.
C. Short-term bath Chemical is added directly to rearing or holding unit, left

a specified period of time, and then flushed from unit.
D. Indefinite bath Low concentration of chemical is applied to pond or hauling

tank and allowed to dissipate naturally.
E. Oral
1. Medication is added to feed and fed to fish.
2. Medication is placed in a gelatin capsule and inserted into the fish's

stomach with a balling gun.
F. Injection Medication is placed into body cavity or muscle tissue with a

syringe and needle.
(NOTE: Generally only large, valuable fish, such as broodfish, are injected
with antibiotics.)
419
AQ-425
INFORMATION SHEET
XVII. General guidelines for treatment of fish diseases
A. When you suspect a disease or harmful noninfectious condition, act promptly.

first contact your nearest disease diagnostic iaboratory, and then send live
specimens and a water sample. (Job Sheet #1)
B. Obtain an accurate diagnosis. The use of the wrong treatment tali result in
more losses than would occur with no treatment at all.
(NOTE. An accurate diagnosis is impossible without a laboratory examination

of the sick fish and an analysis of the water in which the sick fish are being
raised. This is particularly important because laboratory investigation usually
reveals multiple causes for fish loss. Without correctly identifying all of the
causes, the proper treatment and treatment sequence cannot be prescribed.)
C. After you have obtained an accurate diagnosis, ask yourself whether treatment
is the best course ot action.
EXAMPLES: Is the disease treatable, and what is the probability of a

successful treatment?
Is it economically feasible to treat the fish when you consider
cost, handling, prognosis, etc.?
Does the loss rate and the present disease justify the treatment?
What ecological and water-quality effects will the treatment
cause?
Can the required chemical be administered without killing plants
or depleting DO?
Will the water temperature, sunlight, etc. make the chemical
ineffective?
Would the best and most cost-effective solution be to
immediately market the fish to a processor?
D. Know the volume of your ponds before treatment is needed.
Know what water quality factors (pH, total aNalinity, temperature) increase or
decrease the toxicity of the chemical.
F. Keep accurate, up-to-date records.
G. Plan ahead: Have available the phone number of your county agent or
diagnostician, and basic medicines and chemicals for emergency treatment.
H. Read label instructions and cautions carefully and follow all directions
concerning application methods and prohibited uses.
420
426
INFORMATION SHEET
I. Calculate and measure accurately, and never increase or reduce the stated
dosage.
(NOTE: The saying "the more the better" is not only dangerous, it is illegal.
Only the application rates described on the label are permitted. Careless
calculating or measuring, or adding that "little extra for luck" could lead to
contamination of the water and soil, kills of desirable organisms, and chemical
residues in fish flesh.)
J. Mix solutions well, especially for dips and short-term baths, so that fish are
not harmed by pockets of concentrated solution.
K. If the treatment chemical has not been used before, test the chemical on a
small number of fish in a container (large bucket, plastic wastebasket) before
treating the whole rearing unit.
XVIII. Regulations for chemical application in fish production

A. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been charged by Congress
with the control of the use of pesticides, and the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) has been charged with the control of the use of drugs.
B. All producers, handlers, and applicators can be held legally accountable if

they misuse a chemical.
C. Only uses described on the label of the chemical are permitted, and only at
the application rates listed, applications at less than or more than the approved
rate are equally illegal.
D. The FDA has two categories, "food fish" and "non-food fish," in determining
which fishery use patterns are permitted: food fish are those spedes that
may be eaten by man, and regulations cover all life stages from egg to adult,
non-food fish refers to bait and ornamental fishes.
E. Permits are required by FDA if fish culturists produce ..ieir own medicated
feeds.
F. The discharge of water from fish culture facilities is overseen by EPA under
the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System, which issues discharge
permits to facilities that require them.
G. Recently both the EPA and the FDA have begun to enforce regulations that
govern the use of drugs and chemicals in fish culture, violators are subject
to disciplinary action.
421.
AQ-427
Role of Stress in
Fish Diseases
Disease most likely to

occur when all three
factors are present.
422
TM 1 ,
AQ-429
Life Cycle of the ich Parasite
Infected fish
Adult parasite
Free-swimming
juvenile stage
/
Encysted stage in
bottom of pond
423
TM 2
AQ-431
Life Cycle of the

Black-Spot Parasite
Adult worm
in bird host
Eggs hatch in
water and larval
worms enter
snails
Larval stages emerge from snails

and swim to fish where they
penetrate and encyst causing
black spot
424
TM 3
AQ-433
Life Cycle of the

Asian Tapeworm
0 0
Tapeworm sheds
eggs from host
Larva develops
in Copepods )
v
Eggs Hatch
"
.
1 ,,,
.
e
e . .
0 0
* *
. .
425
-
TM 4
A0-435
HEALTH FISH MANAGEMENT

UNIT VIII
HANDOUT #1 COMMON INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CULTURED FISH
Spe-,dal Note. Items with an asterisk (*) are compounds that have not been approved
for use with food fish, and whose use for the purpose discussed is restricted.
The status of these c hemicals can change from year to year, so check with closest
diagnostic laboratory or the Journal of Fish Health Management, published by the Fish
Health Section of the American Fisheries Society.
Disease: CHANNEL CATFISH VIRUS (CCVD)
Causative organism: Channel catfish virus
Susceptible species: Channel catfish during their first summer, usually when they are
less than 5-inches long
Clinical and Swollen abdomen containing clear yellow fluid; popeye; erratic
behaviroal signs: swimming, hemorrhage at bases of fins and through skin on
ventral surface; dark red spleen
Contributing factors: Low dissolved oxygen, high ammonia levels, water temperature
above 68°F (and especially above 85°F); rough handling; chemical
stress
Prevention: Maintain good water quality; maintain DO levels at 4 ppm and

higher; do not overcrowd or overhandle during first summer; avoid
use of chemical prophylactics; disinfect nets, tanks, and equipment
when fish are handled or transported; purchase fry from virus-
free broodstc ,;-,
Possible therapeutic None known

agents or
medications:
Materials in Handout #1 adapted from

Some Parasites and Diseases of Warmwater Fishes.
426
436
HANDOUT #1
Disease: BACTEREMIA (HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA)

Causative organism: Aeromonas hydrophila, Pseudomonas fluorescens and possibly
other bacteria
Clinical and Listlessness and lethargy; reduced feeding; topping; shallow

behavioral signs: reddish ulcers with ragged margins exposing necrotic skin and
muscle; swollen fluid-filled belly; raised scales; popeye; red streaks
in fin rays and bases of fins; frayed fins; reddened area around
anus
Contributing factors: Warm water in spring, especially when fish spawn, are handled,
overcrowded, or moved; low DO; stress from disease or
malnutrition
Prevention: Avoid overcrowding and rough handling, especially during summer;

maintain good water quality; provide well-fortifiec feed containing
higher than recommended levels of Vitamin C
Possible therapeutic Terramycin in diet; terramycin or acriflavine* in transport water
agents or may retard the transfer of the bacterium, but will not cure infected
medications: fish
Susceptible species: All fishes; most common disease of cultured catfish
Disease: COLUMNARIS DISEASE
Causative organism: The bacterium Flexibacter columnaris
Susceptible species: All fishes, including salmonids and channel catfish

ClirOcal and Discolored patches on body with little or no hemorrhaging; scale
behavioral signs: loss; mouth and barbel erosion; fin erosion and tail loss; decayed
areas in gills
(NOTE: Discolored patches and scale loss superficially look like

damage caused by fungus infections.)
Prevention: Avoid overcrowding and rough handling, especially during summer;
maintain good water quality; provide well-fortified feed containing
higher than recommended levels of Vitamin C
Possible therapeutic Water treatments with potassium permanganate; tel ramycin-
agents or medicated feed may be helpful if the infection is systemic
medications: (internal)
427
AQ-437
HANDOUT #1
Disease: FURUNCULOSIS
Causative organism: The bacterium Aeromonas salmonicida
Susceptible species: Trout and goldfish, particularly goldfish broodfish
Clinical and Ulcers or lesions with irregular margins on sides of fish; lesions
behavioral signs: start as small white spots and progress to large hemorrhagic
sores; scale loss at site of ulcer; body swellings; ragged or
missing pectoral fins
Contributing factors: Stress associated with spawning, handling, and transporting, warm
water temperatures; poor nutrition; overstocking; infected eggs
Prevention: Collect, handle, and transport goldfish broodfish in winter when

the water temperature is less than 55°F; use young broodfish; offer
a nutritionally complete feed fortified with Vitamin C; purchase
healthy stock; do not overstock.
Possible therapeutic Destroy the stock and disinfect facility.

agents or
medications:
Disease: ENTERIC SEPTICEMIA OF CATFISH (ESC) (HOLE IN THE

HEAD DISEASE)
Causative organism: Edwardsiella ictaluri
Susceptible species: Channel catfish
Clinical and White or reddish raised area between eyes develops into (hole-
behaviora signs: in-the-head) ulcer, pimple-like lesions over general body surface;
swollen fluid-filled abdomen; loss of appetite; listlessness: hang
tail down, erratic swimming in circles, blood; internal organs
Contributing factors: Low DO, high ammonia and nitrate levels, water temperatures
between 70°F and 82°F
Prevention: Maintain good quality water; keep DO level above 4 ppm; provide
good-quality feed with supplemental Vitamin C; avoid broodfish
that have a history of the disease
Possible therapeutic Terramycin or Romet-30 in the feed

agents or
medications:
428
_
438
HANDOUT #1
Disease: FUNGUS INFECTION
Causative organism: Fungi, usually of the genera Saprolegnia and Achlya
Susceptible species: All freshwater fishes and their eggs
Clinical and Localized discolored areas or lesions; general cotton-like or fur-

behavioral signs: like growth, that takes on the color of materials suspended in the
water
Contributing factors: Stress; mechanical injury, disease, low DO, prolonged periods
of very low temperatures
(NOTE: Fungus infections are usually secondary and indicate

poor conditions. Fungi seldom infect healthy fish.)
Prevention: Maintain good water quality; feed nutritionally adequate feeds all
year; feeding just before winter and in early spring is especially
important
Possible therapeutic Copper sulfate* and potassium permanganate

agents or
medications:
Disease: COSTIASIS DISEASE
Causative organism: Protozoa of the genus Ichtyobodo (sometimes called Costia)
Susceptible species: All freshwater fishes
Clinical and Blue-gray film over body surface; lack of appetite; listlessness,
behavioral signs: lethargy; gill filaments may appear ragged on visual examination
Contributing factors: Overcrowding aggravated by fluctuating water temperatures

(common in fall and spring); malnutrition
Prevention: Maintain good water quality; feed nutritionally complete feeds
Possible therapeutic Table sa, formalin, or acetic acid; copper sulfate* followed by
agents or potassium permanganate
medications:
Disease: TRICHODINIASIS
Causative organism: Protozoa of the genus Trichodina
Clinical and Listlessness; lethargy; reduced feeding; frayed fins

behavioral signs:
429
AQ-439
HANDOUT #1
Contributing factors: Low DO, high concentration of organics in water, fluctuating

temperatures during fall and spring; malnutrition
Prevention: Maintain good water quality; keep DO at 4 ppm or above; feed

adequate amounts of nutritionally complete feed; avoid
overcrowding, especially fingerlings
Possible therapeutic Forma lin, potassium permanganate, and copper sulfate*

agents or
medications:
Disease: ICHTHYOPHTHIRIASIS (ICH or ICK)
Causative organism: A ciliated protozoanlchthyophthirius multifilisscommonly called

Ick
Clinical and Small raised spots that look like sprinkled table salt cover entire
behavioral signs: body and fins, flashing and rubbing behaviors, heavily infected fish
may gather at intake or outlet of the pond or tank
Contributing factors: Poor water quality, rnalnutrit:on, water source contaminated with
wild fish; water temperatures of 60°F to 75°F
Prevention: Avoid contaminated water supply, nets, and equipment; maintain

good quality watei, offer nutritionally adequate feeds
Possible therapeutic Forma lin, table salt, copper sulfate*, and potassium permanganate
agents or
medications:
Disease: MILK SCALE DISEASE
Causative organism: Sporozoan Myxobolus notemigoni
Susceptible species: Golden shiners
CHnical and Visible cysts beneath the scales; loose milky looking scales;
behavioral signs: chronic high mortality from secondary invaders
Contributing factors: Poor quality water; crowding; poor nutrition
Prevention: Maintain water quality; drain and sterilize pond after outbreak;
offer nutritionally complete feeds
Possible therapeutic No effective treatment, treat for secondary infection, apply pro-
agents or phylactic external treatment to protect against secondary infection,
medications: and increase amount of feed during 4 weeks while scale are
regenerating
430
1111111111111
440
HANDOUT #1
Disease: CHILODONELLIASIS
Causative organism: Parasites Chilodonella cyprini (cold-water form) and Chilodonella

hexsticha (warm-water form)
Susceptible species: Most freshwater fishes
Clinical and Bright red gills that sometimes bleed when touched
behavioral signs:
Contributing factors: Poor quality water containing high levels of organic matter,
crowding; malnutrition; water temperatures of 40°F to 70°F
Prevention: Maintain good quality water; feed adequate amounts of good

quality feed, especially in early spring and late winter
Possible therapeutic Forma lin and potassium permanganate

agents or
medications:
Disease: INFECTIOUS HEMATOPOIETIC NECROSIS (IHN)
Causative organism: Virus
Susceptible species: Rainbow trout are severely affected, but Coho seem to be
resistant to this virus.
Clinical and Lethargy; whirling; dark coloration; abdominal swelling; pale gills;
behavioral signs: hemorrhages at bases of fins.
Contributing factors: Survivors of the disease are life-long carriers, fish to fish and fish
to egg are the primary avenues for infection; feeding of byproducts
of infected fish is another means of transmission; mortality is
highest in young fish and resistance appears to increase with age.
Prevention: Avoidance of IHM-infected eggs and fish
Possible therapeutic None known; destroy infected fish and disinfect facility
agents or
medications:
Disease: INFECTIOUS PANCREATIC NECROSIS (IPN)
Causative organism: Virus spread through feces, eggs, seminal and ovarian fluids from
parent to progeny via the eggs; also spread by fish surviving the
disease as they become carriers of the virus
Susceptible species: All salmonids and goldfish
4 31
AQ-441
HANDOUT #1
Clinical and Increase in mortality; spiraling along the long body axis; overall
behavioral signs: darkening of body; popeye; abdominal swelling; hemorrhages at
bases of fins.
Contributing factors: First-feeding fry are most susceptible, susceptibility decreases with
age
Prevention: Prevent contact between host and virus; do not stock infected fish
into lakes, reservoirs, or streams that serve as water sources for
hatcheries or wild broodstock.
Possible therapeutic
agents or
medications: None known; destroy infected fish and disinfect facility
Disease: WHIRLING DISEASE (MYXOSOMA CEREBRALIS)
Causative organism: Parasite Myxosoma cerebalis;. young fish become infected by

spores released from dead fish and shed by living fish. The
ingested parasite is thought to leave the spore capsule in the
intestine and migrate to the head cartilage where it grows.
Susceptible species: All salmonids, though brown trout and Coho tend to be resistant
Clinical and No signs of the disease may show until 40 to 60 days after
behavioral signs: infection when fish chase their tails, or whirl until exhausted
Contributing factors: Fish are most susceptible during the first 12 months of life
Prevention: Avoid importing infected fish, including frozen trout or salmon, and
the use of contaminated water; disease can be controlled by
rearing young fish in spore-free water in metal or concrete tanks.
Once the fish are 3 to 5 inches long, they may be placed in
contaminated ponds, and will acquire a low-level infection that
makes them resistant to the disease.
Possible therapeutic No proven chemotherapy is available.

agents or
medications:
Disease: BACTERIAL KIDNEY DISEASE (BKD)
Causative organism: Bacterium (Renibacterium salmoninarum) infected eggs are a

major source of the infection in disease-free hatcheries; outbreaks
can occur a year or more after receipt of eggs. Eggs cannot be
disinfected.
Susceptible species: Coho and Atlantic salmon are highly susceptible; brook trout are
severely affected and brown trout less so; rainbow trout are the
least severely affected.
432
442
HANDOUT #1
Clinical and White blisters and ulcers develop on the kidney, liver, spleen, and
behavioral signs: heart
Contributing factors: Water hardness and temperature
Prevention: Avoid infected fish and eggs
agents or
medications: No proven chemotherapy cure is available at this time; in some
situations the disease can be "controlled" with antibiotics such as
erythromycin; eradicate by destroying infected fish and disinfecting
water supply.
Disease: ENTERIC REDMOUTH (ERM)
Causative organism: Bacterium Yersinia rucked spread by carriers who have survived
the disease and by contaminated water
Susceptible species: All salmonids, and particularly rainbow trout
Clinical and Inflammation and erosion of the jaws and palate of salmonids;
behavioral signs: lethargy; dark color
Contzibuting factors: Poor water quality; stress during hauling; low DO

Prevention: Restrict transfer of carriers; detection is difficult in healthy carrier
fish; disinfect eggs coming in; maintain water quality.
agents or
medications: Can be "controlled" with antibiotics (sulfamerazine) and improved
water quality with high DO. Eradicate by destroying infected fish
and disinfecting water supply.
Disease: PROLIFERATIVE GILL DISEASE (PGD) ("HAMBURGER" GILL

DISEASE)
Causative organism: Unknown
Susceptible species: Warmwater species, particularly catfish

Clinical and Clubbed, bloody gills; gill filaments fall off when rubbed; piping;
behavioral signs: congregating at inflow pipe; loss of appetite; death
Contributing factors: Most commonly found in new ponds in spring and fall
Prevention: None
433
agents or
medications: None known, but A sometimes helps to pump aged water from
another pond
Disease: TRICHOPHRYA
Causative organism: Stalked protozoan, Trichophrya invading the gills
Susceptible species: All warmwater species, particularly catfish
Clinical and Loss of appetite; pale, eroded, clubbed gills; lethargy

behavioral signs:
Contributing factors: Stress, reduced water quality
Prevention: Maintain water ,Livality and nutrition
agents or
medications: Potassium permanganate, copper sulfate*, formalin
Disease: MONOGENETIC FLUKES
Causative organism: Monogenetic flukes of the genera Gyrodactylus (body fluke)

Dactylogyrus, and Cleidodiscus; all are similar in appearance
Susceptible species: All warmwater fishes
Clinical and Flashing, rubbing against pond sides and bottom; listlessness,
behavioral signs: staying near edge of pond; gills may be flared on small fish
(NOTE: When there are many flukes, their primary damage,

combined with secondary bacterial infection may cause death.)
Contributina f.,ctors: Poor water quality, inadequate nutrition, crowding, fluctuating

water temperatures
Prevention: Maintain good water quality
Possible therapeutic Masoten*, formalin, potassium permanganate

agents or
medications:
Disease: FISH GRUBS (LARVAL FLUKES)
Causative organism: Fish grubs of the genera Crassiphiala and Clinostomum (yellow
grub), and Posthodiplostomum (white grub)
434
444
HANDOUT #1
Susceptibfe species: Bluegills and other sunfishes, black basses, and most minnows
Clinical and Small pigmented nodules (either black, cream-colored, or white)

behaviorrif signs: in the flesh and visceral cavity, and sometimes in the gills, loss
of equilibrium; deformity
Contributing factors: Infected fish, presence of intermediate hosts (fish-eating birds

and snails)
Prevention: Eradicate snails in ponds, and remove bird roosts in area

Possible therapeutic None
agents or
medications:
Disease: ANCHOR PARASITE
Causative organism: Parasitic crustacean (copepod) Lernaea Cyprinacea
Susceptible species: All freshwater fishes especially baitfish, catfish, and carp
(NOTE: It takes only one Lernaera to kiii a small minnow as it

has an affinity for the heart region.)
Clinical and Small reddish lesions on surface, often surrounded by fungus,

behavioral signs: parasite looks like a small thorn (similar to a broom straw)
inserted into the flesh of the fish; anchor end of the parasite,
embedded in the fish, prevents manual detachment without further
injury to host fish
Contributing factors: Stocking fish infected with anchor parasite, movement of wildkfe
(ducks, muskrats) from pond to pond
Prevention: Examine stock for parasite, and stock parasite-free fish

Possible therapeutic Masoten*
agents or
medications:
Disease: FISH LICE
Causative organism: Parasites of the genus Argulus
Clinical and Flashing and rubbing against tank sides or pond bottom; list-
behavioral signs: lessness; red spots; chronic mortality (when infestations are
heavily infected)
Contributing factors: Stocking fish infected with fish lice
435
A0-445
HANDOUT #1
Prevention: Examine stock for parasite, and stock parasite-free fish
Possible therapeutic Masoten*

agents or
medications:
Disease: TAPEWORM
Causative organism: Bothnocephalus opsanchthydis (Asian tapeworm) Corallobothnum

fimbriatum (catfish tapeworm), and others
Susceptible species: All fishesespecially black basses, Chinese carps, catfishes,

sunfishes, golden shiners
Clinical and Often no outward indication but fish may lose weight, be listless,
behavioral signs: or become sterile, severe infestations distend the abdomen and
block the intestine; chronic mortality
Contributing factors: Stocking broodfish infected with tapeworms, purchase of

contaminated fry and fingerlings; use of surface water containing
tapeworm-infested hosts; droppings of fish-eating birds in or near
pond
Prevention: Avoid maintaining or purchasing infected fry, fingerlings, or

broodfish; drain, dry, and disinfect ponds between fish crops
Possible therapeutic :!: !%!-hutyl tin oxide for non-food enterprises

agents or
medications:
I 436
AQ-447

UNIT VIII
HANDOUT #2 NONINFECTIOUS CONDITIONS OF CULTURED FISH
Condition: OXYGEN STARVATION
Cause: DO deficiency
Signs/ Fish gathered at the water inflow or outlet; fish gasping at the water
symptoms: surface; sudden mortality
Prevention: Aerate water; monitor DO levels and attempt to predict drops
Treatment: Aerate water
Condition: ACIDOSIS
Cause: Water that is too acid for species
Signs/ Fish shooting through water with sudden rapid fin movements; fish
symptoms: gasping for air and sometimes jumping out of the water, death occurring
very quickly or taking a slow course; milky turbidity of the skin; red,
inflamed skin; brown deposit on the gills
Prevention: Monitor pH level, maintain pH in an optimal range for the species being
cultured
Treatment: Raise the pH and total hardness of the water by liming, determine
cause of imbalance and correct to prevent recurrence
Condition: ALKALOSIS
Cause: Water that is too basic for species
Signs/ Corroding of the skin and gills; milky turbidity of the skin; mortality
symptoms:
Prevention: Monitor pH level, maintain pH at an optimal range for the species being
cultured
Treatment: Reduce the pH level and total hardness by adding alum or agricultural
gypsum; determine cause of imbalance and correct to prevent recurrence
Condition: GAS BUBBLE DISEASE
Cause: Gas (oxygen or nitrogen) found naturally in well and spring water, ice
melt/heating; air in water lines or pumps
437
__.
448
HANDOUT #2
Signs/ Bubbles under the skin and in gill tissues, fish rustle when taken out of
symptoms: the water
Prevention: Monitor DO levels, maintain DO at optimum levels for species being

cultured; control algae growth, and avoid blooms, especially during
periods of intense sunlight
Treatment: Correct by mechanical aeration which releases excess gas
Condition: POISONING
Cause: Toxic substance, or toxic levels of a substance in water
Signs/ Varies with the poison; may cause sudden mortality

symptoms:
Prevention: Use high-quality spring or well water if possible, monitor water for
harmful levels of ammonia, nitrate, CO2, iron, etc.; test water and soil
for pesticides before constructing pond or stocking
Treatment: Treatment vanes according to the toxin present, some conditions cannot
be re 'ersed; emergency measures call for dilution with fresh, clean
water or for total water change
Condition: NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY
Cause: Unsuitable, too much, or too little food; vitamin deficiency
Signs/ Slow growth; body deformities such as broken spine; lethargy; slow
symptoms: weak movements; loss of appetite; hollow-bellied profile
Prevention: Feed a nutritionally balanced ration specifically -ecommended for the

species being cultured; feed at regular intervals, and only as much as
the fish eat in about a 10 minute period; do not over- or underfeed;
calculate feed conversion and adjust feed accordingly
Treatment: Some conditions cannot be reversed, change type or amount of feed,

or feeding times; check for parasite infestation and treat accordingly
Condition: MECHANICAL INJURY
Cause: Predator bite, rough handling, fighting during spawning, other external
causes
Signs/ Visible wound; possible parasites or fungus growth, loss of appetite,

symptoms: erratic swimming
4.15
a __k
AQ-449
HANDOUT #2
Prevention: Screen tank cultures and small ponds with netting to protect from fish-
eating birds; avoid overhandling or rough handling during harvest;
separate sexes after spawning if necessary
Treatment: Many wounds are self-healing; treat large wounds with a long-duration
bath for the control of parasites and fungus; dispose of severely injured
or dead fish
Condition: BROWN BLOOD DISEASE
Cause: High nitrite levels oxidizing hemoglobin in blood to methemoglobin
Signs/ Topping; loss of appetite; brown oxygen-poor blood; sudden mortality

symptoms:
Prevention: Monitor nitrite levels in water; aniicipate high nitrite levels with rising
water temperatures and pH
Treatment: Chloridecommon salteffectively reverses effects at a minimum of 5

ppm per acre-foot
Condition: ANEMIA
Cause: Poor nutrition; chronic disease
Signs/ Lethargy; pale gills; loss of appetite; loss of color; mortality

symptoms:
Prevention: Feed a balanced ration; control disease
Treatment: Nutritionally complete diet
439
s .
UNIT VIII
HANDOUT #3 FDA-APPROVED CHEMICALS FOR FISH CULTURE
TABLE 1: Registered or Approved Therapeutants*
Product Sponsor Fishery Use Tolerance Comments
Acetic acid, commercial Parasiticide 1,000 to Exempted from tolerance Food fish use; declared as
grade (Vinegar) 2,000 ppm for 1-10 min Generally Recognized as
Safe (GRAS) by FDA as
general purpose food
additive.
Natchez Animal Supply Parasitidde for use on None required Food fish use; do not apply
Fonnan-F Company, Natchez, trout, salmon, catfish, to ponds warmer than 80°F
(Forman) Mississippi largemouth bass, and when a heavy bloom of
bluegill 25 ppm in phytoplankton is present, or
ponds; up to 250 ppm for 1 when the concentration of
h in tanks and raceways dissolved oxygen is less
than 5 ppm; dilute efflucent
Fungicide for use on trout, of fish treatment tanks by
salmon, and ecocide eggs 10x and the contents of
1,000 to 2,000 ppm for egg treatment tanks by
15 min in egg treatment 75x; egg treatments at 250
tanks ppm for 1 hour are also
effective.
Furanace capsules Amdal Company Antibacterial drug against None established Nonfood fish use only; do
(Nifurpyrinol, Furpyridinol; Division of Abbott columnaris disease of not use in salt water
P-7138) Laboratories aquarium fish 3.8 mg aquariums or wi "e egg or
North Chicago, Illinois capsule to 10 gal of water live-bearing fish are
for 1 h reproducing.
Masoten (Trichlorfon) Animal Health Division Parasiticide against None established Nonfood fish use only; not
anchorworms, lice, and gill for use in streams; do not
flukes on goldfish or bait apply to ponds used as a
fish 0.25 ppm active source of drinking water for
ingredient for indefinite humans or animals;
period removed from Pre-RPAR
review and returned to
reregistration process.
440
441
HANDOUT #3
Paracide-F 'ant Chemical Parasiticide for use on None required Food fish use; do not apply
(Forma lin) Laboratories trout, salmon, catfish, to ponds warmer than 80°F
Redmond, Washington largemouth bass, and when a heavy bloom of
bluegill 25 ppm in phytoplankton is present, or
ponds; up to 250 ppm for 1 when the concentration of
h in tanks and raceways dissolvei oxygen is less
than 5 ppm; dilute effluent
Fungicide for use on trout, of fish treatment tanks by
salmon, and esocid eggs 10x and the contents of
1,000 to 2,000 ppm for egg treatment tanks by
15 min in egg treatment 75x; egg treatments at 250
tanks ppm for 1 hour are also
effective.
Romet -30, Romet B (R05. Hoffman-La Roche, Inc. Antibacterial against 0.1 ppm in salmonids and Food fish use; do not treat
sulfadimethoxine + Nutley, New Jersey furunculbsis on salmonids catfish salmonids within 6 weeks
ormetoprim) and against enteric of marketing or release as
septicemia on catfish 50 stocker fish; withdraw
mg/kg of fish per day for 5 catfish from medication 3
days days before slaughter or
before release as stocker
fish.
Salt (Sodium chloride) Osmoregulatory enhancer Exempted from tolerance Food fish use; declared as
0.5% to 1% for indefinite GRAS by FDA.
period; 3% for 10-30 min
Salfamerazine in Fish Amencan Cyanamid Antibacterial against Zero tolerance in uncooked Food fish use; do not treat
Grade (Sulfamerazine) Company furunculosis on salmonids edible tissues of trout within 3 weeks of marketing
Princeton, New Jersey or stocking in stream open
10 g/100 lb of fish per day to fishing.
for 14 days in feed;
discontinue use after 14
days
Terramycin for Fish Pfizer, Inc. Antibacterial against 0.1 ppm in salmonids and Food fish use; 20-day pre-
(Oxytetracycline) New York, New York Aeromonas, Hemophilus, catfish slaughter withdrawal.
and Pseudomonas 2.5-
3.75 g/100 lb of fish per
day for 10 days in feed
Trade names given; common names in parentheses.
443
442
fit e
HANDOUT #3
TABLE 2: Registered or Approved Anesthetics*

Product Spo nsor Fishery Use Tolerance Comments
Carbonic acid Anesthetic- Exempted from tolerance Food fish use; declared as
200400 ppm for 4 min GRAS by FDA as general
purpose food additive.
Finquel Argent Chemical Anesthetic- None required Food fish use; 20-day
(MS-222; tricaine Laboratories 15-66 ppm for 6-48 h for withdrawal after use before
methanesulfonate) Redmond, Washington sedation; 50330 ppm for harvesting fish for food.
1-40 min for anesthesia
Sodium bicarbonate Anesthetic- Exempted from tolerance Food fish use; declared as
(Baking soda) 142-642 ppm for 5 min GRAS by FDA as general
purpose food additive.
*Trade names given; common names in parentheses.
TABLE 3: Registered or Approved Disinfecting Agents*

Net-Dip (Didecyl dimethyl General Drug and Chemical Disinfection of aquarium None established Nonfood fish use, do not
ammonium chloride) Corporation and fish holding equipment; use directly on fish or other
[Distrituted as Sanaqua by North Kansas City, Missouri 2 fl oz. in 4 gal walq for cultured aquatic We.
Aquavet, Mayward, 10 min; disinfection in fish
California) disease control institutions:
3.5 fl oz in 4 gal for 10
min
Olin HTH Dry Olin Corporation Disinfectant and sanitizer Exempted from tolerance Food fish use; to control
Chlorinator Granula Stamford, Connecticut 200 ppm available chlorine algae or kill bacteria in fish
(Calcium hypochlorite) for 1 h to sanitize fish ponds, remove all fish from
tanks, raceways, and pond before treatment.
utensils. 5-10 ppm residual
chlorine for 12-24 h to
control algae and bacteria
in fish ponds
444
445
HANDOUT #3
Povidons-iodine compounds Disinfection of fish eggs None required Food fish use; exempted
(Polyvinylpyrrolidone)
from registration by FDA;
EPA has registered several
povidone-iodine compounds
as general sanitizing
agents. These can be
used to sanitize and
disinfect aquaculture
facilities; water, and eggs.
Experimentally used as a
viridde.
Quaternary ammonium DisMfection of water, gear, None required Food fish use; exempted
and tanks from registration by FDA;
EPA has registered several
quatemary ammonium
compounds as general
sanitizing agents. These
can be used to sanitize
aquaculture facilities and
water. Experimentally used
to control bacterial gill
disease.
TABLE 4: Registered or Approved Water Treatment Compounds *

Ruorescein sodium Dye to check water flows None required Food fish use; exempted
or dilution 0.1 ppm from registration by EPA.
Lime Pond sterilant 1,338 lb/A Exempted from tolerance Food fish use; declared as
of quick lime; 1,784 lb/A of GRAS by FDA as general
slaked lime purpose food additive.
EPA issued a Data Call4n
letter in March, 1983, and it
was referred to a
Registration Standard.
Oxytetracycline Fish marker Used to 0.1 ppm in salmonids and Food fish use; FDA ruled
place fluorescent band on catfish that there is no health
scales and bone concern when used as
directed; required
withdrawal is 7 days for
oral treatment, 15 days if
injected.
446
0 447
0
HANDOUT #3
Potassium permanganate Oxidizer and detoxifier 2 None required Food fish use; exempted
PPrn from registration by EPA.
Rhodamine B and WT Dye to check water flows Exempted from tolerance Food fish use; exempted
or dilution reies-20 ppb from registration by EPA.
Tetracycline Fish markerUsed to place None required Food fish use; FDA ruled
fluorescent band on scales that there is no health
and bone concern when used as
directed; required
withdrawal time is 15 day;
is injected.
Tables 1 through 4 used with permission of Universay of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. From A Guide to Approved
Chemicals in Fish Production and Fishery Resource Management, 1989.
IA 9
448
AQ-457

UNIT VIII
HANDOUT #4 - CONVERSION CHARTS FOR CALCULATING

TREATMENT DOSAGES
TABLE 1: Weight of Chemical That Must Be Added to One Unit Volume of

Water to Give One Part per Million (ppm)
2.72 pounds per acre-foot - 1 p.p.m.

1,233 grams per acre-foot - 1 p.p.m.
0.0283 gram per cubic foot - 1 p.p.m.
0.0000624 pound per cubic foot 1 10-p-m-
0.0038 gram per gallon - 1 p.p.m.
0.0584 grain per gallon - 1 p.p.m.
1 milligram per liter - 1 p.p.m.
0.001 gram per liter 1 p.p.m.
8.34 pounds per million gallons of water - 1 p.p.m.
TABLE 2: Conversion for One Unit of Volume to Another Unit of Volume
To
From Centimeter Meter Inch Feet Yard
Centimeter 1 0.01 0.3937 0.0328 0.0109

Meter 100 1 39.37 3.281 1.0936
Inch 2.540 0.054 1 0.0833 0.0278
Feet 30.48 0.3048 12 1 0.3333
Yard 91.44 0.9144 36 3 1
To
From Gram Kilogram Grain Ounce Pound
Gram 1 0.001 15.43 0.0353 0.0022

Kilogram 1000 1 1.54 x 104 35.27 2.205
Grain 0.0648 6.48 x 10'5 1 0.0023 1.43 x 10'4
Ounce 28.35 0.0284 437.5 1 0.0625
Pound 453.6 0.4536 7000 16 1
450
458
HANDOUT #4
TABLE 4: Conversions for Units of Length

TO
FROM
Cal m in. ft. yd.
cm 1 0.01 0.39370 .03280 .0109

m 100 1 39.373 .2811 .0936
in. 2.540 0.0254 1 0.08330 .0278
ft. 30.48 0.3048 1210 .3333
yd. 91.44 0.9144 3631
cm = centimeter; m = meter; in. = inches; ft. = foot; yd. = yard
1 acre-foot - 43,560 cubic feet

1 acre-foot 325,850 gallons
1 acre-foot of water - 2,718,144 pounds
1 cubic foot of water = 62.4 pounds
1 gallon of water = 8.34 pounds
1 gallon of water = 3,785 grams
1 liter of water = 1,000 grams
1 fluid ounce = 29.57 grams
1 fluid Ounce = 1.043 ounces
1 grain per gallon 17.1 milligrams/liter
1 milliliter of water 1 gram
1 cubic meter of water 1 metric ton
1 quart of water 946 grams
1 teaspoon 4.9 milliliters
1 tablespoon '14.8 milliliters
1 cup 8 ounces
1 acre-foot/day of water 226.3 gallons/minute
1 acre-inch/day of water 18.9 gallons/minute
1 acre-inch/hour of water 452.6 gallons/minute
1 second foot of water 448.8 gallons/minute
1 cubic foot/second of water 448.8 gallons/minute
1 foot of water 0.43 pounds/square inch
1 foot of water an inch of mercury (HG)
1 horsepower 550 foot-pounds/second
1 horsepower 745.7 watts
1 kilowatt 1,000 watts
1 kilowatt 1.34 horsepower
1 hectare 10,000 square meters
1 hectare 2.47 acres
1 acre 4,048 square meters
Tables 1-5 from Handbook tor Common Calculattons in Fmhsh Aquaculture by Gary L. Jensen. WM permission.
451
AQ-459
HANDOUT #4
TABLE 6: Conversion for Parts per Million, Proportion, and Percent
Parts per million Proportion Percent
0.1 1:10,0001000 0.00001

0.25 1:4,000,000 0.0 )25
1.0 1:1,000,000 0.06 :
2.0 1:500,000 0.0002
3.0 1:333,333 0.0003
4.0 1:250,000 0.0004
5.0 1:200,000 0.0(05
8.4 1:119,047 0.00084
10.0 1:100,000 0.001
15.8 1:66,667 0.0015
20.0 1:50,000 0.002
25.0 1:40,000 0.0025
50.0 1:20,000 0.005
100.0 1:10,000 0.01
150.0 1:6,667 0.015
167.0 1:6,000 0.0167
200.0 1:5,000 0.02
250.0 1:4,000 0.025
500.0 1:2,000 0.05
1667.0 1:600 0.1667
5000.0 1:200 0.5
6667.0 1:150 0.667
30000.0 1:33 3.0
Prom Principal biseases of Farm Raised Catfish, Oct. 1985
45°
AQ-461

UNIT VIII
HANDOUT #5 QUICK REFERENCE TO FISH DISEASE SIGNS AND PROBLEMS
Dead or dying fish Many diseases
Open lesions or sores, bloody or reddened areas Bacteria; bacteria secondary to

parasite infections; externai parasites; toxins
Gaping mouths Low oxygen; diseased gills
Scale loss Myxobolus notemigoni (milk scale disease); external parasites; fighting;
predation; rough handling
Anemia; vitamin
Gills pale, eroded, puffy, bloody, or brown, or gill covers flared
deficiency; gill disease; environmental stress; toxins; external parasites; Branchiomyces
(fungus); Flexibacter columnaris (bacterium)
?.ached skin color Vitamin E deficiency; low oxygen
Exophthalmia (popeye), stargazing Bacterial dropsy; brain flukes; gas bubble disease;
malnutrition; environmental contaminates
Bloated belly (dropsy) Bacteremia; white grubs (flukes); Ligula (tapeworm); catfish
virus (affects fingerlings)
External
Excess mucus (light gray film), sloughing of skin, scratches on body
parasites; fungus; fighting; predation
Spinal curvature Vitamin C deficiency; pesticides; genetic deformities
Folded fins or tail, pectoral fins pointed forward Toxins; many diseases
Nodules, pustules, white pots Myxospordian cysts (protozoans); larval trematodes

(flukes); Ichthyophthirius or "Ich" (protozoan); yellow grub (fluke); larval nematodes
Fluid in body cavity (clow4, bloody, or clear) Bacterial dropsy; channel catfish
virus; malnutrition
Bloody internal organs Bacteria; virus; vitamin A or B deficiency
White "fungus" patches External fungus; Epistylis (protozoan)
Frayed fins or tati, eroded tail External parasites; Flexibacter columnaris or other
bacteria; chemical contaminants
Emaciation (thin fish, pinheads), reduced growth Any disease that causes fish to
reduce feed intake or cease feeding; underfeeding; malnutrition; intestinal worms
(helminths); vitamin deficiency
453
462
HANDOUT #5
Air bubbles under skin Gas bubble disease (excessive nitrogen or oxygen in the
water)
Cloudy eyes Eye flukes; nutritional deficiencies
Red spots near bases of fins Larval Lernaea (copepod); external parasites; bacteria
Gray, chalky white, or dull opaque yellowish ovaries or eggs
shiners in golden
Pleistophora ovarian (protozoan)
Ruptured abdomen Toxic algae (in fry); Ligula (cestode); white grub (trematode)
Dirty gray or yellow lesions Bacteria; external parasites; external fungi
Foul-smelling lesions Edwardsiella tarda (bacterium)
Hole-in-the-head Edwardsiel la ictaluri (bacterium)
Brown blood Nitrite toxicity
From "Parasites and Diseases of Pond Fish" by Brenda Rogers Moore,

et al
in Third Report to the Fish Farmers, 1984.
454
AQ-463

UNIT VIII
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1 SOLVE PROBLEMS RELATED TO COMMON

DISEASES AND CONDITIONS OF FISH
Many different diseases produce symptoms of confusing similarity. For this reason, it is
particularly important that the producer's diagnosis is confirmed as soon as possible by
appropriate tests carried out in the laboratory. A prompt response allows the application
of the correct treatment before it is too late.
In addition, the experienced culturist learns those factors of water chemistry, environment,
and season that predispose fish to disease. Thus armed, the culturist can take preventive
measures to avoid disease outbreak.
While nothing takes the place of experience and accurate laboratory diagnosis, this
assignment sheet is designed to help you learn the basic behavioral and clinical signs of
various diseases and conditions, their causes, contributing factors, and possible treatments
Study Handouts #1 and #2. Discuss the handouts with your classmates and instructor.
When you think that you understand and have learned the information on both handouts,
complete this assignment sheet, following the instructions before each section.
1. Match the following infectious and noninfectious diseases with their correct behavioral
and clinical signs. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. First-summer catfish about 3 inches 1. Chilodonelliasis

long develop swollen abdomens
containing clear yellow fluid, dark red 2. Monogenetic
spleens, popeye, and hemorrhage at
the bases of their fins; they have an 3. Acidosis
erratic swim pattern.
4. Brown blood
b. Some of your trout eggs develop disease
patches or mats of a furry greyish
growth.
c. You have been having trouble with

herons and kingfishers at your minnow
farm. You have finally solved the
problem by placing netting over your
ponds, but now you notice that your
minnows have small black nodules on
their flesh and gills.
4 55
464
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
d. You have leased your pond for winter 5. Oxygen starvation

duck hunting, and in the spring you
discover that some of the grass carp 6. CCVD
you stocked for biological weed control
have what looks like slender splinters 7. Larval flukes
sticking from their skin. (Black spot
disease)
e. In spring you notice that some of your
catfish are topping and that there 8. Fungus infection
seems to be a loss of appetite. A
sample shows that some fish have 9. Ich
shallow reddish ulcers that expose
necrotic skin, red streaks in the fins, 10. Anchor parasite
and a reddened area around the anus.
11. Bacteremia
f. Your fish have gathered at the pond (Hemorrhagic
intake, and some of them are flashing Septicemia)
and rubbing on the sides of the pond.
Examination of a sample shows tiny 12. Columnaris
white spots that look like salt sprinkled disease
on their bodies and fins.
13. Enteric septicemia
______ g. You have been having water quality of catfish (ESC)
problems since organically fertilizing a
pond. A sample of fish shows some 14. Tapeworm
with bright red gills that bleed when
you touch them. 15. Costiasis disease
h. Recently, you stocked your pond with
catfish. The spring weather is warm
for a day or two and then the temp-
eratures drop drastically for a few days.
You notice that some of your catfish
look blotchy, some have frayed barbels
and fins, and a few have lost their tails.
i. You have stocked at a very high

density, and now in the fall, inspection
of your stock reveals ragged gill
filaments and a blue-gray film on the
body surface of some of the fish;
further, the fish are not eating well and
seem listless and lethargic.
456
AQ-465
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
l. You have just experienced a fish kill. 16. Alkalosis

The dead fish have a milky turbidity to
their skin and brownish deposits on 17. Trichodiniasis
their gills. A couple of days before the
kill, you noticed that the fish seemed 18. Fish lice
very active, and some were even
jumping from the water. 19. Gas bubble
disease
k. One morning after a week of very hot
weather you wake to the fish farmer's 20. Furunculosis
nightmare: all of the fish in one of your
ponds are floating belly up.
!. Some of your channel catfish have lost

their appetites and are listlessly hanging
tail down in the water; others are
swimming in circles. You examine the
ailing fish and find that they all have a
reddish raised area or an ulcer between
their eyes.
2. Read the following statements, and then label them "T" (true) or "F" (false).
a. Fish are most susceptible to Chilodonelliasis at water temperatures

between 40°F and 70°F.
b. Gas bubble disease causes fish to rustle when taken out of the water
and is caused by gas supersaturation.
c. Hole-in-the-head disease affects salmonids, bass, and sunfish.
d. Hemorrhagic septicemia is the most common disease of baitfish.
e. Channel catfish virus is successfully treated with Terryamycin.
f. Fungus infections seldom infect healthy fish.
g. Fish-eating birds and snails serve as intermediate hosts for fish grubs.
h. Masoten, formalin, or potassium permanganate are chemicals used to

control fish grubs.
i. Common table salt reverses the effects of brown blood disease.
j. All fishes, but especially black basses, Chinese carps, catfish, sunfish,
and golden shiners are susceptible to tapeworm infestations.
k. Anchor parasites can be detected only by microscopic examination of

internal tissue.
4F17
466
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
I. Enteric septicemia of catfish (ESC) affects only bullheads and blue

catfish.
m. Milk scale disease is caused by a sporozoan protozoan.
n. Masoten is used to control both anchor parasites and fish lice.
o. External parasites cause acute mortality.
p. Medicated feeds are used in the treatment of both hemorrhagic and

enteric septicemia.
q. The pH of water is lowered by liming.
r. Miik scale disease affects only cold water species.
s. Goldfish fry are particularly susceptible to goldfish furunculosis.
t. Ich is caused by the protozoan Ichtyobodo.
3. List two preventative measures for each of the following diseases or conditions.
a. CCVD
1)
2)
b. Bacteremia (Hemorrhagic septicemia)
1)
2)
c. Enteric septicemia of catfish
1)
2)
d. Chilodonelliasis
1)
2)
e. Flukes
1)
2)
458
AQ467
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
f. Grubs (Larval flukes)
1)
2)
g. Fungus infection
1)
2)
h. Trichodiniasis
I)
2)
Anchor parasite and fish louse
1)
2)
k. Oxygen starvation
1)
2)
I. Acidosis and alkalosis
1)
2)
m. Gas bubble disease
1)
2)
459
468
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
n. Brown blood disease
1)
2)
o. Infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN)
p. Whirling disease (Myxosoma cerebralis)
q. Enteric redmouth (ERM)
a.
b.
r. Trichophrya
a.
b.
4. Evaluate your answers to 3, and review the prevention column in Handouts #1 and
#2 if necessary. What do you find are the three most important measures a fish
culturist can take to prevent disease List them below.
a.
b.
c.
460
AQ-469

UNIT VIII
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2 CALCULATE TREATMENT RATES
All commercial aquaculturists should know how to accurately calculate treatment rates,
determine the amount of chemical or drug needed, and apply the treatment. Producers
can experience high economic losses when treatment rates are not properly calculated.
Before any calculation is made, the unit of measurement must be determined. The unit
of measurement selected should be convenient for the specific situation. For instance, the
large volume of water in ponds is usually expressed as acre-feet while the volume of a
small tank may be expressed in gallons or cubic feet. Liquid units must be used for liquid
treatments and weight units must be used for dry treatments. For this reason, the
aquaculturist must be able to use conversion tables. In addition, a working knowledge of
both the English and metnc systems of measurement is essential because reports,
publications, and treatment label instructions may use either one.
Tt. , assignment sheet is presented in two parts. Part presents examples of typical
I
calculations for practical situations. Part II provides a series of problems so that you can
practice calculating treatment rates. Refer to Handout #4 for necessary conversion tables.
PART I
Most treatments can be calculated by using the basic formula
Amount of Chemical Needed = V x CF x ppm Desired x 100

% A.I.
Where:
V = Volume of water in unit to be treated
CF = Conversion factor that represents the weight of the chemical that must be used
to equal 1 ppm in one unit of the volume of water to be treated
ppm = The desired concentration of the chemical in the volu.ne of water to be treated,
expressed in parts per million
100 = 100 divided by the percent of active ingredient (A.I.) contained in

% A.I. the chemical to be used. The percent A.I. is usually found on the label
4 61
470
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
EXAMPLE 1. How much potassium permanganate is needed to treat a pond 660 feet
long by 660 feet wide by 4 feet deep with a concentration of 2 ppm?
Potassium permanganate is 100% active ingredient.
1. Find the volume of water in the pond:
V=LxWxD
= 660 feet x 660 feet x 4 feet
= 1,742,400 cubic feet
2. Convert cubic feet to acre-feet for convenience:
Acre-feet = Cubic Feet

No. Cubic Feet in 1 Acre-Foot
1 742 400
43,560
40
3. Find the conversion factor (CF) for acre-feet in Handout #4:
CF = 2.7 pounds (the weight required to give 1 ppm in 1 acre-foot)
4. Find tie amount of copper sulfate needed by substituting knowt, numbers into the
basic formula:
Amount of Copper = V x CF x ppm x 100

Sulfate Needed % A.l.
= 40 x 2.7 x 2 x 100
100
= 216 pounds
EXAMPLE 2: How much Masoten (80 percent active) is needed to treat a pond of 5
surface acres and an average depth of 3 feet with 0.25 ppm active
ingredient?
1. Find the volume of water in the pond:
V = No. of Surface Acres x Average Depth
=5x3
= 15 acre-feet
4 62
AQ-471
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
2. Find the conversion factor (CF) in Handout #4:
CF = 2.7
3. Find the amount of Masoten needed by substituting known numbers into the basic
formula:
Amount of Masoten Needed = V x CF x ppm x 100

%A.I.
= 15 x 2.7 x 0.25 x 100

80
1
= 12.6 pounds
EXAMPLE 3: How much formalin is needed to treat a circular tank that is 8 feet in
diameter and has a wate- depth of 2 feet with 250 ppm? Forma lin is
a liquid with 100 percent active ingredient.
1. Use the formula below to find the volume of a circular tank:
V = TC 12 D
Where: it = 3.14
r = radius squared
D = diameter of tank
V = it e D
= 3.14 x (4 feet) x 2 feet
= 100.5 cubic feet
2. Find the conversion factor (CF) for cubic feet in Handout #4:
CF = 0.283 grams
3. Find the weight of formalin needed by substituting known numbers in the basic
formula:
Amount of Formalin Needed = V x CF x ppm x 100

% A.I.
= 100.5 x 0.0283 x 250 x 100

100
= 711 grams
483
472
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
4. Convert grams (unit of weight) to cubic centimeters (unit of volume) because formalin
is a liquid; to do this divide the units of weight by 1.08, the specific gravity of
formalin:
Volume Unit = Weight Unit

SG (Specific Gravity)
= 711
1.08
= 658 cubic centimeters needed
5. For convenience, c.onvert cubic centimeters to fluid ounces:
a. Use Handout #4 to find the correct conversion factor:
CF = 0.0338
b. Multiply the conversion factor by the number of cubic centimeters to find the
number of fluid ounces:
Volume in Fluid Ounces = CF x cc
= 0.0338 x 658
= 22.2 fluid ounces 6

Constant Flow Treatment Calculations
Sometimes fish such as trout in raceways or tanks with a continuous flow of water through
them must be treated. In such cases, the following formulas and examples can be used
to make the necessary calculations. Liquid chemicals work best for constant-flow
treatment, but other chemicals can be dissolved before treatment. The tank or trough
should be pretreated before beginning chemical delivery from the siphon. A variety of
containers can be used with an adjustable clamp on the siphon hose to control the delivery
rate.
464
6
AQ-473
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
Determining the Amount of Chemical Needed
EXAMPLE. A trough has a continuous flow rate of 5 gpm and needs a 60-minute
constant-flow treatment of potassium permanganate (100 percent active
ingredient) at a concentration of 10 ppm. How many grams of potassium
permanganate must be dispensed to maintain the desired treatment
concentration?
1. Use Handout #4 to find the conversion factor (CF)
CF = 0.0338 gm
2. Find the weight of chemical needed by substituting known numbers into the basic
formula:
Weight of
Chemical = Flow Rate x Treatment Time x ppm Desired x CF x 100
Needed (gpm) (Min) % A.l.
= 5 gpm x 60 min x 10 ppm x 0.338 gm x 100

100
=11.4 grams
IDDetermining Amount of Chemical to Add to the Siphon Container
Four factors must be known before any treatment can start using a constant flow device.
1. Total flow of water through tank or raceway during period cf treatment
2. Total volume of solution that the siphon device will deliver during the treatment
period
3. The concentration of the chemical to be maintained during the treatment period in

ppm
4. The amount of chemical delivered from the siphon
(NOTE. This last value cannot be calculated until all of the other values are obtained
from factors 1 through 4.)
Calculating Factor 1, total flow of water

EXAMPLE. A tank receives a flow of 4 gpm. A constant-flow treatment will last 60
minutes. How many gallons of water will flow through the tank?
\
e
1 465
474
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
a. Measure the volume of water delivered in 1 minute (4 gallons)
b. Multiply by the number of minutes in the treatment period:
Total Water Flow = gpm x Treatment Time
= 4 x 60
= 240 gallons
Calculating Factor 2, total volume of solution that the siphon device will
deliver
EXAMPLE: A siphon device delivers 200 ml in 5 minutes. How many gallons will
it deliver during a 60-minute treatment?
a. Measure the volume of solution d' 'red in 5 minutes (200 ml)
b. Multiply this value by 1/5 the numbe, of minutes in the treatment:
Total Vol. = Measured Vol. Delivered in 5 Min. x Treatment Time

5
= 200 ml x 60 ,nin.
5
= 2,400 ml or 2.4 liters
Calculating Factor 3, concentration of chemical, is a known value

Calculating Factor 4, amount of chemical delivered from the siphon
EXAMPLE: The water flow in a tank is 10 gpm, and a siphon device will deliver 100
ml of a chemical solution in 5 minutes. The desired treatment is
formalin at a rate of 167 ppm for 1 hour. How much formalin needs
to be added to the siphon container?
a. Find total volume of water to treat:
Total Vol. = gpm x Treatment Period
= 10 x 60
= 600 gallons
41 6
-
AQ-475
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
b. Find volume of solution that siphon will deliver during treatment:
Siphon Vol. Delivered = 5 Minute Vol x Treatment Period

5
= 100 x 60
5
= 1,200 ml or 1.2 liters
c. The treatment concentration is 167 ppm or 1:6000
d. Find the amount of formalin that needs to be added to the siphon container
by substituting known values into the basic treatment formula:
Amount of Chemical = V x CF x ppm desired x 100

% A.I.
= 600 x 0.0338 x 167 x 100

100
= 381 grams
e. Forma lin is a liquid with a specific gravity of 1.08, so convert to fluid volume:
Fluid Vol. = 381 crams

1.08 grams/ml
= 353 ml
The siphon device will contain 343 ml cf formalin and 847 ml of water for a
total of 1,200 ml.
Calculating Amount of Copper Sulfate
Copper sulfate is used to treat external parasites. The treatment rate must be determined
by knowing the total alkalinity of the water to be treated, because the toxicity of copper
sulfate to fish varies depending on the alkalinity of the water. Toxicity increases as
alkalinity decreases, and low alkaline waters (less than 50 ppm) have a narrow margin of
safety. Also, the effectiveness of copper sulfate may be lowered when it is used in waters
with alkalinities above 350 to 400 ppm because of the fast precipitation of the copper
sulfate from the pond water.
467
476
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
Use the following formula when calculating copper sulfate treatment rates.
ppm Copper Sulfate = ppm Total Alkalinity

100
EXAMPLE. A pond contains 25 acre-feet of water and has a total alkalinity of 150 ppm.
How many pounds of copper sulfate are needed to control a parasite problem?
1. Determine treatment rate of copper sulfate in ppm:
ppm Copper Sulfate = ppm Total Alkalinity

100
= 150
100
= 1.5
2. Use the basic treatment formula to determine how many pounds are needed
to treat the pond at a rate of 1.5 ppm:
Amount of Copper Sulfate Needed = V x CF x ppm Desired x 100

% A.I.
= 25 x 2.7 x 1.5 x 100

100
= 101.25 pounds
Calculating Amount of Salt

Saltalso known as sodium chlorideis used in fish culture to raise the level of chloride
in ponds to combat high nitrite levels that cause brown blood disease.
Salt produces a source of chloride equivalent to 1 ppm when 4.5 pounds are added p^.
acre-foot of water. To calculate the concentration of salt needed in a pond with detec-
table nitrite concentrations, use the formula:
ppm Chloride = ( 5 x N) C
Where: N = ppm of nitrite in pond water
C = ppm chloride in pond water
4 68
,
AQ-477
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
EXAMPLE: A water sample contains 4 ppm nitrite and 15 ppm chloride. How much
salt is needed to treat an 8 acre pond with an average depth of 6 feet?
1. Find the concentration (ppm) needed:
ppm Chloride = (5 x N) C
= ( 5 x 4) 15
= 20 15
= 5 PIpm
2. Use the basic treatment formula to determine the total amount of salt needed,
but substitute 4.5 pounds for the CF because this much salt gives 1 ppm
chloride per acre-foot:
Amount Chloride Needed = V x CF x ppm Desired x 100

% Al
= (8 acres x 6 feet) x 4.5 x 5 x 100
100
= 48 x 4.5 x 5 x 1
= 1,080 pounds
PART II
Practice calculating treatment levels by solving the following problems.
1. HoW much Masoten (80 percent active ingredient) is needed to treat a pond that has
12 acres of water and an average depth of 5 feet with a concentration of 0.25 ppm?
2. How much liquid formalin is needed to treat with 250 ppm a circular tank 12 feet in
diameter with a water depth of 5 feet?
3. How much potassium permanganate is needed to treat a holding tank 10 feet long
by 2 112 feet wide with a water depth of 2 1/2 feet? You want a concentration of
15 ppm.
4. A pond contains 42 acre-feet of water and has a total alkalinity of 165 ppm. How
many pounds of copper sulfate are needed to control an external parasite problem?
5. A trout raceway has a continuous flow of 15 gpm and needs a 90-minute constant
flow treatment of potassium permanganate at a concentration of 10 ppm. How many
grams of potassium permanganate must be dispensed to maintain the desired
treatment concentration?
469
478
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
6. The water flow in a tank is 12 gpm, and a siphon device will deliver 125 ml of a
chemical solution in 5 minutes. The desired treatment is formalin at the rate of 172
ppm for 1 hour. How much formalin needs to be added to the siphon container?
7. A trough receives a flow of 8 gpm. A constant flow treatment will last 90 minutes.
How many gallons of water will flow through the tank?
8. A siphon device delivers 350 ml in 5 minutes. How many gallons will the device
deliver during a 60-minute period?
9. A water sample of your pond shows a nitrite concentration of 4 ppm and a chloride
concentration of 13 ppm. How much salt is needed to treat a 20 acre pond with
an average water depth of 3 1/2 feet?
10. How much Terramycin is needed to treat 10,000 pounds of catfish with 2.5 grams
active Terramycin per 100 pounds of fish for 7 days?
AQ-479

UNIT VIII
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3 PREPARE A LIST OF LOCAL, AREA, OR STATE

SPECIALISTS TO CONTACT IN THE EVENT OF A DISEASE EMERGENCY
Gather literature on fish farming from your local library, a nearby university, or an
establist.od fish farmer in your area. Compilc a list of local, area, or state diagnostic
laboratories and specialists in diagnosing fish diseases. List names, addresses, and
telephone numbers when possible. Your Cooperative Extension Service might be a good
place to start.
AQ-481

UNIT VIII
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #4 REPORT ON ACTIVITIES AND PROCEDURES

OBSERVED AT A DISEASE DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORY
Your instructor will make arrangements for you to visit a disease dAnostic laboratory to
observe the activities and procedures that take place there. Before your visit, make a list
of questions, such as those below, that your audience might ask. Take your questions and
a notebook and pencil with you so that you can record the answers to your questions and
take notes on your observations. When you return, organize your notes and write a report
to be presented to your class.
Suggested Questions
1. What disease is most frequently diagnosed?
2. What species of fish are most often shipped to you for diagnosis?
3. What is the turn-around time? How soon may a fish farmer expect a diagnosis after
you have received a specimen?
4. What advice would you give fish farmers in regard to shipping specimens?
5. After you have diagnosed a disease, do you prescribe or recommend a treatment?
6. What diagnosis methods do you use?
7. What hygiene methods are practiced?
8. What education and degree must you have to become a diagnostician?
9. Who, besides fish farmers, sends you specimens for diagnosis?
10. What advice would you give a fish farmer regarding disease prevention?
11. What advice would you give regarding treatment?
12. How large is the facility? How many people work at the facility? What are their titles
and job duties?
13. How large is the area that the facility serves?

AQ-483

UNIT VIII
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #5 COMPLETE RECORD KEEPING FORMS ON

Prevention, rather than treatment, should be me goal of every fish farmer. Most problems
develop or become serious because of poor management. Experienced fish farmers know
their fish, know their water, know their chemicals, know the diseases that affect their
species, and know the environmental conditions that make their fish susceptible to stress
and disease. They monitor water quality, inspect stock daily, and keep comp!ete and
accurate health management records.
Each fish cultunst has individual methods for keeping records, some recording daily
information on forms such as those below, and some using a computer program designed
especially for health management record keeping. It is not the method that is important,
it is the act of keeping records that makes the difference.
Visit an established fish farm over the period of a week. Record your health management
observations on the form below or on a similar form. Keep a file on each fish investigated
for disease.
WEEK OF
Observation Date Time Pond #1 Pond #2 Pond #3

DO level
pH
Total alkalinity
Nitrite
Total ammonia nitrogen
Unionized ammonia
Chloride
Total hardness
Temperature
Behavioral and clinical

signs of disease
External parasites
observed
Feeding behavior
Number of mortalities
473
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #5
FISH INVESTIGATED FOR DISEASE
Investigation No.: Date*
Species: Sex Age
Pond No.: Alive Dead Has been dead for
History-
Date sent to diagnostic laboratory*
Examination-
Diagnosis*
Treatment chemical.
Treatment method.
Date treatment begun: Date treatment ended*
Result.
Preventive measures to take in future*
474
I
AQ1485

UNIT VI II
Assignment Sheet #1
1. a. 6 g. 1
b. 8 h. 12
c. 7 i. 15
d. 10 j. 3
e. 11 k. 5, 4
f. 9 I. 13
2. a. T k. F
b. T I. F
c. F m. T
d. F n. T
e. F o. F
f. T p. T
g. T q. F
h. F r. F
i. T s. F
j. T t. F
3. Answers should include any two of each of the following
a. Maintain good quality water

Maintain DO levels at 4 ppm and higher
Do not overcrowd or overhandle during first summer
Avoid use of chemical prophylactics
Disinfect nets, tanks, and equipment when fish are handled or transported
Purchase fry from virus free broodstock
b. Avoid overcrowding and rough handling, especially during summer

Maintain good water quality
Provide well-fortified feed containing higher than recommended levels of
Vitamin C
c. Maintain good quality water

Keep DO level above 4 ppm
Provide good-quality feed with supplemental Vitamin C
Avoid broodfish that have a history of the disease
d. Maintain good quality water

Feed adequate amounts of good quality feed, especially in early sprin,, and
late winter
e. Maintain good water quality

Offer adequate feeds
Avoid overcrowding
475
wow, 1
486
f. Eradicate snails in ponds, and remove bird roo3ts in area
g. Maintain good water quality

Feed nutritionally adequate feeds all year
Feeding just before winter and in early spring is especially important
h. Maintain good water quality

Keep DO at 4 ppm or above
Feed adequate amounts of nutritionally complete feed
Avoid overcrowding, especially fingerlings
i. Avoid contaminated water supply, nets, and equipment

Maintain good quality water
Offer nutritionally adequate feeds
J. Examine stock for parasite, and stock parasite-free fish
k. Aerate water
Monitor DO level and attempt to predict drops
I. Monitor pH level
Maintain pH in an optimal range for the species being cultured
m. Monitor DO levels
Maintain DO at optimum levels for species being cultured
Control algae growth, and avoid blooms, especially during periods of intense
sunlight
n. Monitor and maintain good water quality

Monitor water for high temperatures and high pH which may precede high
nitrite levels
o. Prevent contact between host and virus
Do not stock infected fish into lakes, reservoirs, or streams that serve as
water sources for hatcheries or wild broadstock
P. Avoid importing infected fish

M;tintain young in spore-free water
q. Ressict transfer of carriers

Disinfect eggs coming in
Maintain water quality
r. Maintain water quality and nutrition
4. e. Monitor and maintain good water quality

b. Offer nutritionally adequate feeds
c. Avoid stress
4 7 f3
AQ-487
e Assignment Sheet #2
1. 50.6 pounds
2. 617 cubic centimeters or 20.8 fluid ounces
3. 26.53 grams
4. 187.11 pounds
5. 51.3 grams
6. 435.7 nil formalin + 1,064.3 ml water for a total solution of 1,500 ml
7. 720 gallons
8. 4,200 ml or 4.2 liters
9. 2,205 pounds
10. 1,750 grams
Assignment Sheets #3 - #5 Evaluated to the satistaction of the instructor
o 4 77
AQ-489

UNIT VIII
JOB SHEET #1 PREPARE AND PACKAGE A SPECIMEN FOR SHIPMENT TO

A DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORY
A. Equipment ct, id materials
1. Transport box with styrofoam liner
2. Plastic bags
3. Pure oxygen
4. Rubber bands
5. Crushed or "artificial" ice
6. Dry ice
7. Shipping labels
8. Forma lin
9. Clean glass containers
10. Knife
11. Paper toweling
12. Alt minum foil
B. Procedure for shipping live fish
(NOTE. Live fish are preferred by most diagnosticians. Preferably about 10 sick or
dying fish exhibiting one or more disease signs should be sent or taken to the
diagnostic laboratory.)
1. Call the diagnostic laboratory to notify them of the shipment.
2. Select 5 to 10 of the smallest affected fish.
3. Place fish in a plastic bag with about 1 gallon of water from the pond in which
they became sick.
4. Fill the remaining volume of the plastic bag with pure oxygen.
5. Seal the bag tightly by folding over the top, twisting, and wrapping securely
with a rubber band.
4 78
490
JOB SHEET #1
6. Pack the bag in a sturdy box with a styrofoam liner.
"OTE: These lined boxes are sometimes available from pet shops and
aquarium supply stores that receive shipments of tropical fish.)
7. Compensate for hot weather by placing a watertight bag of crushed ice or

artificial ice beside the bagged fishunless they are tropical varieties that
cannot withstand low temperatures.
8. Use your health management records to complete a fact sheet to accompany

the specimen; include the following information.
a. Water informationsource, temperature, pH, alkalinity, nitrite and

ammonia content, DO concentration, conditioa of plankton bloom
b. Area and depth of pond and recent management history
c. Fish age; original source
d. Estimated organic content of pondSecchi disc reading and depth of

detritus on bottom
e. Previous diseases and treatments
f. Information about possible insecticides and herbicides used in area
g. Disease signs observed in sick or dying fish
h. Number of fish involved, and rate and duration of die-off
9. Label the box "Biological SpecimensPerishable" and ship by fastest service

available; often this is express delivery on a local bus line.
C. Procedure for preparing frozen dead specimens for shipment
1. Call diagnostic laboratory to notify them of shipment.
2. Place freshly dead or freshly killed fish in small quantity of water in watertight
plastic bag.
3. Expel the air from the bag and seal tightly with a rubber band.
4. Place bag in freezer and freeze thoroughly.
5. When fish is frozen, place bag in a well-insulated, leak-proof styrofoam

container with dry ice (which should keep the fish frozen for 72 hours), or
artificial ice (which should keep the fish frozen for 48 hours), or regular ice (for
shipments under 24 hours).
(CAUTION: Never pack dry ice in an air-tight container. The fish must
not come in contact with dry ice or its fumes, because some viruses are
inactivated by carbon cliide.)
AQ-491
JOB SHEET #1
6. Address container and ship to nearest diagnostic laboratory.
D. Procedure for shipping preserved fish
(NOTE. Preserved fish may be suitable for diagnosis of outbreaks of certain

parasites, such as Ich, anchor parasites, or leeches. Check with the laboratory to
see if preserved fish are suitable for diagnosis.)
1. Call diagnostic laboratory and notify them of the shipment.
2. Put on rubber gloves.
3. Slit the body cavity of freshly killed, small, sick fishor remove affected areas
from larger fishand place them in a jar of 10 percent formalin.
4. Leave sample in solution for one day or more.
5. Remove sample and wrap in absorbent paper toweling soaked with formalin.
6. Place wrapped sample in a plastic bag and seal tightly with a rubber band.
7. Cushion sample well in a stun:, shipping box to prevent leakage.
8. Address container and ship to nearest diagnostic laboratory.
E. Procedure for shipping fish suspected of insecticide toxicity
(NOTE. All samples must be collected by the State Department of Agriculture.

Because of the question of liability, the specific pesticide must be identified.)
1. Consult a diagnostic laboratory, if consultation makes you suspect insecticide

toxicity, wrap the fish in aluminum foil (not in plastic) and freeze immediately.
2. Refrigerate immediately about 2 gallons of pond water in clean glass

containers, using aluminum foil to line the lids.
3. Carefully pack the frozen fish and refrigerated water in a sturdy shipping box,
cushioning well and surrounding with crushed ice rir dry ice.
4. Address container and ship to nearest diagnostic center.
5. Call diagnostic laboratory to notify them of shipment.
iismarst
AQ-493

UNIT VIII
PRACTICAL TEST #1
JOB SHEET #1 PREPARE AND PACKAGE A SPECIMEN FOR SHIPMENT
TO A DIAGNOSTIC LA'S
Student's Name Date
When pu are ready to perform Job Sheet #1, ask your instructor to observe the
PROCESS EVALUATION
The student: Yes No
1. Notified laboratory of shipment. O 0

2. Prepared live fish for shipment. O 0
3. Included fact sheet for lab. O 0
4. Selected fastest express service. 0 0
5. Prepared frozen dead specimens for shipment. 0 0
6. Prepared preserved fish for shipment. 0 0
7. Prepared fish suspected of pesticiee toxicity for shipment. 0 0
8. Cleaned work area. 0 0
481
494
PRODUCT EVALUATION
evaluation.)
Safety
Observation 4 3 2 1
Fish Selection 4 3 2 1
Handling Shipping
Materials 4 3 2 1
Preparation of
Records 4 3 2 1
EVALUATOR'S COMMENTS-

(EVALUATOR'S NOTE. If an average score is needed to complete a competency profile,

criteria.)
AQ-495

UNIT VIII
TEST
NAME SCORE
1. Match terms associated with fish health management with their correct definitions.
a. Producing disease 1. Stress
b. Single-cell reproductive unit capable of 2. Pathogen

creating a new adult individual
3. Pathogenic
c. Bleeding
4. Parasite
d. Period of time that must pass after
drug, chemical, or pesticide treatment 5. Host
before an animal can be eaten
6. Cyst
e. To enclose or become enclosed in a
cyst, capsule or sac 7. Encyst
f. Having short, fine hairlike growths that 8. Prophylactic

aid in movement, as found on many
protozoans 9. Hemorrhage
g. Piant or animal that fives on or in 10. Pus

another animal, usually causing harm
11. Ciliated
h. Physical strain or weakening caused by
changes in the environment that require 12. Spore
the fish to use energy to adjust
13. Tolerance
i. Waiting for a combination of favorable
circumstances 14. Pesticide
j. Capable of living under varying 15. Withdrawal time

conditions
16. Facultative
k. Disease-causing organism
17. Opportunistic
I. Yellowish-white liquid produced in
certain infections
m. Animal on or in which a parasite lives
483
-
496
TEST
n. Residue levels of a drug or chemical

that are permitted by regulatory
agencies in food eaten by humans
o. Round, thick membrane with which

some parasites are surrounded when
in the resting state
Preventing or protecting against disease
ci. Broad name for chemicals that control

or kill insects, fungi, parasites, and
other pests
2. Match terms associated with skin and tissue conditions with their correct definitions.
a. Fluid-filled swollen tissue condition 1. Lesion
b. An abnormal tube-like passage from an 2. Cyst

abscess or hollow organ to the skin
3. Ulcer
c. An injury, damage, or wound
4. Fistula
d. wollen area in the body tissue where
pus gathers 5. Abscess
e. An open sore (other than a wound) on 6. Necrosis

the skin or membrane that festers and
contains pus 7. Nodule
f. An abnormal pocket or sac-like 8. Edema

structure filled with fluid or diseased
matter
g. Condition in which tissue is dead or

decayed
h. Small knot, knob, or lump of fissue
3. Match with their correct definitions terms associated with severity of disease or
condition. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. Said of diseases that are caused by 1. Chronic

pathogens; catching; capable of being
transmitted from one fish or animal to 2. Acute
another
b. Doing little or no harm; not malignant
484
AQ-497
TEST
c. Disease lasting a long time or recurring 3. Virulent
d. Said of conditions, disorders, and 4. Malignant

abnormalities that are not caused by
pathogens and cannot be transmitted 5. Benign
from one fish or animal to another
6. Infectious
e. Very harmful; causing or likely to cause
death 7. Noninfectious
f. Extremely infectious or malignant
g. Disease of severe but short duration;

not chronic
4. Match with their correct definitions terms associated with behavior of appearance of
sick fish. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. Listlessness; slow, weak movements 1. Flashing
b. Twisting, turning sideways, and rubbing 2. Topping

on plants or objects when swimming
3. Erratic swimming
c. Abnormal accumulation of fluid in the
cells that causes swelling, protruding 4. Lethargy
scales, and bulging eyes
5. Edema
d. Rising to the watee surface
6. Piping
e. Gasping at water surface
f. Abnormal swim patterns such as

whirling or spiraling, head standing or
darting wildly
5. Discuss the role of stress in fish diseases. Answer the following questions.
a. What three factors must occur together for an infectious disease outbreak to
develop?
1)
2)
3)
b. Why don't fish pathogens in ponds and natural water systems make the water
unfit for fish survival?
485
498
TEST
c. When do fish become stressed?
d. How does stress make fish prone to disease?
e. What is the key to disease control?
6. List five common stressor of fish.
a.
c.
7. Select from the following list signs of stress and disease. Write an "X" in the blank
before each correct answer.
Behavioral signs
a. Lethargy and loss of appetite
b. Upright fins
c. Frantic, erratic swimming
d. Sluggish swimming
e. Long periods of bottom feeding
f. Flashing, scratching, and rubbing against objects
g. Loss of parasites
h. Loss of ability to adjust buoyancyfloating/sinking behavior
i. Bottoming
j. Piping
k. Crowding the inflow area
so
486
__I
AQ-499
TEST
Clinical signs
a. Mortality
b. Plump-bellied profile
c. Blood in fins; ragged fins
d. Lesions on body
e. Spinal uniformity
f. Visible parasites
g. Splotches, spots, discoloration, scale loss
h. Milky turbidity of water
i. Edema
j. Popeye
k. Hemorrhage (bloody appearance of the skin)
8. Select factual statements about pathogenic viruses. Write the correct numbers in
the blanks.
a. Which of the following statements about virus pathogens is correct?
1) Virus pathogens are capable of multiplying only in necrotic cells.

2) Virus pathogens are ultra microscopic or submicroscopio
3) Virus pathogens are regarded as both vegetable organisms and
complex vitamins.
b. Why are viral diseases marked by high mortality?
1) They are generally chronic

2) They are generally malignant
3) They are generally acute
c. Since there is no effective treatment for viral diseases, what is the only
effective control?
1) Prevention
2) Isolation
3) Sterilization
487
_
500
TEST
d. Which of the following should be done any time a viral disease is

suspected?
1) Samples should be checked at a laboratory capable of doing

virological work.
2) The farmer should examine a representative sample under the
microscope.
3) The pond should be completely drained, treated with a viricide,
and the sick fish disposed of.
9. Select factual statements about pathogenic bacteria. Write the correct numbers in
the blanks.
a. Which of the following statements about bacteria is true?
1) Bacteria are multi-celled microorganisms that can be malignant or

beneficial.
2) Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that are ultra-microscopic
or sub-microscopic.
3) Bacteria are one-celled microorganisms that can be pathogenic
or benign.
b. Which of the following describes the severity of diseases caused by

bacteria?
1) Chronic
2) Acute
3) Virulent
,, . Why are bacterial diseases often associated with environmental
stressors?
1) Bacteria pathogens are usually facultative.

2) Bacteria pathogens are generally opportunistic.
3) Bacteria pathogens are generally saprophytic.
d. Why is it unwise to use antibiotics as prophylactic treatment of bacteridl

diseases?
1) Some species can become mutants when exposed to long periods

of treatment.
2) Some species can develop resistance to the antibiotic.
3) Some species are opportunistic and can multiply in the presence
of the antibiotic.
e. Which of the following is the best method of preventing bacterial

disease?
1) Minimizing stress
2) Using antibiotics
3) Adding steroids to feed
488
AQ-501
TEST
10. Complete statements about common pathogenic fungi. Write the correct words in
the blanks.
a. Fungi are plants without that grow on organic matter
as a mass of threads.
b. The fungi that cause diseases are always present in water and are
, living on dead or decaying organic matter or on
living tissuP.
c. Generally fungi are invaders to other diseases, injury
due to handling, temperature shock, or the presence of dead eggs or tissues.
d. Whpn a fish is injured or diseased, waterborne fungi
attach to dead or injured tissue and establish a colony.
e. Once the fungi arE established, they spread to healthy tissue ard if untreated,
eventually cause
11. Complete statements about common pathogenic protozoan parasites. Write the
correct words in the blanks.
a. Protozoan parasites are microscopic animals that live
in water.
b. Most protozoan parasites require a host.
c. Some protozoan parasites are , becoming a problem
only when poor water quality, low oxygen, or poor nutrition stress fish.
d. Nearly all losses of fish due to parasites are caused by
e. Some protozoan parasites are callGd ; these parasites
encyst in the skin, organs, or ovaries where they multiply and rupture,
releasing hundreds of infectious
489
502
TEST
12. Complete statements about common pathogenic crustacean parasites. Write the
a. Crustacean parasites are small parasites related to ; they have a

hard outer shell and jointed appendages.
1) bacteria
2) amphibians
3) insects
b. Two main crustacean parasites that infect commercially cultured fish are
the and the .
1) anchor parasite; fish louse

2) Ich parasite; fish leech
3) cestode parasite; larval fluke
c. These parasites attach themselves to or burrow into the skin or , and

can be seen with the naked eye.
1) gills
2) organs
3) lymph nodes
d. Crustacean parasites injure the skin and may transmit from one fish
to another, but do not generally cause death unless in large numbers.
1) stress
2) disease
3) malignancy
e. Movement of from pond to pond can spread the parasite.

1) water
2) wildlife
3) vegetation
13 Select factual statements about cc,mmon pathogenic worm parasites. Write the
a. How do fish serve as hosts for a number of parasitic worms?
1) They may be primary, secondary, and sometimes final hosts.

2) They serve as primary hosts.
3) They serve as secondary and sometimes final hosts.
b. What is the main parasitic worm belonging to the trematode class?
1) Leech
2) Fluke
3) Tapeworm
490
AQ-503
TEST
c. What is the main parasitic worm parasite belonging to the nematode

class?
1) Grubs
2) Roundworms
3) Tapeworms
d. To what class does the tapeworm belong?
1) Trematode
2) Nematode
3) Cestode
e. How do leeches infest fish?
1) They attach themselves with a special organ surrounded with

hooklets.
2) They enter the intestine via an intermediate host.
3) They attach themselves externally, take a blood meal, and leave
the fish for varying periods of time.
f. Which of the following describes the life cycle of the tapeworm?
1) Ciliated adult parasite becomes encysted in the pond bottom,

eggs hatch and become free-swimming in juvenile stage, juveniles
attach themselves to the fish.
2) Eggs hatch in the water and larval worms enter snails, larval stage
emerges from snail and swims to fish, where it encysts, adult bird
eats fish, bird excretes eggs into water.
3) Eggs hatch in the water and larva invades copepod; copepod is
eaten by fish, larva develops into an adult in fish's digestive
system, and eggs are excreted by fish.
14. Select factual statements about general management measures for preventing
disease outbreaks. Write an "X" in the blank before each correct statement.
a. If possible use high-quality surface water that is free of wild fish and
contains no harmful contaminants.
b. Monitor and maintain water quality.
c. Do not obtain stock from a supplier.
d. Treat fish for internal parasites before stocking.
e. Acclimate fish before transporting or stocking.
f. Avoid overcrowding fish at any time and especially during hot weather.
g. Inspect your stock monthly; learn to look for signs of stress or disease.
h. Know your water, your fish, and the diseases that affect your species.
504
TEST
i. Feed a nutritionally balanced ration specifically formulated for the species

being cultured; adjust amounts as needed, and feed at regular intervals.
j. Avoid anything that causes unnecessary stress to the fish.
15. Select factual statements about basic hygiene for disease prevention and corrective
management. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. Which of the following measures must be taken to prevent the

introduction of wild fishes and most parasites?
1) Disinfect water or install Saran sock or sand-gravel filters

2) Sterilize water or install baffle levees
3) Use piscicide or screen filter
b. Which of the following measures should be taken to prevent fish from

becoming infected before they are stocked, and to prevent disease
spread from pond to pond?
1) Treat th: fish prophylactically with oxytetracycline.

2) Disinfect or sterilize nets, buckets, holding and transporting tanks.
3) Install ultra-violet or sand-gravel filters.
c. Which of the following is the method used to kill residual organisms,

spores, and unharvested fish that may be a reservoir of disease?
1) Disinfecting water and installing ultra-violet filters.

2) Lowering oxygen level and treating with potassium permanganate.
3) Draining and dinfecting ponds before stocking.
16. Match treatment methods with their administration specifics. Write the correct
1. Dip
a. Medication is added to feed and fed to
fish; medication is placed in a gelatin 2. Flush
capsule and inserted into the fish's
stomach with a balling gun 3. Short-term bath
b. Chemical is added directly t6 rearing or 4. Indefinite bath

holding unit, left a specified period of
time, and then flushed from unit 5. Oral
c. Fish is dipped into a concentrated 6. Injection

chemical for 15 to 45 seconds
d. Medication is placed into body cavity or

muscie tissue with a syringe and
needle
492
AO-505
e. Chemical is added to systems such as

raceways, tanks, egg incubators, and
allowed to flush through the unit within
a predetermined period of time
f. Low concentration of chemical is

applied to pond or hauling tank and
allowed to dissipate naturally
17. Complete a list of general guidelines for treatment of fish diseases. Write the
specific guidelines suggested by the fullowing key words or phrases.
a. What to do when you suspect a disease or harmful noninfectious condition.
b. Obtaining an accurate diagnosis:
c. Deciding to treat after you have obtained an accurate diagnosis-
d. Pond volume*
e. Water quality factors*
f Records*
g. Planning ahead*
h. Label instructions and cautions*
i Dosages*
Mixing solutions:
, . 493
506
TEST
k. Using chemical that has not been used before*
18. Select factual statements about regulations, for chemical application ... fish production.
a. What agency has been charged by Congress with the control of the use
of pesticides?
1) The U.S. Food and Drug Mministration

2) The U.S. Soil Conservation Service
3) The Environmental Protection Agency
b. What agency has been charged with the control of the use of drugs?
1) The World Health Organization

2) U.S. Food and Drug Administration
3) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
c. Which of the following can be held legally accountable for misusing a

chemical?
1) Producers, handlers, applicators

2) Retailers and wholesalers
3) Both 1 and 2
d. Which of the following application races are legal?
1) Those no more than half again the listed application rate.

2) Those no less than half the listed application rate.
3) Only those at the application rates listed.
e. Which of the following are the two categories used by the FDA in
determining chemical use patterns?
1) Food fish and non-food fish

2) Domestic fish and wild fish
3) Exotic fish and domestic fish
f. Which of the following would require a permit from the FDA?
1) Treatment of infectious disease

2) Production of medicated feed
3) Transportation of infectious fish
g. Which of the following would require a permit?
1) Discharge of water from fish culture facility

2) Steroid injection of brood fish
3) Whole-pond treatment with any treatment chemical
494
AQ-507
TEST
h. Which of the following enforces regulations that govern the use of drugs
and chemicals in fish culture?
1) EPA and FDA

2) AVA and local police
3) AMA and local veterinary associations
(NOTE. Test questions 19 through 24 list the assignment and job sheets. They are an
important part of this test. If they have not been completed, check with your instructor for
scheduling and evaluation dates and procedures.)
19. Solve problems related to common diseases and conditions of fish. (Assignment
Sheet #1)
20. Calculate treatment rates. (Assignment Sheet #2)
21. Prepare a :ist of local, area, or state specialists to contact in the event of a disease
emergency. (Assignment Sheet #3)
22. Report on the activities and procedures observed at a disease diagnostic laboratory
23. Complete record-keeping forms on fish health management practices. (Assignment

Sheet #5)
24. Demonstrate the ability to prepare and package a specimen for shipment to a
diagnostic laboratory. (Job Sheet #1)
495
AQ-509
FISH HEALTI.: MANAGEMENT

UNIT VIII
ANSWERS TO TEST
1. a. 3 j. 16
b. 12 K. 2
c. 9 I. 10
d. 15 m. 5
e. 7 n. 13
f. 11 o. 6
g. 4 p. 8
h. 1 q. 14
i. 17
. a. 8 ... 3
b. 4 f. 2
c. 1 9. 6
I-
d. 5 .t. 7
3. a. 6 e. 4
b. 5 f. 3
c. 1 g. 2
d. 7
4. a. 4
b. 1
C. 5
d. 2
e. 6
f. 3
5. a. 1) Presence of a pathogen
2) Susceptible fish
3) Predisposing (stressful) condition
b. They cause problems only when fish are weakened or made susceptible by
predisposing environmental factors (stressors)
c. When they are unable to adjust to environmental stressors
d. Reduces resistance to infection
e. Reducing stress factors through good management
496
510
ANSWERS TO TEST
6. Answer should include any five of the following:

a. Low DO levels
b. Sudden changes in water temperature
c. Poor nutrition caused by inadequate diet
d. Water chemistry imbalances
e. External parasites
f. Handling during stocking grading, sampling or harvesting
g. Crowding
h. Sublethal levels of water pollutants such as pesticides
i. Injuries
7. Behavioral signs a, c, d, f, h, j, k
Clinical signs c, d, f, g, i, j, k
8. a. 2
b. 3
c. 1
d. 1
9. a. 3
b. 1
c. 2
d. 2
e. 1
10. a. Chlorophyll
b. Facultative
c. Secondary
d. Spores
e. Death
11. a. Single-celled
b. Fish
c. Facultative
d. Protozoans
e. Sporozoa; spores
12. a. 3
b. 1
c. 1
d. 2
e. 2
497
AQ-511
ANSWERS TO TEST
a. 1 d. 3
b. 2 e. 1
C. 2 f. 3
15. a. 1
b. 2
C. 3
16. a. 5
b. 3
C. 1
d. 6
e. 2
f. 4
17. a. Act promptly; first contact your nearest disease diagnostic laboratory, and then
send a live specimen and water sample.
b. The use of the wrong treatment can result in more losses than would occur
with no treatment at all.
c. Ask yourself whether treatment is the best course of action.
d. Know pond volume before treatment is needed.
e. Know which factors increase or decrease the toxicity of the chemical.
f. Keep up-to-date, accurate records.
g. Have available the phone number of your county agent and basic medicines
and chemicals for emergency treatment.
h. Read carefully and follow all directions concerning application and prohibited
uses.
i. Mix well so that fish are not harmed by concentrated solution.
j. Test chemical on a small number of fish in a container before treating whole
rearing unit.
18. a. 3 e. 1
b. 2 f. 2
c. 3 g. 1
d. 3 h. 1
496
=1
AQ-513
COMMERCIAL CATFISH
t PRODUCTION
UNIT IX
UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completion of this unit, the student should be able to discuss the principles of
commercial catfish production, prepare stocking and feeding schedules, calculate feed
conversion ratios and cost of gain, make an anticipated loss projection, and accurately
keep records for a commercial catfish enterprise. These competencies will be evidenced
by correctly completing the procedures outlined in assignment and job sheets, and by
scoring a minimum of 85 percent on the unit test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Match terms related to commercial catfish production with their definitions.
2. Complete statements about the advantages of raising catfish.
3. Complete statements about the limitations of raising catfish.
4. Arrange in order the phases of fingerling production.
5. Complete guidelines for stocking broodfish.
6. Complete statements about managing broodfish in pens.
7. Select from a list factual statements about managing broodfish in open ponds.
8. Select from a list factual statements about egg, fry, and fingerling
management.
9. Complete statements about fry stocking rates for fingerling grow-out.
10. List guidelines for obtaining fingerlings for food-fish production.
11. Provide data about size options for stocking fingerlings for food-fish production.
12. Provide data about food-fish stocking rates.
13. Distinguish among types of commercial catfish feeds.
14. Complete statements about size and quality of catfish feed.
499
514
OBJECTIVE SHEET
15. Select from a list guidelines for feeding food fish.
16. Select from a list true statements about producing catfish in cages.
17. List advantages of cage culture.
18. List limitations of cage culture.
19. Discuss tank and raceway culture of channel catfish.
20. Keep daily, weekly, and monthly productior records. (Assignment Sheet #1)
21. Calculate stocking rates. (Assignment Sheer #2)
22. Calculate FCR and estimate fish weights from feed records. (Assignment Sheet
#3)
23. Calculate feed requirements and costs. (Assignment Sheet #4)
24. Demonstrate the ability to perform pond sampling to estimate average fish
weights and standing crop weight. (Job Sheet #1)
411
5 00
AQ-515
COMMERCIAL CATFISH PRODUCTION

UNIT IX
A. Make transparency.
B. Obtain and duplicate a month's records for a catfish enterphse so that students may
complete Assignment Sheet #1.
C. Duplicate handout so that students may complete Assignment Sheets #2 #4.
D. Provide students with objective sheet. Discuss urlit and specific objectives.
E. Provide students with information sheet. Discuss informatic 1 sheet, providing many
examples and illustrations. Personalize and localize material to meet the needs of
your students.
F. Provide students with assignment sheets. Discuss and schedule assignment sheets,
critique in class.
G. Schedule and demonstrate job sheet. Evaluate job sheet performance with Practical
Test #1.
H. Give written test.
REFERENCES USED IN DEVELOPING THIS UMT
A. Belusz, Larry. Fish Farming Techniques. Columbia, Missouri: The Instructional

B. Boyd, Claude E., et al. Water Quality in Channel Catfish Ponds (A Report from the
Water Quality Subcommittee of Regional Research Project S-168). Mississippi State
Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station, 1981.
C. Carroll, Cecil. Cage Fish Farming Handbook. El Reno, Oklahoma: Carroll's Fish
Farm, 1987.
D. Catfish Aquaculture: A Decision-Making Guidebook. Baton Rouge, Louisiana:

Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, Louisiana State University Agricultural
Center, 1987.
E. Dupree, Harry K., and Jay V. Huner, eds. Third Report to the Fish Farmers: The
5 01
516
F.
SUGGESTED ACTMTIES
Jensen, Gary L. Commercial Production of Farm-Raised Catfish. Baton Rouge,

o
Louisiana: Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, Louisiana State University
Agricultural Center, 1987.
G. Jensen, Gary L. Handbook tot COMM;") Calculations in Fnfish Aquaculture. Baton

Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, Louisiana State
H. Reigh, Robert C., ed. Proceedings of the Louisiana Aquaculture Conference, 1988.
Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, Louisiana State
I. Wellborn, Thomas L. Jr. Catfish Farmer's Handbook. Mississippi State

University/Mississippi Cooperative Extension Service, 1987.
to
5 02
AQ-517

UNIT IX
INFORMATION SHEET
Terms and definitions
A. Premix Feed additive that contains vitamins and minerals
B. Extruded Pushed through a die to give a certain shape; method of

producing floating fish food
C. Clean cropping Harvesting all fish at one time
D. Topping Harvesting only those fish that have grown to marketable size
E. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) The average number of pounds of feed

eaten by the fish to gain 1 pound of weight
EXAMPLE: An FCR of 1.5 means that the fish consumes 1.5 pounds of feed
to gain 1 pound in weight.
F. Broaccast To scatter feed over a wide area
G. Genital papilla Small nipplelike projection of tissue on male catfish
H. Standing crop weight Total weight of all fish in a pond
I. Incubation Process by which eggs are placed in a favorable environment

for hatching
J. Intensive production Raising of fish in aensitiea higher than could be

supported in the natural environment; requires feeding of formulated feeds
K. Extensive production Raising of fish in low densities in ponds where the

fish feed primarily on natural feeds
L. Acclimated Gradually introduced to changes in water temperature and

quay
M. Off-flavor Musty or muddy tasting fish flesh
II. Advantages of raising catfish
A. Farm-raised channel catfish is the freshwater aquaculture crop of greatest

economic importance in the United States today.
B. As traditional agriculture crops become less profitable, more farmers are

turning to farming catfish as a second or third crop in their farm management
programs.
C. Because of a national trend toward increased seafood (and catfish)

consumption, catfish farming is presently experiencing rapid growth.
503
518
INFORMATION SHEET
D. The number of processors and markets is expanding (particularly in the

southeast), and contracts with national fast-food restaurants have introduced
catfish to nontraditional U.S. and international markets.
E There is more research and development for farm-raised channel catfish than
for any other warmwater species, so start-up farmers have some sound
scientific data and tested procedures on which to base their production
methods.
ill. Limitations of raising catfish

A. Catfish farming requires high risk and intensive management to handle water
quality, disease, and off-flavor problems.
(NOTE: Row crop farmers must learn water and pond management techniques
that are completely different from their background and farming practices.
Crops can be lost overnight, and often, round-the-clock monitoring and
management are necessary.)
B. If existing ponds are not suitable for the desired enterprise, start-up
requires
major alteration of land to build ponds and levees; returning the land to its
original state is complex and costly.
C. Start-up can require a substantial financial commitment.
(NOTE: Irtvestment costs can reach $4000 to $5000 per acre to purchase
land, develop ponds, acquire needed equipment, and grow a crop of fish.)
D. Presently there is limited availability of loan capital for facility construction
and
crop production.
E. Feed costs and market prices fluctuate more for catfish production
than for
certain more established species such as trout.
F. The unavailability of processing plants and markets may prohibit
limit productiv start-up or
G. Cash flow is delayed until crop is marketed.
IV. Phases of t;ngerling production
POINT OF INTEREST: Fingerling production requires

more technical skill and
management than producing food fish from fingerlings. Fingerling producers
must
manage the reproductive behavior of their brood stock, incubate and hatch eggs,
and rear fry. The main goal of the fingerling producer is to produce
a given
number of fingerlings of a desired size in a certain length of time.
A. Stocking and pairing broodfish
B. Managing spawning
504
AQ-E19
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Managing incubsion and hatching
D. Managing sac-fry
E. Maintaining and feeding swim-up fry
F. Stocking fingerling grow-out ponds and feeding fry until they reach desired
fingerling size
V. Guidelines for stocking broodfish
A. For maximum spawning,rates, stock domestic broodfish that are at least 3 to

4 years old.
B. Determine the sex of the broodfish so tha.they can, bes. tacked in equal
numbers or in other common fernale-to-maiel-atbs--SUch as,2t1 0-32. ,
C. Select female broodfish with good sex characteristics: full, ivell-rOunded

abdomen, soft moveAle ovaries when felt through the abdominal wall, and pink
genitals., (Figure 1)
D. Seiect male broodfish with heavily muscled head wider than the body, dark
color under the jaw, and large, protruding genital papilla. (Figure 1)
EXAMPLE: FIG' 'RE i
Male -Female
From Third Report to the Fish Farmers. Wth,perinissiorii'-
505
520
INFORMATION SHEET
E. Stock broodfish so that their total weight is not over 1,200 pounds per surface
acre of water.
(NOTE: Most broodfish ponds are from 1 to 5 acres.)
VI. Managing spawning broodfish in pens

A. Broodfish may be spawned in pens roughly 10 feet long by 5 feet wide placed
in 2 or 3 feet of water ear the shore; the sides of the pen are embedded in
the pond bottom and should extend at least 12 inches above the water.
(NOTE: This method is used most often in selective breeding for specific
genetic traits.)
B. A spawning container is placed in the pen, generally with its open end toward
the 4-03-iter of the pona.
EXAMPLES: Milk can, weighted 5-gailon bucket, ammunition can, wooden

box, crock
.
.,. Special care must be taken to select spawning pairs of about equal size. in
the confines of the pen, the male can injure and even kill the female.
D. Spawning activity usually begins when the nightly water temperature stabilizes
above 70°F; the female releases batches of eggs over a period of time and
the male releases milt to fertilize them.
E. The eggs fall to ti:r bottom of the spawning container in a mound held
together with a sticky adhesive material.
(NOTE: This procedure is repeated several times until the spawning is

completedin as short a period as an hour or as long a period as 20 hours.)
F. Spawning containers are checked every 2 to 4 days, preferably in the late
morning.
G. After the parent fish spawn, the eggs may be moved to the hatchery and the
brooding pair removed and replaced in the pen with a new pair of broodfish,
or the female may be removed and the male then left to hatch the eggs.
VII. Managing spawning broodfish in open ponds

A. Open pond spawning is less demanding than pen spawning because the
farmer does not need to critically select, sex, or pair the broodstock.
B. Two or three spawning containers for each four pairs of fish are placed ;n the
pondgenerally no deeper than arm's lengththeir open ends usually toward
the center of the pond.
5 06
AQ-521
INFORMATION SHEET
C. The location or each container is marked with a float or stake, and the
containers are checked every 2 to 4 days, preferably in the late morning.
(NOTE Caution should be used when checking spawning containers because

adult male channel catfish guard the eggs and can bite. The producer should
first probe gently with a plastic pipe, and then slowly raise the container to the
surface and tilt out some of the water to inspect the bottom for eggs or fry.)
D. Eggs can be left to be ircubated by the male in the pond, but it is to the
producer's advantage to transfer the eggs to an incubation trough in a
hatchery.
(NOTE. Transferral ol the eggs has several advantages: it prevents or reduces

the spread of diseases and parasites from adults to young, prevents the
broodfish from eating or dislodging the eggs, and may increase the percentage
of eggs hatched.)
E. If eggs are hatched in the pond, the fry may be
1. Transferred to specially prepared fry culture ponds after being emptied

into a floating tub and their numbers estimated by volume; or
2. Left in the pond and the broodfish removed.
(NOTE: Periodic seining with a small-mesh seine provides a rough

estimate of fry numbers and rate of growth.)
VIII. Egg, fry, and fingerling management (Transparency 1)
A. Eggs
1. Egg masses are generally transferred to hutching troughs or incubators

inside the hatchery.
2. Paddles rock the egg masses and cause oxygen-rich water to flow
through them in imitation of the male catfish's fanning action.
3. With a trough water flow of about 5 gallons per minute and a mirimum
maintained water temperature of 78°F, hatching takes place in 7 or 8
days.
B. Yolk-sac fry
1. Sac fry that hatch from the eggs are usually kept in the hatching trough.
2. Sac fry require no feed because they get their nutrition from the yolk
sac.
3. When the yolk sac is absorbed 3 to 5 days after hatching, the fry swim
to the surface for food.
4. Swim-up fry are transferred to rearing troughs or earthen fry ponds.
507
522
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Swim-up fry
1. Swim-up fry reared in a trough are fed a high-protein meal (45% to 50%
crude protein) every 2 to 4 hours around the clock.
2. Pond-reared swim-up fry feed on plankton, particularly zooplankton, and

are also fed 10 to 25 pounds of "starter" meal or pellets per acre two
or three times a day.
D. Fingerlings
1. After 6 to 10 days, swim-up fry are stocked in fingerling rearing ponds.
2. Gener3lly fingerlings are stocked to grow to fish-food-stocking sizes

within 120 to 150 days.
3. Fingerlings are fed one or two times a day at a rate based on a

percentage of the standing crop weight. (Assignment Sheet #4)
IX. Fry stocking rates for fingerling grow-out
A. Fry are stocked by number per surface acre.
B. The stocking rate depends on desired size at harvest and limit on maximum
feeding rate.
C. The more intense the stocking rate, the smaller the catfish at harvest. (Table
1 )
EXAMPLE:
TABLE 1: Stocking Guide for Channel Catfish Fingerlings at Different

Densities over a 120- 150-Day Growing Season
Number of Fry Length at Harvest

Stocked per Acre (Inches)
10,000 7-10
30,000 6-8
53,000 5-7
73,000 4-6
95,000 3-5
120,000 3-5
140,000 3-4
200,000 2-3
300,000 1-2
500,000 1
From Commercial Production of Farm.Raised Catfish by Gary L. Jensen. With permission.
508
AQ-523
INFORMATION SHEET
X. Guidelines for obtaining fingerlings for food-fish production
A. Purchase fingerlings from a reliable dealer with a reputation for providing

healthy stock.
(NOTE: Buying healthy stock is the first step in ensuring the success of your
catfish enterprise.)
B. Do not accept fish that have frayed fins, are obviously skinned up, or that
have red blotches or white spots resembling salt on their skin.
C. Try to be present to verify sizes, weights, and counts when fish are loaded
on the transport truck.
D. Follow the transport truck to the farm, and supervise to make sure that the
correct number of fingerlings are stocked in each pond, and that the fish are
well-acclimated to the pond water.
E. Obtain an agreement from the fingerling supplier that specifies liability or fish
replacement policy in case of fish losses during or shortly after stocking.
XI. Size options for stocking fingerlings for food-fish production
A. C13an-crop fall harvesting of food-sized catfish requires the spring purchase

of 5- to 6-inch fingerlings in the southern states, 6- to 8-inch fingerlings in the
more northern states, and 8- to 10-inch fingerlings in lowa and states further
north.
B. Partial harvesting, or topping off, requires the purchase of fingerlings of mixed

sizes (4 to 8 inches) and the restocking of one 5-inch fingerling for each
pound of fish harvested.
(NOTE: Stocking ponds with different sizes of fish at different times reduces
competition between large and small fish, allows the producer to harvest fish
more often during the year, and provides the needed continuous supply of fish
to the processors.)
C. To shorten the grow-out period or to culture larger sport fish or fish suitable
for steaks and filets, stocker fish weighing 1/2 pound or more should be stocked
in the spring.
(NOTE: The size of the fingerlings stocked is important. Research has shown
that large fingerlings can gain more weight in a !ime period than smaller fish.
In the south at temperatures between 75°F and 85°F, as a rule, 6 to 8-inch
fingerlings grow to 1 pound in 20 to 21 weeks; 8 to 10 inch fingerlings grow
to 1 pound in 15 weeks; and 10 to 12 inch stockers grow to 1 pound in 9
weeks.)
50 9
524
INFORMATION SHEET
XII. Food-fish stocking rates (Assignment Sheet #2)
(NOTE: The number of fish stocked depends on many variables, market demand,
production method, feeding, aeration, experience, and management skill are some
of the more important. The following are general guidelines only. Assignment Sheet
#2 provides accurate mathematical methods for estimating stocking rates.)
A. New producers should consider not stocking more than 3,000 to 4,000 fish per
surface acre of water if the desired market size is 11/4 pounds or more.
(NOTE: This level of stocking aims the first-time producer to gain experience
in management procedures while reducing potential problems.)
B. Stocking rates for extensive proa iction vary from 500 to 2,000 catfish
fingerlings per surface acre of water.
C. Stocking rates for intensive commercial ponds vary from 2,500 to 6,000 or
more catfish fingerlings per surface acre of water.
XIII. Types of commercial catfish feed
A. Extruded floating feed
1. Manufactured to float on the water surface, this type of feed is p.eferred

by most producers because stock can be observed and monitored while
eating.
4)
2. This type of feed is generally more water stable than sinking feeds and
does not get lost in the vegetation or bottom mud.
B. Pelleted sinking feed
1. This feed is slow-sinking and can be purchased in an 80/20 ratio where

80 percent sinks and 20 percent floats.
2. Sinking feed requires more management than others because pellets

quickly fall apart in the water and can he lost in the bottom mud, adding
to organic debris.
3. The greatest advantage of sinking feed is its lower price.
4. Sinking feed is generally the preferred type of feed for winter feeding.
C. Medicated feed containing an antibiotic may be of the floating or sinking type,

floating medicated feed is coated on the surface; medicine is added to the
ingredients of sinking medicated feed.
5t0
AQ=525'
,INFEAMIATIDN,SHEET _
XIV: Size and,quality-of catfish. fead'
A. :FeedS are available, in 50=pound-ibads:or- Can:6e 26 to gton

106:
B. Feeds are, .manufaCtured in- ,a -variety. of 'sfieS-:frorn, Meal crurribtald-Aarge
pellett; is,-Ithpörtant tO -Match the,fee,d', Sizejot tnkfiarSiZe: :(Figure- 2)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 2
C. -Mixed feed sizes are Usett in ponda 'containing :Mixed sizes-of fish.
o. The hidhest quality feed' is, nutritionally coMplete: it pOntaihs vitamin and
mineral- PreMikes, and, its ,protein, 'content is between 32. ahdc35 _percent
E. Supplemental -feeds may be of' ,hidn. quality, but they.do.-not -contain' all the'
essential. ingredients Or adequate -levelS to te nutritionatir'coniplete:
_XV. Guidelines' for feeding food fish
tt Caldulate -batic ,feed allowanCee,against ,ayerage eXpeCted ,or a

feeding 'chart. -(Astidnmeht 'Sheet 44),
B. As.acule ofihumh, do.not.feecHnorelhan,can-be:eater in 10:to ,t; Minutes.
(NOTt.....Catfish'-groW. fasteSt Can eat. bye:feeding, Means

-wasted:food, 'but 1.tiore.:Importaritly, uneaten:food sinks:to .the ,bottom 'and-can
create: water qUality p 10161110
C. "Feed.the fish and,hot the pond"%by-adjuting:th6 daily .feed allowancaas-fish

gain Weight andlemperatureS. Change.
EXAMPLE: D6 not, feed fiCh-a-.ständard,donversiOn rate such- as 3% during

.the entire ,growing: Season. Larder fish-CannOt cdonsume 3%,, and,
ternperature-influences: appetite.
INFORMATION SHEET
D. Feed over-wintered catfish sinking-pellet feed to prevent weight loss and to

maintain health.
F. Do not feed when temperatures are 50°F or less 2 feet below the water
surface.
F. Feed by broadcasting the feed by hand from the bank or a boat in small
ponds, or by mechanical feed blowers in large ponds.
a Distribute the feed from the length of at least two banks in each pond, and
over a larger area if the pond contains fish of different sizes.
H. Feed fish once or twice a day between 9 A.M. and 5 P.M. or when levels of DO
are high; avoid feeding close to or after sunset when DO levels drop.
(NOTE: Fish may feed poorly during a sudden temperature drop, a heavy rain,
or at temperatures above 90°F.)
Sample fish routinely and calculate food conversion ratios (FCR) to determine
the cost and efficiency of your feeding program. (Assignment Sheet #3; Job
Sheet #1)
J. Store feed properly in a cool, dry area, and do not store over 30 days in the
summer.
(NOTE. Improperly stóred feed can produce mold that can be harmful to the
Feed stored too long or exposed to sunlight for an extended
catfisl-..
periodparticularly vitamin premixeswill lose its nutritional value.)
XVI. Producing catfish in cages
A. Bodies of water that cannot be seined, drained, or otherwise harvested can

be used for small-scale catfish production in cages.
EXAMPLES: Stripmines, gravel pits, lakes, large reservoirs, irregular farm

ponds
B. Small-scale production can be carried out in almost any farm pond of 1 acre
or more with a depth of 8 feet or deeper; larger-scale production requires a
body of water at least 5 acres in area.
(NOTE: A producer should not expect to produce more than 1,500 pounds
of eatfish per year per acre without supplemental aeration or a significant
inflow of fresh water.)
C. Cages are floated in the water, their tops several inches above the surface
for ease of feeding, and their bottoms 2 to 4 feet from the pond bottom so
that the water supply is not fouled by fish wastes. (Figure 3)
5 12
AQ-527
INFOIMATION SHEET
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 3
Cages allow for the production_aseveral noncompatible species at the same

time.
EXAMPLE: Catfish can be grown in cages and bass can be free in the,open
water; or catfish can be-cage or pen raised in the summer and
trout can be cultured in the pens or cages in the winter.
E. Cages are usually stocked with channel catfish 4 to 8 inches'Iong at a density
of 8 to 12 per cubic foot.
pPOINT OF INTEREST: Fingerlings should be graded as tightly as

ossiblewithin a 2-inch rangeto prevent fighting. Two-year-old stockers
should not be cage cultured because they, too, will fight.
L
F. Caged fish must be fed a nutritionally complete floating feed of high protein
content-32% to 38%- protein.
G. To reduce losses from stress or disease, medicated feed is oftervied for the
first 19 to 14 days after stocking.
H. Confined fish should be fed at least 6 days a weekpreferably 7 daysand

only in amounts that they will eat in 20 minutes.
XVII. Advantages of cage culture
A. Allows for use of marginal bodies of water.
B. Does not require expensive alteration of the land.
C. Start-up investment is lower than that for pond or container production.

D. Recordkeeping is easier because the c,attish can be readily seen and do not
require catching for weighing and monitoring.
513
528
INFORMATION SHEET
E. Harvesting is easy as the cages merely need to be lifted from the water.
XVIII. Limitations of cage cuRure
A. The cost of cage construction is relatively high because durable materials are
expensive.
B. There is little commercial application in ponds less than 5 acres in area.
C. A hole in the wire or mesh, or wind damage to the cage can result in the loss
of the fish.
D. Cages can be vandalized and fish stolen.
E Fish are more susceptible to death from low DO.
F. There will be considerable size variation if fish are not graded.
G. There is no large-scale commercial value.
H. Disease and parasite outbreaks may increase because the fish are stressed
by crowding.
XIX. Tank and raceway culture of channel catfish
A. Catfish can be produced in linear or circular raceways, tanks, or vats.
B. These systems require a continual supply of high-quality, highly oxygenated

water to dilute or flush uneaten food and fish wastes from the containers.
C. Most of these systems require pumping, and adequate amounts of suitable

quality water at an affordable cost is the major limitation in this type of culture
system.
(NOTE: Earthen raceways have been used to produce channel catfish, but
sufficient low-cost water near 82°F is not available in most areas where
channel catfish are raised.)
D. Many of these units recirculate the water and require backup ammonia and
biological filters, pumps, and emergency power units.
P. Becauoe the tank bottom and water supply usually provide no supplemental
nutrients, the catfish must be fed high-quality nutritionally complete feeds.
F. Generally, container culture for commercial production is cost prohibitive,

though it is used successfully in hatcheries and for research.
EXAMPLES: Researchers have used recirculating water in tanks containing

test fish; in some recirculating tanks, vegetables are grown to
extract waste products from the tank and provide useful crops;
some linear raceways have been constructed in which all water
transfer and aeration is by gravity.
r
L.) i iiA
AQ-529
Methods of Handling Catfish Eggs

for Fry Production
BROOD FISH SPAWN
Eggs hatch in Eggs removed from

spawning container spawning container
Fry raised in Yolk-sac fry Eggs hatch

spawning pond transferred in hatchery
Moved to separate
To hatchery
nursery pond
Swim-up fry moved to

nursery pond
From Commercial Production of Farm-Raised Catfish by Gary L. Jensen. With permission.
5J.5
AQ-531

UNIT IX
HANDOUT #1
TABLES FOR CALCULATING STOCKING NUMBERS AND GiZES
TABLE 1: Estimated Percent of Body Weight Consumed by Channel Catfish of

Different Sizes at Different Water Temperatures Above 70°F
Fish Size
Average Weight Pounds per Estimated Daily Food Consumption
(Pounds) 1,000 Fish Rate (% Body Weight)
0.02 20 4.0
0.06 60 3.0
0.25 250 2.7
0.50 500 2.5
0.70 750 2.2
1.00 1000 1.6
1.50 1500 1.3
TABLE 2: Length-Weight Relationship for Channel Catfish Fingerlings and Food Fish
0 Total
Length
(Inches)
Average Weight
per 1000 Fish
(Pounds)
Number of
Fish per
Pound
Average Weight
per Fish
(Pounds)
1 1.3 767.7 .0013
2 3.5 285.7 .0100
3 10.0 100.0 .0100
4 20.0 50.0 .0200
5 32.0 31.1 .0321
6 60.0 17.0 .056,
7 93.0 10.8 .0926
8 112.0 9.0 .1111
9 180.0 5.5 .1818
10 328.0 3.1 .3280
11 395.0 2.5 .3950
12 509.0 1.9 .5090
13 656.0 1.5 .6560
14 850.0 1.1 .8500
15 1090.0 0.92 1.0900
16 1290.0 0.82 1.2900
17 1432.0 0.69 1.4320
18 1750.0 0.57 1.7500
19 2200.0 0.45 2.2000
20 2890.0 0.35 2.8900
21 3290.0 0.30 3.2900
22 3470.0 0.29 3.4700
23 3600.0 0.28 3.6000
Tables from Handbook for Common Calculations in Finlish Aquaculture by Gary L. Jensen, Louisiana Cooperative
Extension service, with permission.
AQ-533

LNIT IX
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
KEEP DAILY, WEEKLY, AND MONTHLY CATFISH
PRODUCTION RECORDS
To be successful at catfish production, you must be a good manager, and to manage your
enterprise profitably, you must keep thorough and accurate records of the numbers and
weight of fish in every pond at any given time. You must also record the details of your
feeding practices: dates, amounts, FCR's, etc.; and all information regarding pond or
disease treatment.
There are many reasons for keeping good records, one of the most important being that
many lending institutions require records before they will lend money. You will also need
records for income tax purposes. Without records, you wili not be able to calculate feed
conversion ratios and optimum stocking rates. Without these figures, you will not know
whether you are making or losing money. And, finally, if you do not keep :2cords, you will
not be able to identify problem areas that need correcting for the most efficient and
economical management.
To complete this assignment sheets you must record on the appropriate forms, information
given in the enterprise data supplied by your instructor. Record data for the enterprise on
the following forms or use a computer recordkeeping system. Excellent computer programs
for catfish recordkeeping are availab!e from your county agent of the Cooperative Extension
Service. If you do not have a computer, you can develop your own system based on the
forms included in this assignment sheet.
517
534
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
1. Daily Feeding Record
Record on a daily feeding form the amount of feed fed daily for each pond in the
enterprise.
Daily Feeding Record

Week of to
Pond # Sun. Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. Total
518
-
AQ-535
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
2. Weekly pond record
Record on a weekly pond record the pond number and date, dates of smoking,
stocking rates and weights, and total weight stocked. Obtain the estimated feed
conversion ratio (FCR) from information in the enterprise data. Producers obtain
estimated FCRs from experience, their pond conversion ratio calculations records,
or through calculations after sample counts or at last harvest. In Assignment Sheet
#3 you learn how to calNate FCR and estimate fish weights from feed records.
Most of the information required on The Weekly Pond Record is self-explanatory.

Find Column 3 by dividing each entry ir. Column 2 by the estimated FCR. Column
4 should be running totals of original stocking weight plus weekly gains. Use
Column 7 for notations.
EXAMPLES: Average fish size (total fish weight divided by number of

fingerlings), disease treatments, explanation of losses
Weekly Pond Record
PondlUnit #
Size Acres
Total
Date Weight Number Stocked
Stocked Fingerlings Fingerlings Weight
Est. Corm Ratio: Total
Col. 1 Col. 2 Col. 3 Col. 4 Col. 5 Col. 6 Col. 7

Lb Total Lb Price Remarks
Week Feed Lb Fish Harvested Received (Treatments,
Ended Fed Gain Weight or Lost Per lb feed, etc.)
TOTAL
5 9
1
536
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
3. Pond conversion ratio calculations
Before completing pond conversion ratio calculations, find the correct factor (CF) by
calculating adjustments for feed fed:
a. Beginning feed inventory =

b. Total feed purchased =
c. Ending feed inventory =
d. Feed used (a + b c) =
e. Total feed fed from pond records =
f. Correction factor (d + e) =
After obtaining the CF, record it on the Pond Conversion Ratio Calculation form. Record the
information required in Columns 1, 3, 4, and 5. To obtain Column 2, multiply the CF by Column
1. Calculate Column 5 by subtracting the value in Column 3 from Column 4 and then dividing
this result into the value in Column 2.
Pond Conversion Ratio Calculations
Correction Factor (CF) =
Col. 1 Col. 2 Col. 3 Col. 4 Col. 5

Actual lb. Total Conversion
Est. lb. Feed Fed Stocking Total lb. Ratio
Pond # Feed Fed (1) x (CF) Wt. Harvested 21 (4 3)
ri-,
04. U
AQ-537

UNIT IX
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
CALCULATE STOCKING RATES
The number and size of fish stocked in a pond are important because the number of fish
stocked affects the level of management needed, and the size of fish stocked influences
the length of time needed for fish to reach a desired market size.
Fish are usually stocked based on the surface area of water, unless they are stocked into
tanks or raceways with continuous water flow. The number of catfish to stock into
commercial ponds depends on three factors:
Maximum feeding rate;

Size of fish desired at harvest;
Maximum pounds of fish that can be fed at maximum daily feeding rate.
This assignment sheet is designed to give you practice in determining the correct number
and size fish to stock for various situations. Part I provides information and examc:as; Part
II provides you with stocking problems so that you can practice calculating stocking rates
You must use the tables in Handout #1 for information needed to make your calculations.
PART I
Calculating Food Fish Stocking Rates

EXAMPLE 1. You want to stock 6-inch channel catfish fingerlings at 3,000 per acre in
your 12 acre pond. What will be tne total number of fish in your pond? How
many pounds of fingerlings will you request from the supplier?
1. Find the total number of fish in your pond by simply multiplying the number of fish
desired per acre times the number of acres:
Total No. of Fish to Stock = No. of Fish/Acre x No. Acres
= 3,000 x 12
= 36,000 fish
2. Find the number of pounds to purchase by first looking on Ta..,le 2 in Handout #1

to find the estimated number of pounds per 1,000 channel catfish of a 6-inch
length:
6-inch length = 60 pounds per 1,000 fish
r r) I
_
538
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
3. Find the total number of pounds to purchase by dividing the total number by 1,000
and multiplying by the number of pounds per 1,000 fish:
Total No. of Pounds Needed = Total No. to Stock x lb/1,000

1,000
= 36 000 x 60
1,000
= 36 x 60
= 2,160 pounds
EXAMPLE 2: You have just stocked 3,250 pounds of fish in your pond and now
you make a sample check to determine the number of fish delivered.
Your sample of 150 fish weighs 9 pounds. How many fish were
stocked?
No. of Fish Stocked = No. Fish in Sample x Total Weight Stocked

Weight of Sample
= 50 x 3.250
9
= 87 500
9
= 54,167 fish
EXAMPLE 3: You are a fingerling producer, and a local fish farmer has told you
that she :mints to stock 30,000 fish. Your sample check reveals that
100 fish of the size she wants weigh 7 pounds. How many pounds
will you sell her?
No. of Pounds Needed = No. Fish Desired x Weight of Sample

No. Fish in Sample
= 30 000 x 7
100
= 210 000
100
= 2,100 pcunds
522
AQ-539
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
EXAMPLE 4: You have a 17.5 acre levee pond with aeration and well. You want to grow
food fish to an average size of 11/2 pounds without exceeding the maximum
feeding rate (MFR). How many fish can you stock?
1. Use the chart below to find the maximum feeding rate:
Pond Suggested Maximum Feeding Rate*

Set-up (Pounds/Acre/Day)
Watershed pond, no aeration 30 to 35

Watershed pond with aeration 50 to 60
Levee pond with well, no aeration 35 to 40
Levee pond with well and aeration 100
*Maximum feeding rate = 100 pounds of feed per acre per day.
2. Use Table 1 in Handout #1 to find estimated feed consumption ate for 11/2 pound
fish at harvest:
Estimated feed consumption rate = 1.3% of body weight consumed daily.
3. Find total fish weight per acre:
Total Fish Weight = Maximum Feeding Rate

Percent of Est. Feed Consumption
Expressed as a Decimal
= 100
.013
= 7,692 pounds/acre
4. Find number of fish to stock per acre:
No. Fish to Stock/Acre = Total Pounds/Acre

Average Weight at Harvest
= 7 692
1.50
= 5,128 fish/acre
523
540
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
5. Find total number of fish to stock by multiplying the number of acres by the number
of fish per acre:
17.5 acres x 5,128 fish = 89,740 fish/pond
EXAMPLE 5. A fingerling producer wants to grow fish to an average size of 6 inches. He

does not want to exceed a feeding rate of 75 pounds per acre per day.
How many fish should be stocked?
1. Use Table 1 in Handout #1,to find the estimated feed consumption rate:
Estimated feed consumption rate = 3% of body weight consumed daily.
2. Find the total weight at harvest:
Total Weight at Harvest = Maximum Feeding Rate

Percent of Est. Feed Consumption
= 75
0.03
= 2,500 pounds/acre
3. Find the average weight of a 6-inch fish in Table 2, Handout #1:
Average weight of 6-inch fish at harvest = .0588 or about .06 pound.
4. Calculate the fish stocking rate per acre by dividing the total weight at halvest by
the average weight per fish -I harvest:
Stocking Rate/Acre = Total Weight at Harvest

Average Weight per Fish
= 2 500
0.06
= 41,666 fish/acre
524
AQ-541
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
Calculating Replacement Stock After Topping
Catfish farmers commonly harvest several times a year by topping their stock: seining out
those fish that have reached market size. After topping', one fish is stocked for each fish
harvested.
In order to know the number of fish to restock, the producer must weigh and count a
sample of fish harvested. The producer must also know the total weight in pounds of the
fish harvested.
EXAMPLE: You have topped 15,000 pounds of fish from your pond. A random sample
of 50 fish weighed a total of 55 pounds. How many fish should be stocked
to replace those harvested?
Restock No. = No. Fish in Sample x Total Weight Harvested (lb)

Total Weight of Sample (lb)
= 50 x 15 000
55
= 13,636 fish
Calculating Broodfish Stocking Rates

Stocking broodfish for fingerling production requires careful planning. If too many fry are
produced, the enterprise can lose money. In addition, the production of too many fry can
cause overcrowding, which leads to disease and slow growth.
To calculate broodfish stocking numbers, the producer needs the following given
information, which is based on experience and published research:
Broodfish are normally stocked at a maximum of 1,200 pounds per acre, with a
male to female ratio of 2:3 (2 males for each 3 females).
Fifty percent of female broodfish will spawn (produce eggs).
Each spawning female will produce an average of 2,600 eggs per pound of body
weight.
The survival of eggs during hatching is 95%.
The survival of fry to lengths of 4 to 6 inches is 70%.
The maximum stocking rate of fry to reach an average of 4 to 6 inches after 120
to 150 days of culture is 75,000 per acre.
525
542
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
EXAMPLE: A catfish fingerling producer wants to raise 800,000 fingerlings to an

average length of 4 to 6 inches. The producer needs to know how
many acres of ponds will be needed to produce these fish, and how
many pounds of male and female broodfish to stock.
1. First the producer must calculate the number of fry needed:
Given: Fry survival 70% or .70
No. Fry Needed = No. Fingerlings Desired

Decimal Percent of Fry Survival
= 800 000
0.70
= 1,142,857 fry needed

2. With this figure, the number of fingerling ponds can be determined:
Given: Maximum fingerling stocking rate

= 75,000 per acre
No. Water Acres for Fingerling Ponds = Total Fry Stocked

Given No. per Acre
= 1 142 857
75,000
. 15.24 acres of fingerling

rearing ponds
3. Now the producer can determine the number of eggs needed:
Given: Egg survival 95% or .95
No. Eggs Needed = No. of Fry Required

Decimal % of Egg Survival
= 1 142 857
0.95
= 1,203,007 eggs
AO-543
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
4. With this information, the number of pounds of female broodfish can be calculated:
Given: Each spawning female produces

2,600 lbs. eggs per lb. of body weight.
No. Pounds Spawning Females = Ems Needed

Egg Production/Pound Body Weight
= 1,203 007
2,600
= 463 pounds
(NOTE: This poundage is doubled

because only 50% female broodfish
spawn.)
= 926 pounds female broodfish
5. Now the number of female broodfish can be determined by dividing the average
desired weight per female broodfish (4 pounds) into the total pounds of female
broodfish found above:
Total No. Female Broodfish = Total Pounds Needed

Average Weight/Female
= 926
4
= 231 broodfish
6. Calculate the number of male broodfish needed:
Given: Stock 2:3, 2 males for each 3

females
No. Male Broodfish Needed = No. Females Needed x 2

3
= 231 x 2
3
= 77 x 2
= 154 males
527
544
7.
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
Find the number of pounds of male broodfish needed by multiplying the number
e
of males by their average weight !assume for the sake of the example that males
average 4.5 pounds each):
Total Pounds of Male Broodfish = Total No. x Average Weight/Male
= 154 x 4.5
= 693 pounds
8. Finally, determine the minimum number of acres needed for spawning ponds:
Given: Recommended pounds per acre

in spawning ponds = 1,200
Minimum Acres for Spawning Ponds = Total Pounds of Broodfish (M + F)

Recommended Pounds/Acre
= 926 + 693
1,200
. 1 619
1,200
= 1.35 acres minimum

Calculating Numbers of Fry Stock
Because channel catfish fry are so tiny, it is difficult to estimate their numbers by visual
inspection. However, small fish double their weight quickly, so it is important to make
number estimations just before i y are stocked in fingerling grow-out ponds. Fingerling
producers make these estimates in Mo ways: 1) by measuring water volume displacement,
and 2) by weighing. The calculatic s for both methods are simple. A fish counter is used
to determine numbers.
The volumetric method involves counting a known number of fry and measuring water
displacement. About 300 fry are counted and placed in a graduated cylinder. The amount
of water displaced is recorded. Then all frynot just those in counted sampleare placed
in a large container graduated in milliliters and the amount of water displaced is recorded.
The fingerling producer can now calculate total numbers of fry based on these figures.
AQ-545
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
EXAMPLE: A sample of 300 fry raised the water volume in a 100-milliliter graduated
cylinder from 50 to 62 ml. All fry were then placed in a graduated
measuring container containing 500 ml of water. The fry raised the water
volume to 900 ml. How many total fry do you have?
Use the volumetric formula to estimate fry numbers:
Total No. of Fry = No. of F in Sam Is x Volume Chan e for All F

Volume Change for Counted Fry
= 300 x (900 500)

62 50
= 300 x 400
12
= 120 000
12
= 10,000 fry
To use the weighing method of estimating numbers of fry, a container of water is weighed
to the nearest gram on a triple beam scale. A sample of 300 fry are counted and added
to the container, and the increase in weight to the nearest gram is recorded. Next, a larger
container of water is weighed and then all frynot just those in tho sample countare
placed in this container and the weight increase recorded. The fingerling producer can now
calculate total numbers of fry based on these figures.
EXAMPLE: A container and water weigh 300 grams. A sample count of 300 fish is
placed in the container, and the new weight is 370 grams. Next, a larger
container with water weighed 900 grams without fish. With the addition of
all the fry, it weighed 1,250 grams. How many total fish were weighed?
Use the weighing formula:
Total No. of Fry = No. of Fry in Sample x Weight Change with All Fry
Weight Change with Counted Sample
= 300 x (1,250 900)

(370 350)
= 105 000
20
= 5,250 fry
Ii=1
529
546
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
PART II
Practice calculating stocking rates and numbers by completing the follov,ing problems.
1. A pond is 5 acres in size and 3,000 fish is the desired stocking rate per acre.
How many fingerlings must be purchased from the supplier?
2. You want to stock a total of 40,000 4-inch fingerlings in your pond. How many
pounds of fish should you stock?
3. A sample of 150 fish weighs 9 pounds. How many pounds are needed to stock
54,167 fish?
4 A fingerling producer wants to raise fish to an average size of 6 inches but does
not want to exceed a feeding rate of 65 pounds per acre per day. How many fish
should be stocked?
5. You have a watershed pond without aeration and want to raise food fish to an
average size of 1 pound without exceeding the maximum daily consumption rate.
How many fish can you stock per acre? How many fish can you stock if you add
an extra 5% to adjust for losses?
6. Supposing the pond in number 5 were a levee pond with aeration and well. How
many fish could you stock per acre? How many with adjustment for losses?
You have just topped 17,000 pounds of fish from a pond. Your sample of 45 fish
woighs a total of 51.5 poi Inds. How many fish must you stock to replace those
harvested?
8. You want to produce 130,000 fingerlings to a length of 4 to 6 inches. How many

each of male and female broodfish must you stock? How many acres of broodfish
ponds do you need? Of fingerling rearing ponds?
9 Your broodfish have spawned and you have successfully reared the fry to fingerling
rearing-pond size. Now you need to estimate the number of fry you have for
stocking. Your sample count of 400 fry raises the water volume in a 100-ml
graduated cylinder from 50 to 75 ml. When you place all of your fry stock in a
larger graduated t,ontainer, they raise the water volume from 500 ml to 1,000 ml.
How many total fry do you have for stocking?
10 You are about to stock a fingerling rearing ponu and need to know the number
of fry you have. You weigh a container and water at 400 grams, and then place
a sample count of 300 fry in it. The new weight is 475 grams. Next you weigh a
larger container and water at 800 grams. When you place all fry stock in this
container, the weight increases to 1,175 grams. How many fry do you have? How
many should you stock for a 6-inch harvest without exceeding a feeding rate of 70
pounds per acre?
The problems and procedures in this assignment sheet were adapted from Gary L. Jensen s Handbook tor Common
Calculations in Finlish Aquaculture. With permission.
AQ-547

UNIT IX
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3
CALCULATE FCR AND ESTIMATE FISH WEIGHTS
FROM FEED RECORDS
Aquaculturists calculate feed conversion ratios (FCRs) to determine the cost efficiency of
raising fish. The FCR is the weight gained by fish after eating a known amount of feed.
EXAMPLE. A FCR of 1.5 means that the fish ate an average of 1.5 pounds of feed
to gain 1 pound in weight.
Feed conversion ratios for catfish vary from less than 1.5 to as high as 4 or more. The
higher the FCR, the smaller the profit margin. If the FCR is much higher than 2, the
producer tries to reduce it.
To determine the FCR, the producer must keep records of the amount of feed fed to fish
in each pond and must record fish losses and number of pounds of fish harvested. The
FCR can be calculated monthly when fis!.. are sampled, and when fish are harvested.
This assignment sheet is presented in two parts. Part I provides examples and information
on how to calculate FCR and weight gain from feed records. Part ll presents some
practical problems so that you may practice calculating feed conversion ratios and weight
gains.
PART I
EXAMPLE 1. A producer stocked 67,500 fingerlings weighing 50 pounds per 1,000. Later
the fish were sampled and the average weight of fish was 1/4 or 0.25
pound (250 pounds per 1,000 fish). During this time, 10 tons plus 1,600
pounds of feed were fed. No fish losses were observed. What is the FCR?
1. Convert all feed to pounds:
1 ton = 2,000 pounds
Total Pounds Fed = (No. Tons x 2,000) + No. Pounds
= (10 x 2,000) + 1,600
= 20,000 + 1,600
= 21,600 pounds
2. Determine final weight by multiplying the number of fish by the average weight
from sample:
Final Weight = Average Weight x No. Fish
= 0.25 x 67,500
= 16,875 pounds
0' 3 1
_ _
548
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3
3. Determine total weight gain by subtracting initial weight from final weight.
Total Weight Gain = Total Weight - Initial Weight
= 16,875 - 3,375
= 13,500 pounds
4. Substitute your results into the basic formula for FCR:
FCR = Amount of Fepd Fed (Pounds)

Total Weight Gain (Pounds)
= 21.600
13,500
= 1.6
The producer fed 1.6 pounds of feed to gain 1 pound of fish weight.
EXAMPLE 2: You had an estimated standing crop of 22,500 pounds of fish at the last
sampling. A new sample estimates the total fish weight at 33,000 pounds.
However, between these two samplings, you lost a recorded 2,500 pounds
of fish. During the period between samplings you fed 11 tons plus 1,400
pounds of feed. What is your FCR?
1. Find the total pounds fed:
Total Pounds Fed = (11 x 2,000) + 1,400
= 22,000 + 1,400
= 23,400 pounds
2. Find the total weight gain:
Total Weight Gain = (Final Weight - Last Weight) + Pounds Lost
= (33,000 - 22,500) + 2,500
= 10,500 + 2,500
= 13,000 pounds
(NOTE: The lost fish weight must be included because these fish figured into the
standing crop sampling (Last Weight). Economically, however, the producer has lost
not only the weight, but also the feed these fish ate before dying.)
532
AQ-549
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3
3. Substitute these figures into the basic formula to find the FCR:
FCR = Amount of Feed Fed (Pounds)

= 23 400
13,000
= 1.8
(NOTE: Fish losses increase the FCR. If you calculate the FCR for the producer
in Example 2 without including the lost fish, the FCR jumps to 2.23. Comparing the
two figures, one can see that even though the fish are converting well at an FCR
of 1.8 pounds, the real cost of production is actually at an FCR of 2.23 pounds
because of the fish that have been fed but cannot be marketed due to loss.)
Estimating Weights from Feed Records

Once you know the feed conversion ratio for your fish at the time of standing crop
estimation, you can estimate the pounds of weight of fish in the pond by knowing the
amount of feed you have fed the fish and the initial weight of the fish.
By calculating weights from weekly feed recxds, you can estimate the new fish weight
gain in a pond and adjust your feeding allowance to keep up with the growth of the fish.
To estimate weights from feed records, use the basic FCR formula:
FCR = Amount of Feed Fed (Pounds)

EXAMPLE. A pond was stocked with 30,000 fish that weighed 70 pounds per 1,000.
During a period of time, the fish were fed 2,250 pounds of feed and no
losses were observed. You have calculated a feed conversion ratio of 1.7.
What is the total weight of the fish in the pond?
1. Determine the initial stocking weight of fish:
Initial Stocking Weight = Total No. Fish x 70

1,000
= 30 000 x 70
1,000
= 30 x 70
= 2,100 pounds
550
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3
2. Find estimated weight gain:
a. Substitute known values into basic FCR formula:
FCR = Amount of Feed Fed pounds)

1.7 = 2 500
W (Estimated Weight Gain)
b. Divide 1.7 by 1 and cross multiply:
t7 = 2 500
1 W
1.7 W = 2,500
c. Divide each side of the equation by 1.7:
1.7 W = 2 500
1.7 1.7
W = 1,470 pounds gained
3. Estimate total weight of fish in pond:
Total Weight = Initial Weight + Weight Gain
= 2,100 + 1,470
= 3,570 pounds
PART II
Solve the following problems to practice calculating FCR and weights from weekly feed
records.
1
You have stocked 48,000 fingerlings at an average weight of 32 pounds per 1,000.
When you later sample the fish, their average weight is 0.06 pounds. Between
samplings, you fed 1 ton plus 550 pounds of feed and experienced no fish losses.
What is your FCR?
2 You have stocked 375 broodfish with an average weight of 3.5 pounds. You later
sample the fish and their average weight is 4.3 pounds. Between samplings, you
have fed 1/4 ton of feed and have observed no losses. What is your FCR?
3. At your last sampling, you estimated your standing crop at 18,400 pounds. The
following sample estimated total fish weight at 28,150 pounds. Between samplings,
you lost a recorded 1,600 pounds of fish. In the period of time between the two
samplings, you fed 3 tons plus 1,400 pounds of fsed. What is your FCR (including
fish lost)? What is your real cost of production (FCR not including fish lost)?
534
AQ-551
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3
4. Your estimated standing crop is 15,000 pounds at first sampling and 24,000 at
the following sampling. Between samplings, you lost 2,000 pounds of fish and fed
9 1/2 tons of feed. What is your FCR (including fish lost)? What is your real cost
of production (FCR not including fish lost)?
5. A pond was stocked with 30,000 fish that weighed 70 pounds per 1,000 fish.
During a period of time, the fish were fed 2,500 pounds of feed at an FCR of 1.9.
What is the estimated total weight of the fish?
6. Calculate weight gains of fish in problem 5, using FCRs of 1.6, 1.8, and 2.0. What
differences do you observe? How would you apply this information to catfish feeding
practices?
The problems and procedures in this assignment sheet were adapted from Gary L. Jersen s Handbook for Common
Calculations in Finfish Aquaculture. with permission.
535
AQ-553

UNIT IX
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #4
CALCULATE FEED REQUIREMENTS AND COSTS
In the United States, fish farmers feed their stock high-protein feeds; therefore feed
becomes a major production cost. The cost of feeding fish is determined by the FCR and
the cost of feed. For planning purposes and cost management, fish farmers should know
how to estimate their feed requirements over time.
This assignment sheet is presented in two parts. Part I presents examples and calculation
methods. Part II provides realistic problems so that you can practice calculating feed
requirements and costs.
PART I
Calculating Feed Costs
Table 1 below illustrates how the FCR and price affect the cost of producing catfish. Use
the table to estimate feed costs and requirements.
TABLE 1: Cost of Feed in Cents to Produce a 1-Pound Catfish at Different

FCRs and Feed Prices
Feed Cost per Ton

FCR $200 $225 $250 $275 $300
1.5 15.0 16.9 18.8 20.6 22.5

1.6 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.3
1.7 17.0 19.1 21.3 23.4 25.5
1.8 18.0 20.3 22.5 25.8 27.0
1.9 19.0 21.4 23.4 26.1 28.5
2.0 20.0 22.4 25.0 27.5 30.0
From Handbook for Common Calculations in Fin fish Aquaculture by Gary Jerzen, Louisiana Cooperative
Extension Service. With permission.
EXAMPLE. If 4,000 pounds of fish were produced per acre, the feed was $253 per ton,
and the FCR was 1.8, what would be the cost of feed per acre?
1. Use Table 1 to find cost of feed in cents to produce a 1-pound fish with feed at
$250/ton and FCR at 1.8:
Feed Cost per Pound . 22.5 cents or $.225
-
554
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #4
2. Find the cost per acre:
Cost per Acre = Weight of Fish/Acre x Cost/Pound
= 4,000 x .225
= $900/acre
Calculating Feed Requirements
Feed requirements for catfish change with age, size, health, and water requirements. Feed
requirement charts are available for caffish of different sizes and at different water
temperatures. However, these feed consumption rates should be used only as guidelines.
Individual fish farmers should keep records specific to their enterprises to determine their
own figures.
EXAMPLE 1: A pond was stocked with 45,000 fish that weigh 50 pounds per 1,000 fish.
The desired feeding rate is 3% of their weight daily. How much feed is
needed for 1 day and for 1 week?
1. Determine total pounds of fish stocked:
Total Weight Fish = No. Fish Stocked x 50

1,000
= 45 000 x 50
1,000
= 45 x 50
= 2,250 pounds
2. Find number of pounds to feed daily:
Total Daily Feed = Total Weight Fish x Decimal Feeding Rate
= 2,250 x 0.03
= 67.5 pounds/day
3. Find number of pounds to feed weekly:
Total Weekly Feed = No. Pounds/Day x No. Days Fed/Week
= 67.5 x 7
= 472.5 pounds/week
53 7
AQ-555
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #4
EXAMPLE 2: A 12 acr_ pond contains 2,000 pounds of fish per acre. A bacterial
disease is diagnosed and double strength (2x) Terramycin medicated
feed is needed. The daily recommended feeding rate is 1.5% body
weight per day for a total of 10 days. The feed comes in 50-pound
bags. How many bags of medicated feed should be ordered?
1. Find total pounds of fish in pond:
Total Weight Fish = No. Pounds/Acre x No. Acres
= 2,000 x 12
= 24,000 pounds
2. Calculate the amount of medicated feed needed per day:
Amount Med. Feed/Day = Total Weight Fish x Decimal Feeding Rate
= 24,000 x 0.15
= 360 pounds/day
3. Find total pounds of medicated feed needed for 10-day treatment period:
Amount Med. Feed/10-Day = Amount Med. Feed/Day x No. Treatment Days
= 360 x 10
= 3,600 pounds/10-day period
4. Determine number of bags of feed to purchase:
No. Bags to Purchase = Amount of Feed/Treatment Period

No. Pounds/Bag
= 3 600
50
= 72 bags
EXAMPLE 3. You have a 45 acre fish farm and expect an annual average production
per acre of 3,500 pounds of catfish. What is the estimated amount of
feed you must purchase for the year, and what will be your feed costs
at $250/ton? You expect an FCR of 1.8.
538
556
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #4
1. Determine the number of pounds of fish you expect to produce for the year:
NOTE: The number of pounds will actually be the weight gained and not the total
weight of fish produced. You are calculating costs and requirements here based on
your projected gains.)
Total Estimated Weight Gain = Projected No. Pounds/Acre x No. Acres
= 3,500 x 45
= 157,500 pounds
2. Use basi FCR formula to determine feed requirements for this number of fish:
FCR = Pounds of Feed Fed

Weight Gain of Fish
1.8 = Pounds of Feed Fed

157,000
1.8 = Pounds of Feed Fed

1 157,000
Pounds of Feed Fed = 1.8 x 157,000
= 283,500 pounds
3. Convert to tons:
1 ton = 2,000 pounds
No. Tons = 283 500 x 1

2,000
= 141.75 tons feed/year
4. Calculate your approximate cost of feed for 1 year:
Feed Cost/Year = No. Tons Feed Needed x Price/Ton
= 14115 x $250
= $34,020 per year
EXAMPLE 4: To keep pace with the growth of fish, the feed allowance should be
adjusted at least every two weeks when fish are feeding well. With this
in mind, what would be the new daily allowance for fish in Example 1
after two weeks of feeding?
539
AQ-557
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #4
1. The fish have gained weight after two weeks and .he adjusted feed allowance is now
based on 3% of the new weight.
(NOTE: The new weight can be determined by pond sampling [Job Sheet #1], or by
estimating weight gain from feed records and expected FCR [Assignment Sheets #1
and #3]. In this example, use an expected FCR of 1.6.)
2. Find the amount of feed fed for 2 weeks:
Feed Fed for 2 Weeks = No. Pounds Feed/Day x No. Days in 2 Weeks
= 67.5 x 14
= 945 pounds
3. Substitute known values into the basic FCR formula:
FCR = Total Feed Fed

Weight Gain of Fish
1.6 = 945
Weight Gain of Fish (2 Wk.)
1.6 = 945
1 Weight Gain of Fish (2 Wk.)
2 Week Weight Gain = 945

1.6
= 590 pounds
4. Cak.ulate the new fish weight:
New Weight = Initial (Stocking) Weight + Weight Gained
= 2,250 + 590
= 2,840 pounds
5. Calculate the new daily feed allowance:
Adjusted Feed Allowance/Day = New Weight x Decimal Feed Allowance
= 2,840 x 0.03
= 85.2 pounds/day
540
558
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #4
PART II
Practice calculating feed requirements and costs by solving the following problems.
1. You have 12 water acres under cultivation and are producing 2,500 pounds of
catfish per acre at an FCR of 1.6 and a feed cost of $225 per ton. What are your
per acre and per enterprise feed costs?
2. You have stocked a 6-acre pond with 3,000 fish per acre weighing 32 pounds per
1,000 fish. Your desired feed consumption rate is 3% of their weight daily. How
much feed is needed for 1 day? Two weeks?
3. Your farm has 12 acres of water. Your expected annual average production per
acre is 3,000 pounds of fish. About how much feed will you have to purchase for
the year, and what will 1.-=.i your total feed cost if feed is expected to cost $275 a
ton? Your experience tc. , you to expect an FCR of 1.7.
4. One of your 17.5-acre ponds contains 4,600 pounds of fish per acre. You have
discovered a disease and will treat the fish by feeding medicated feed at 2% of
body weight daily for 10 days. The feed you want comes in 50-pounds bags. How
many bags of medicated feed should you buy?
5. What would be the adjusted daily feed allowance for fish in problem 2, assuming
an FCR of 1.9?
The problems and procedures in this assignment sheet were adapted from Gary L. Jensen's Handbook for Common
Calculations in Fin fish Aquaculture. With permission.
5 41
AQ-559

UNIT IX
Assignment Sheet #1 - Evaluated to the satisfaction of the instructor.
Assignment Sheet #2
1. 15,000 fingerlings
2. 800 pounds
3. 3,250 pounds
4. 2,167 pounds/acre
36,000 fish
5. 2,188 fish/acre
2,625 fish/acre adjusted for loss
6. 6,250 fish/acre
7,500 fish/acre adjusted for loss
7. 14,854 fish
8. 29 males; 43 females
.21 or about 1/5 acre of broodfish pond
9. 8,000 fry
10. 1,500 fry
Assignment Sheet #3
1. FOR 1.8
2. FCR 1.6
3. FCR (including lost fish) 1.7
FCR (not including lost fish) 1.9
4. FCR (including lost fish) 1.7
FCR (not including lost fish) 2.1
5. 3,416 pounds
6. FCR 1.6 = 1,562 lb. gain
FCR 1.8 = 1,389 to. gain
FCR 1.9 = 1,316 lb. gain
FCR 2.0 = 1,250 lb. gain
The higher the FCR the less weight gain.
Use the FCR to increase weight of fish each week and then use new weight to
adjust feed allowance.
Assignment Sheet #4
1. $450/acre
$5,400/enterprise
2. 17.28 lb./day
120 lb./2 week period
3. 15.3 tons/year
$4,208/year
4. 322 bags feed
5. 19 lb./day
Assignment Sheet #5 - Evaluated to the satisfaction of the instructor.
542
AQ-561

UNIT IX
JOB SHEET #1
PERFORM POND SAMPLING TO ESTIMATE AVERAGE
FISH WEIGHTS AND STANDING CROP WEIGHT
1. 100-foot long seine with mesh size to catch smallest fish in pond
2. Hanging scale that weighs up to at least 50 pounds with increments in ounces
3. Bucket for weighing fish
4. Homemade tripod or bar off truck on which to hang scale
5. Dip net
6. Small amount of feed
7. Forms and pen or pencil for recording data learned
B. Procedure
(NOTE. Sa.nple the fish during the coolest time of oay or when it is overcast to
minimize stress. Always handle fish with wet hands, move the fish in the water,
and handle quickly.)
1. Calibrate and hang scale.
2. Toss some feed into a corner where fish normally feed.
3. When fish come to feed, pull the seine quickly across the corner to capture
the fish.
4. Collect first random sample by passing the dip net through the fish from
bottom to top.
5. Count fish in dip net, then transfer to bucket and weigh; record number and
weight:
(NOTE: Try to net at least 30 fish per sample. The more fish you sample,
the more accurate your estimate.)
Sample 1: No. fish Total weight
6. Repeat procedure to collect and weigh two more random samples, record
numbers and weights:
M Li 0
c.) t.)
562
JOB SHEET #1
Compare the weights of the three samples; if they are not similar, collect
4)
7.
more samples until a consistent value is found.
8. Clean work area and put away sampling equipment.
9. Estimate the standing crop weight:
a. Convert ounces to pounds and calculate the average weight of fish for
each sample; use the following formula, and record your findings.
Average Weight/Fish = Total Pounds in Sample

No. of Fish in Sample
Sample 1: Average weight per fish =
b. Now determine the total number of fish and average weight of all fish
together for the three samples; record, and then use the formula below
to calculate average weight of fish.
Sample No.
1
No. Fish Total Weight (Pounds)
e
2
3
Totals fish pounds
Average Fish Weight = Total Pounds of Samples

Total No. Sampled
c. Use the values you have learned and the formula below to estimate
the standing crop of fish in the pond.
Standing = Average Fish x (No. Fish Stocked-Fish Lost

Crop Weight Weight or Harvested)
54 4
AQ-563

UNIT IX
PRACTICAL TEST #1
JOB SHEET #1 PERFORM POND SAMPLING TO ESTIMATE AVERAGE

FISH WEIGHTS AND STANDING CROP WEIGHT
Student's name Date
observe the procedure and complete this form. AI! items listed under "Process
PROCESS EVALUATION
try again.)
ihe student: Yes No
1. Set up scales and equipment properly 0 0

2. Fed and captured fish properly 0 0
3. Collected and weighed three samples 0 0
4. Estimated standing crop weight 0 0
5. Calculated average fish weight 0 0
6. Estimated standing crop 0 0
7. Returned equipment to storage 0 0
5,15
564
PRACTICAL TEST #1
PRODUCT EVALUATION
evaluation.)
Criteria: Complete Acceptable Poor Unacceptable
Preparation 4 3 2 1
Fish collection procedures 4 3 2 1
Weighing procedures 4 3 2 1
Standing crop estimation 4 3 2 1

3 Moderately skilled Has performed job during training program, additional training
may be required.
Unskilled Is familiar with process, but is unable to perform job.

total the designated points in "Product Evaluation" and divide by the tota; number of
criteria.)
5-4 6
-
AQ-565

UNIT IX
TEST
NAME SCORE
1. Match terms related to commercial catfish production with their correct definitions.
a. Process by which eggs are placed in 1. Premix

a favorable environment for hatching
2. Extruded
b. To scatter feed over a wide area
3. Clean
c. Gradually introduced to changes in cropping
water temperature and quality
4. Topping
d. Harvesting all fish at one time
5. Feed
e. Feed additive that contains vitamins conversion
and minerals ratio (FCR)
f. The average number of pounds of feed 6. Broadcast

eaten by the fish to gain 1 pound in
weight 7. Genital
papilla
9. Musty or muddy tasting fish flesh
8. Standing crop
h. Raising fish in densities higher than weight
could be supported in the natural
environment; requires feeding of 9. Incubation
formulated feeds
10. Extensive
i. Pushed through a die to give a certain production
shape; method of producing floating fish
food 11. Intensive
production
Raising fish in low densities in ponds
where the fish feed primarily on natural 12. Acclimated
feeds
13. Off-flavor
k. Harvesting on!y those fish that have
grown to marketable size
I. Total weight of al" fish in a pond
m. Small nipplelike projection of tissue on

male catfish
547
566
TEST
2. Complete statements about the advantages of raising catfish. Wi.te the correct
a. Farm-raised channel catfish is the freshwater aquaculture crop in

the United States today.
1) of greatest economic importance

2) requiring the most intensive labor
3) of most fish farmers
b. As traditional agriculture crops become , more farmers are turning

to farming catfish as a second or third crop in their farm manavment
process.
1) more profitable
2) more diverse
3) less profitable
c. Because of a national trend toward , catfish farming is presently

experiencing rapid growth.
1) gourmet foods
2) increased seafood consumption
3) Cajun dishes
d. The number of processors and markets is expanding (particularly in

the southeast), and contracts with have introduced catfish to
nontraditional U.S. and international markets.
1) large supermarket chains

2) fast-food restaurants
3) international food distributors
e. There is more for farm-raised channel catfish than for any other
warmwater species.
1) research and development

2) government money available
3) marketing potential
3. Select factual statements about the limitations of raising catfish. Write the correct
a. Catfish farming requires to handle water quality, disease, and off-

flavor problems.
1) migrant workers
2) experience in agricultural management
3) high risk and intensive management
5 il S
-
AQ-567
TEST
b. If existing ponds are not suitable for the desired enterprise, start-up
requires to build ponds and levees.
1) major alteration of land

2) substantial equipment purchase
3) large bank loans
c. Start-up can require a substantial
1) financial commitment
2) amount of time
3) number of species
d. Presently there is limited availability of for facility construction and

crop production.
1) equipment
2) technical knowledge
3) loan capital
e. Feed costs and market prices for catfish production than for certain
more established species such as trout.
1) are more table

2) fluctuate more
3) are lower
f. The unavailability of may prohibit start-up or limit production.
1) channel catfish
2) experienced farm labor
3) processing plants and markets
Cash flc 7 is until crop is harvested.
1) increased
2) delayed
3) moderated
4. Arrange in order the phases of fingerling production. Write a "1" before the first
phase, a "2" before the second phase, and so on.
a. Managing sac-fry
b. Stocking and pairing broodfish
c. Stocking fingerling grow-out ponds and feeding fry until they ree-th
desired fingerling size.
d. Managing spawning
549
568
TEST
e. Maintaining and feeding swim-up fry
f. Managing incubation and hatching
5. Complete guidelines for stocking broodfish. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. For maximum spawning rate .
1) stock domostic broodfish that are at least 3 to 4 years old

2) stock wild broodfish that are at least 2 to 3 years old
3) stock domestic broodfish no more than 2 years old
b. Determine the sex of broodfish so that they can be stocked in equal

numbers or in other common female-to-male ratios such as .
1) 1:2 or 2:3
2) 1:3 or 2:4
3) 2:1 or 3:2
c. Select broodfish with good sex characteristics: full, well-rounded

abdomen; soft, movable sex organs; pink genitals.
1) male
2) female
3) male and female
d. Select broodfish with good sex characteristics: heavily muscled

head wider than body; dark color under jaw; large, protruding genital
papilla.
1) male
2) female
3) male and female
e. Stock broodfish so that their total weight is not over per surface
acre of water.
1) 1,000
2) 1,200
3) 1,500
6. Complete statements about raising broodfish in pens. Write the correct numbers in
the blanks.
a. Broodfisi I may be spawned in pens roughly 10 feet long by 5 feet wide

placed in ; the sides of the pen are embedded in the pond bottom
and should extend at least above water.
1) 4 to 5 feet of water near the outlet; 10 inches

2) 2 to 3 feet of water near the shore; 12 inches
3) 3 to 4 feet of water near the inlet; 2 feet
550
AQ-569
TEST
b. A spawning container is placed in the pen, generally with its open

end .
1) toward the center of the pond

2) toward the shore
3) toward the surface of the water
c. Special care must be taken to select spawning pairs : in the

confines of the pen, the male can injure and even kill the female.
1) from the same hatching

2) in which the male is smaller than the female
3) of about equal size
d. Spawning activity usually begins when the nightly water temperature

stabilizes above ; the female releases batches of eggs over a period
of time, and the male releases to fertilize them.
1) 65°F; malt
2) 75°F; molt
3) 70°F; milt
e. The eggs fall to the bottom of the spawning container in a mound held
together with .
1) glair
2) a sticky adhesive material
3) milt
f. Spawning containers are checked every , preferably in the late

morning.
1) 2 to 4 days
2) 2 to 4 hours
3) 2 to 4 weeks
After the parent fish spawn, the eggs may be moved to the hatchery
and the brooding pair removed and replaced in the pen with a new
pair of broodfish, or .
1) the male may be 'removed and the female left to hatch the eggs
2) the female may be removed and the male left to hatch the eggs
3) the male, female, and spawning container may be moved to
another spawning pen
7. Select from a list factual statements about managing spawning broodfish in open
ponds. Write an "Xr in the blank before each true statement.
a. Open pond spavining is more demanding than pen spawning.
b. Open pond broodfish do not need to be selected, sexed, or paired.
5
570
TEST
c. Two or three spawning containers for each four pairs of fish arG placed
in the pond.
d. Spawning containers are placed no deeper than 4 feet, with their open
ends generally facing the shore.
e. The location of each spawning container is marked with a float or stake.
f. Spawning containers in open ponds are checked every 2 to 4 hours,

preferably in late morning.
g. Eggs can be left to be incubated by the female in the pond.
h. It is to the producer's advantage to transfer the eggs to an incubation

trough in a hatchery.
I. If eggs are hatched in the pond, the fry may be transferred to nursery
ponds with a pair of females.
The fry may be left in the pond and the broodfish removed.
k. Whether left in the pond or transferred, fry numbers should be

estimated.
8. Select from a list factual statements about egg, fry, and fingerling management.
Write an "X" in the blank before each true statement.
a. Egg masses are generally transferred to hatching troughs or incubators

inside the nursery.
b. Paddles rock the egg masses and cause oxygen-rich water to flow
through them in imitation of the female's fanning action.
c. With a trough water flow of about 5 gallons per minute and a minimum
maintained water temperature of 78°F, hatching takes place in 7 or 8
hours.
d. Sac fry that hatch from the eggs are usually kept in the hatching trough.
e. Sac fry require no feed because they get their nutrition from the yolk
sac.
f. When the yolk sac is absorbed 3 to 5 weeks after hatching, the fry
swim to the surface for food.
g. Swim-up fry are transferred to rearing troughs or earthen fry ponds.
h. Swim-up fry reared in a trough are fed high-protein meal (45% to 50%
crude protein) every 2 to 4 hours around the clock.
i. Pond-reared swim-up fry feed on parasites, particularly crustaceans,

and are also fed 5 to 10 pounds of "starter" meal or pellets per acre
two or three times a day.
552
AQ-571
TEST
After 3 to 6 days, swim-up fry are stocked in fingerling rearing ponds.
k. Generally fingerlings are stocked to grow to fish-food sizes within 120

to 150 days.
I. Fingerlings are fPd one or two times a day at a rate based on a

percentage of th standing crop weight.
9. Complete statements about fry stocking rates for fingerling grow-out. Write the
a. Fry are stocked by .
1) volume per surface acre

2) weight per surface acre
3) number per surface acre
b. The stocking rate depends on .
1) desired size at harvest and maximum protein in feed

2) desired size at stocking and maximum days to harvest
3) desired size at harvest and limit on maximum feeding rate
c. The more intense the stocking rate, the .
1) smaller the catfish at harvest

2) fewer days until harvest
3) less expensive the harvest
10. List four guidelines for obtaining fingerlings for food-fish production.
a.
b.
c.
,
d.
572
TEST
11. Provide data about size options for stocking fingerlings for food-fish production.
Write the correct rates in the blanks.
a. Clean-crop fall harvesting of food-sized catfish requires the purchase of
to -inch fingerlings in the spring.
b. Partial harvesting, or topping off, requires the purchase of fingerlings of mixed
sizes ( to inches), and the
restocking of one -inch fingerling for each pound of fish
harvested.
c. To shorten the growing period, or to culture larger sport fish or fish suitable
for steaks or filets, stocker fish weight pound(s) or more
should be stocked in the spring.
12. Provide data about food-fish stocking rates. Write the correct stocking rates in the
blanks.
a. New producers should consider not stocking more than
to fish per surface acre of water if the desired market so

size is pound(s) or more.
b. Stocking rates for extensive production vary from to
catfish fingerlings per surface acre of water.
c. Stocking rates for intensive production vary from to
or more catfish fingerlings per surface acre of water.
13. Distinguish among types of commercial catfish feed. Write "EF" in the blanks before
descriptions of extruded floating feed, "PS" before pelleted sinking feed, and "MF"
before medicated feed.
a. The greatest advantage of this feed is its low price.
b. This is generally the preferred feed for winter feeding.
c. This feed is pieferred by most producers because stock can be

observed and monitored while eating.
554
AQ-573
TEST
d. Requiring more management than others, the pallets of this feed fall
apart in the water and get lost in the bottom mud, adding to organic
debris.
e. This feed contains added medications (antibiotics), either on the surface

or added to the ingredients.
f. This feed can be purchased in an 80/20 ratio.
g. This feed is generally more water stable than others and does not get
lost in the vegetation or bottom mud.
14. Complete statements about size and quality of catfish feed. Write the correct
/
a. Feeds are available in -pound bags and can be delivered
in to -ton bulk loads.
1) 50; 20, 22
2) 40; 10, 12
3) 25; 5, 10
b. Feeds are manufactured in a variety of sizes from ; it is important

to match the feed size to the fish size.
1) powder fine to 4-inch blocks

2) meal crumble to large pellets
3) pea size to 1-inch pellets
c. feed sizes are used in ponds containing sizes of fish.
1) Small; medium
2) Large; small
3) Mixed; mixed
d. The highest quality feed is nutritionally complete; it contains vitamin

and mineral premixes, and its protein content is between .
1) 22 and 25 percent
e. feeds may be of high quality, but they do not contain all the
essential ingredients or adequate levels to be nutritionally complete.
1) Supplemental
2) Broodfish
3) Extruded
6-
U s.. 3
574
TEST
15. Select from a list guidelines for feeding food fish. Write an "X" in the blank before
each true guideline.
a. Calculate basic feed allowances against average expected gains or use

a feeding chart.
b. As a rule of thumb, do not feed more than can be eaten in 5 to 10

minutes.
c. "Feed the fish, not the pond" by feeding a standard conversion rate.
d. Feed over-wintered catfish extruded floating feed to prevent weight loss

and to maintain health.
e. Distribute the feed from the length of at least two banks of the pond,
and over a larger area if the pond contains fish of different sizes.
f. Feed by broadcasting the feed from the bank or a boat in small ponds,
or by mechanical feed blowers in large ponds.
g. Do not feed when temperatures are 50°F or less 2 feet below the water
surface.
h. Feed fish once or twice a day between 9 A.M. and 5 P.M. or when levels
of DO are low; avoid feeding close to or after sunrise.
i. Sample fish routinely and calculate food conversion ratios (FCR) to
determine the cost and efficiency of your feeding program.
j. Store feed properly in a cool, dry area, and do not store over 60 days
in summer.
16. Select from a list true statements about imducing catfish in cages. Write an "X"
a. Bodies of water that cannot be seined, drained, or otherwise harvested

can be used for small-scale catfish production in cages.
b. Small-scale production can be carried out in almost any farm pond of

5 acres or more with a depth of 8 feet or deeper; larger-scale production
requires a body of water at least 10 acres in area.
c. Cages are floated in the water, their tops several inches above the
surface for ease of feeding, and their bottoms 2 to 4 feet from the
pond bottom so that the water supply is not fouled by fish wastes.
d. Cages allow for the production of several noncompatible species at the
same time.
e. Cages are usually stocked with channel catfish 8 to 12 inches long at

a density of 10 to 20 per cubic foot.
AQ-575
TEST
f. Caged fish must be fed a nutritionally complete sinking feed of high

protein content-32% to 38% protein.
To reduce losses from stress or disease, medicated feed is often fed

for the first 10 to 14 days after stocking.
h. The fish should be fed at least 4 days a week and only in amounts
that they will eat in 5 minutes.
17. List three advantages of cage culture.
a.
b.
c.
18. List five limitations of cage culture.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
r7
J5
576
TEST
19. Discuss tank and raceway culture of channel catfish by answering the following
questions.
a. What three container culture systems can be used to produce channel catfish?
1)
2)
3)
b. Why do container systems require a continual supply of high-quality, highly

oxygenated water?
c. What is the major limitation of container systems that require pumping?
d. What equipment do those units that recirculate water require?
e. Why must container cultured catfish be fed high-quality nutritionally complete

feeds?
f. Though container culture is cost prohibitive for commercial production, where

is it used most successfully?
(NOTE: If the following activities have not been completed prior to the test, schedule due
dates and evaluation times with your instrotor.)
20. Keep daily, weekly, and monthly production records. (Assignment Sheet #1)
21. Calculate stocking rates. (Assignment Sheet #2)
22. Calculate FCR and estimate fish weights from feed records. (Assignment Sheet
#3)
23. Calculate feed requirements and costs. (Assignment Sheet #4)
24. Demonstrate the ability to perform pond sampling to estimate average fish weights
and standing crop weight. (Job Sheet #1)
t!
u;14;
AO-577

UNIT IX
ANSWERS TO TEST
1. a. 9 h. 11
b. 6 I. 2
c. 12 1. 10
d. 3 R. 4
e. 1 I 8
f. 5 m. 7
9- 13
2. a. 1
b. 3
c. 2
d. 2
e. 1
a. 3
b. 1
c. 1
d. 3
e. 2
f. 3
9- 2
4. a. 4
b. 1
c. 6
d. 2
e. 5
t 3
559
578
ANSWERS TO TEST
7. b, c, e, h, j, k
8. a, c, d, e, g, h, k, I
9. a. 3
b. 3
C. 1
10. Answer should contain any four of the following:
a. Purchase fingerlings from a reliable dealer with a reputation for providing

healthy stock.
b. Do not accept fish that have frayed fins, are obviously skinned up, or that
have red blotches or white spots resembling salt on their skin.
c. Try to be present to verify sizes, weights, and counts when fish are loaded
on the transport truck.
d. Follow the transport truck to the farm, and supervise to make sure that the
correct number of fingerlings are stocked in each pond, and that the fish are
well-acclimated to the bend water.
e. Obtain al agreement from the fingerling supplier that specifies liability or fish
replacement policy in case of fish losses during or shortly after stocking.
11. a. 5, 6
b. 4, 8, 5
c. 1/2
12. a. 3,000, 4000; 11/4

b. 500, 2,000
c. 2,500, 6,000
13. a. PS e. MF
b. PS f. PS
c. EF g. EF
d. PS
14. a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 2
e. 1
560
a
AQ-579
ANSWERS TO TEST
15. a, e, f, g, i
16. a, c, d, f, g
17. Answer should include any three of the following:
a. Allows for use of marginal bodies of water.

b. Does not require expensive alteration of the land.
c. Start-up investment is lower than for pond or container production.
d. Recordkeeping is easier because the catfish can be seen and do not require
catching for weighing and monitoring.
e. Harvesting is easy as the cages merely need to be lifted from the water.
18. Answer should include any five of the following:
a. The cost of cage construction is relatively high because durable materials are
expensive.
b. There is little commercial application in ponds less than 5 acres in area.
c. A hole in the wire or mesh, or wind damage to the cage can result in the loss
of fish.
d. Cages can be vandalized and fish stolen.
e. Fish are more susceptible to death from low DO.
f. There will be considerable size variation if fish are not graded.
g. There is no large-scale commercial value.
h. Disease and parasite outbreaks may increase because the fish are stressed
by crowding.
19. a. Linear or circular raceways, tanks, or vats

b. Uneaten foods and fish wastes must be flushed from the container
c. Suitable quality water at an affordable cost
d. Backup ammonia and biological filters, pumps, emergency power units
e. Because the tank bottom and water provide no supplemental nutrients
f. In hatcheries and for research
51;1
AQ-581
COMMERCIAL TROUT PRODUCTION

UNIT X
UNIT OBJECTIVE
Ila
Trout Raceways
be able to discuss the principles of

After completion of this unit, the student should predict ammonia loads based on fish
commercial trout production; calculate loading rates;artificially spawn trout broodfish; and
load, food consumption, and water flow rates; be evidenced by correctly completing
inventory a raceway load. These competencies will job sheets and by scoring a minimum of
the procedures outlined in the assignment and
85 percent on the unit test.
SPECIFIC 0';. '..*.TIVES
be able to:
After completion of this unit, the student should
correct
1. Match terms related to commercial trout production with their
definitions.
2. Select factual statements about trout culture.
3. Label the external anatomy of a rainbow trout.

requirements.
4. Complete statements about basic water quality
their correct descriptions.
5. Match types of trout farming enterprises with
6. List the phases of trout production.
7. Complete statements about broodfish management.
8. Complete statements about egg management.
9. Complete statements about fry and fingerling management.

different sized fish.
10. Select from a list general guidelines for feeding
11. Select from a list general management guidelines.

units.
12. Select facts about types of impoundment and rearing
13. Select facts :tout raceway design.
14. Match water use systems with their correct descriptions.
15. Complete statements about typical stockingloading rates.
Courtesy Clear Springs Trout Company, Buhl, Idaho,
562
582
OBJECTIVE SHEET
16. Distinguish between Flow Index and Density Index.
17. Keep trout production records. (Assignment Sheet #1)
18. Calculate raceway carrying capacity based on flow and density indexes.
19. Predict ammonia loads based on food consumption, fish load, and water flow
rate. (Assignment Sheet #3)
a. Artificially spawn trout broodfish. (Job Sheet #1)
b. Inventory a raceway load. (Job Sheet #2)
563
AQ 583

UNIT X
A. Read unit and prepare own notes and examples.
B. Invite a representative from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service or a state or federal
trout hatchery to speak to the class about trout production.
D. Provide students with information sheet. Discuss information sheet, personalizing

and localizing it to meet the needs of your class and locality.
E. Obtain data from a commercial trout operation so that students can complete
Assignment Sheet liti.
F. Provide students with assignment and job sheets. Discuss and schedule assignment
sheets. Use overheads to demonstrate completion of record-keeping forms.
G. Schedule, demonstrate, and evaluate job sheet procedures. Have students work with
experienced trout producer to perform Job Sheet #1.
H. Give written test. Critique in class.
A. Been, Marley, and Glen Gebhart. "Cage Culture of Rairibow Trout," Langston
University Extension Facts. Langston, Oklahoma: Langston University with support
of the USDNCooperative State Research Service, n.d.
B. Kincaid, H. L., W. R. Bridges, A. E. Thomas, and M. J. Donahoo. "Rearing Capacity

of Circular Containers of Different Sizes for Fry and Fingerling Rainbow Trout," The
Progressive Fish Culturist, Vol. 38, No. 1, January 1976.
C. Klontz, George W., Philip C. Downey, and Richard L. Focht. A Manual for Trout and
Salmon Production. Murray, Utah: Sterling H. Nelson and Sons, Inc., Murray
Elevators Division, 1979, rev. 1985.
D. Marriage, L. Dean, Audrey E. Borell, and Paul M. Scheffer. Trout Ponds for
Recreation. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976.
Piper, Robert G., et. al., Fish Hatchery Management. Washington, D.C.: United
E.
F. Scheffer, Paul M. and L. Dean Marriage. Trout Farming. Leaflet 552. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975.
564
AQ-585

UNIT X
INFORMATION SHEET
A. Eyed egg Egg in which two black spotsthe developing eyes of the
embryocan easily be seen
B. Alevins (sac fry) Fry that obtain nourishment from attached yolk sac
C. Swim-up fry Fry that have lost their yolk sac and are ready for food
D. Hen Female trout
E. Cock Male trout
F. Ripe Containing fully developed eggs; ready to spawn
G. Stripping Manually releasing eggs and milt from broodfish
H. Milt Secretion that contains sperm produced by a male fish
I. Kype Upward curving hook of lower jaw that occurs at spawning
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 1
Kype
J. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) The average number of pounds of feed

eaten by the fish to gain 1 pound of weight
EXAMPLE: An FCR of 1.5 means that the trout consumes 1.5 pounds of feed
to gain 1 pound of weight. It takes about 2 pounds of feed to
produce a 1 pound fish under favorable growing conditions.
K. Anadromous Fish that lives in salt water but spawns in fresh water
L. Complete feed Feed that supplies 100 percent of the dietary requirements
of the fish; used when there is little or no access to natural food
M. Total length Length between tip of snout and end of tail
N. cfs Cubic feet per second
0. fps Feet per second
5 6 t>
586
INFORMATION SHEET
P. Water-hardening Process that takes place within a 30 to 90 minute period

after spawning in which the egg become turgid with water, loses its stickiness,
and can no longer be fertilized
Q. Shocking Process of sharply striking egg trays, siphoning eggs from one
container to another, or pouring eggs from incubator trays into tub of water
from 2 or 3 feet to detect undeveloped or infertile eggs
(NOTE: Shocking is done after the eggs have developed to the eyed stage.
Undeveloped or infertile eggs remain tender. They rupture when shocked,
allowing water to enter the egg and coagulate the yolk, which turns the egg
white. The white eggs can easily be picked out and discarded.)
R. Standard Environmental Temperature (SET) The temperature at which
all of the species' physiological systems operate optimally
(NOTE: Each species of fish has its own SET. The SET for rainbow trout
is 59°F. For each degree Fahrenheit below SET there is a corresponding 5
percent decrease in growth rate from the optimum permissible at SET. This
means that at 39°F [20°F below SET], growth virtually ceases for the rainbow
trout.)
S. Weir A structure for measuring/controlling water flow
T. Total ammonia The measurement of both forms of dissolved ammonia,

ammonium, NH4+ (ionized), and ammonia, NH3 (un-ionized)
(NOTE: Total ammonia is also referred to as ammonia nitrogen, but it is the

e
total ammonia values that are normally reported. The ammonia, NH3, value
is calculated from pH and temperature. Using ammonia ionization tables helps
make the calculations easier.)
U. Facts about trout culture
A. Trout belong to the family Salmonidae, in which there are 68 species.
B. The three most commonly farmed species are rainbow trout, Atlantic salmon,
and Coho salmon.
C. There are 14 species of trout in North America, but the rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus gairdner is the species of most importance in fish farming.
U. All members of the family Salmonidae are cold water fish preferring clean,
highly oxygenated water and water temperatures below 68°F.
E. Trout are the most popular table fish in the U.S., command a good price on
the market, and enjoy a high status among freshwater sport fish.
F. The world commercial production of cultured trout is over 127 million pounds
per year, not counting those grown in small ponds for home and local
consumption.
S8G
0
AQ-587
INFORMATION.SHEET
G. Because trout are coldwater speciesmost large Commercial trout-farms in the

U.S. are -located in the northern states, with Idaho being the leading trout-
producing- state; but trout are also eucceSsfully produced as far south as
northern Georgia. '(See Figure 2- map.)
(NOTE: The shaded part of the map indicates where trout farming is most
likelyio be successful. Howeverat any elevation Or in-any latitude, raceways
-nr. ponds fed by cold springs or cold-waterwells are suitable for trout farming.)
EXAMPLE: =FIGURE 2
H. In some southern statessuch as Mississippi, Missouri, Oklahoma, Arkansas,

and Texasrainbow,trOut are often.cage cultured in freshwater ponds during
a winter growing period of about 150 days.
III. External anatomy of a rainbow trout (Figure 3)
FIGURE 3
Adipose Fin
Caudal Peduncle Dorsal Fin
Lateral Line
Caudal Fin
Maxillary
Anal Fin Anus Pectoral Fins

Ventral Fins
567
588
INFORMATION SHEET
IV. Basic water requirements for trout culture
A Temperature Water temperatures can range between 33°F and 78°F, but
v.ater temperatures between 50°F and 60°F are best for optimum growth; the
SET for rainbow trout is 59-F.
(NOTE Not only do trout make their fastest growth at a SET of 59°F and
within a 50 F to 60-F range, but at these water temperatures, they are less
susceptible to parasites and disease.)
B Flow rate Raceway water flow of between 0.05 to 0.09 fps is sufficient to
flush out waste but does not overwork the trout, causing them to use too
much energy swimming against the flow.
C Exchange rate The optimum water replacement ilme for raceways is 20

to 30 minutes or 2 TO 3 changes of water per hour.
D Oxygen Water must have at least 5 ppm of DO, and saturation is optimum;
7 ppm is the minimum where eggs are hatched.
E Hardness Hard :vater 50 to 250 ppm dissolved solids or moreproduces

trout more econorrycally than soft water, and management problems are fewer.
F Nitrite Levels ot as little as 0.05 are fatal; levels should be held below 0.1
to 0 2 mg L tor optimum growth and hea:th.
G. pH pH should be maintained between 7.5 and 8.0.
POINT OF INTEREST At a pH of 6 to 6.5 the mucous slimecoat of fish

is virtually nonexistent and the fish "feel dry."
H Ammonia NH . the un-ionized form, is toxic to fish; if levels exceed 0.0125

ppm a decline in trout growth and health may occur. (Assignment Sheet #3)
(NOTE The level of NH toxicity depends mainly upon the pH of the water.
An increase of one pH unit from 8.0 to 9.0 increases the amount of un-ionized
ammonia approximately ten times.)
V. Types of trout farming enterprises

A Fee-fish pond Eight-inch and larger trout are stocked in a pond and fished
by the public for a tee, some operators lease fishing privileges on an annual
basis
B Eyed-egg production Adult trout are reared and held in isolated raceways
or ponds until the spawning season when the female is ripe; the eggs are then
stripped from the female and fertilized. (Job Sheet #1)
(NOTE The eggs are called eyed eggs when the eyes of the embryonic trout
are vii bleusually within 2 or 3 weeks.)
5R 8
A0-589
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Fingerling production Eyed eggs are managed in special hatching trays

through which water flows continually; after hatching, fish are managed until
they grow to fingerling size-1 to 6 inches; they are then sold to other growers
or to private pond owners.
D. Food-fish production Fingerling° are grown in raceways until they are

about 8 to 14 inches long; they are then sold to restaurants, retail markets,
fee-fish operators, or to private pond owners.
VI. Phases of trout production
A. Broodstock maintenance and spawning
B. Egg incubation and hatching
C. Sac fry management
D. Swim-up fry maintenance and feeding
E. Fingerling to food fish management and feeding
VII. Broodfish management
A. Female broodfish should be between 3 to 4 years old for quality egg

production (numbers, size, and viability of eggs).
B. Use male broodstock 2 to 3 years old.
C. Rotate in new, younger broodstock and dispose of broodstock that has

become too old.
D. Know the spawning times for the strain of rainbow trout you are culturing.
(NOTE: Different strains of rainbow trout spawn at different times of the year.
It is now possible to get eggs at all months of the year, though it is more
difficult to find eggs during the mid-summer months.)
E. Maintain broodstock in water temperatures of 56°F or less.
F. Female broodstock will develop distended bellies and swollen vents as their
spawning time nears.
G. Male broodstock will have a pronounced kype and bright color during the
spawning period.
VIII. Egg management
A. Ship eggs only in one of four developmental stages: as immature eggs in the
living female, as mature unfertilized eggs, as fertilized, water-hardened eggs,
or as eyed eggs; the latter two methods are preferred.
B. Take great care tiot to jar or shake the eggs during their sensitive stagea
period extending roughly 48 hours after water-hardening.
589
590
INFORMATION SHEET
(NOTE. Salmonid eggs remain tender until the eyes are sufficiently pigmented
to be visible.)
C. Shock, clean, measure, and count eggs during the eyed stage of development.
D. Disinfect eggs received from other hatcheries in a separate facility to prevent

spread of disease.
E. Maintain eggs on submerged screen trays in a hatching trough or vertical tray

incubator, and ensure that oxygen-rich water flows through them.
F. Maintain DO content of water at 7 ppm during incubation.
G. Keep eggs covered and away from direct light.
H. Incubate eggs at optimum temperatures for the strain you are culturing. (See
Table 1.)
EXAMPLE: TABLE 1 Number of Days and Daily Temperature Units

Required for Trout Eggs to Hatch
Water Temperature, °F
Species 35 40 45 50 55 60
Rainbow trout
Number of days to hatch --* 80 48 31 24 19
Daily temperature units -- 640 624 558 552 532
Brown trout
Number of days to hatch 156 100 64 41
Daily temperature units 468 800 832 738
Brook trout
Number of days to hatch 144 103 68 44 35
Daily temperature units 432 824 884 799 805
Lake trout
Number of days to hatch 162 108 72 49
Daily temperature units 486 864 936 882 --
*Spaces without figures indicate incomplete data rather than pruven inability of eggs
to hatch in those temperatures.
(NOTE: One daily temperature unit [DTU] equals 1°F above freezing [32°F] for a
24-hour period. For example, if the water temperature for the fist day of incubation
is 56°F, it would contribute 24 DTU [56°-32°]. DTU can be used as a guide to
estimate hatching dates.)
Table and information from Leitrttz and Lewis as found tn Piper's Fish Hatchery Management.
AQ-591
INFORMATION SHEET
IX. Fry and fingerling management
A. Yolk-sac fry
1. Yolk-sac fry require no feed because they get their nutrition from the
yolk sac.
2. When the yolk sac is absorbed, the fry swim to the surface for food.
3. Swim-up fry are transferred to rearing troughs.
B. Swim-up fry
1. Swim-up fry are reared in troughs ranging in size from 12' x 18" x 12"
up to 20' x 3' x 3'.
2. Swim-up fry require a feed containing a minimum of 45 percent to 50
percent protein.
C. Fingerlings
1. Once fingerlings are 2+ inches, they can be placed in raceways or

ponds.
2. Fingerlings require a feed containing at least 35 percent to 50 percent

protein.
X. General guidelines for feeding different sized trout
POINT OF INTEREST: It takes about 2 pounds of feed to produce a 1-pound

trout in 10 to 14 months in water temperatures of 50°F to 65°F. If raised in water
colder than 50°F, trout take 2 years or more to reach market size; in water
warmer than 65°F, they grow slowly and are more susceptible to diseases.
A. Swim-up fry Feed starter feed from around-the-clock automatic feeders,

or feed small amounts eight or nine times a day, distributing feed well across
the water surface.
B. Fry 1 to 2 inches Feed recommended starter feeds of slightly larger

granule size (#1 or #2), but watch fry closely: If fry are taking the feed into
their mouths and "spitting" it out, the feed is probably too large; feed eight or
nine times a day or with an automatic round-the-clock feeder.
C. Angerlings 2,/2 inches to 41/2 inches At 2V2-inch size, feed fine crumbles
(#3), and progress to coarse crumbles (#4) four or five times a day.
5 71
592
INFORMATION SHEET
D. Trout 4 to 6 inches Feed 'A-inch pellet (#5) four times daily according to
the feeding chart, taking care to distribute the feed evenly.
E. Trout 6 inches and larger Feed intermediate sized pellet (3/46-inch, #6) four
times a day.
F. Broodstock Feed Yi-inch pellet one or two times a day.
XI. General management guidelines
A. Calculate feeding rates and use the detailed feeding schedules provided by
fish feed dealers so that you do not over- or underfeed.
B. Feed rainbow trout a high-quality, complete commercial feed with a minimum

protein content of 36 percent.
(NOTE: Trout are carnivorous, so require a high percentage of protein in their

The protein should be at least 90 percent digestible.)
diets.
C. Regularly monitor DO, water temperature, pH, and ammonia.
D. Keep routine and accurate records, keep daily records of mortality and feed
fed. (Assignment Sheet #1)
E. Establish a regular routine of raceway cleaning, inventorying, and fish grading.

(Job Sheet #2)
F. Regularly examine fish and fish growth data for signs of impending disease
problems.
G. Practice partial harvesting so that fish do not become overcrowded, or have

ready enough extra raceways for fish to grow into.
H. Measure raceway water flow rates and volumesdo not guess. (Assignment
Sheet #2)
72
AQ-593
INFORMATION SHEET
XII Types of impoundment or rearing units for trout culture

A. TrouV are most commonly produced in container culture, systems in which
linear\or circular raceways, tanks, or vats are us* (Figure 4)
EXAMPLE: IFIGURE 4 Linear Raceway
CL tesy Nebraska,Game
B. Trout may-be Cultured in earth:ponds Ihrough-rhich,a constant flow of high-

quality-water moves; these ponds can be. as-small eS,0.1 acre, Outdepth or
flow must be sufficient to maintain high DO an,d,bool water temperature; the
bottoms of these ponds should be covered-0th coarse ,gravel (cobble).
(NOTE: Ponds are more difficult to keep clean, and their fish loads are lower
than raceways.)
C. Trout may be intensively cultured in cages, both in freshWater and, in sea,

water; cage culture allows the producer to take, advantage of lakes and
reservoirs too large for intensive culture, irrigation, canals, winter -ponds in
southern latitudes, Fnd ocean bays.
XIII Raceway design

A. Raceways vary in size, 'but a typical length times width times water depth
(L x W x D) ratio is approximately 30:31.
EXAMPLES: 80' x 8' x 2.5'; 60' x 6' x 2'

594
INFORMATION SHEET
B. To prevent the trout from leaping out, 6 to 12 inches of freeboard is added

to the water depth dimension.
C. The raceway floor slope should equal 0.6 inches to 1.0 inches per each 10
feet of length.
D. Raceways may be constructed of concrete, fiberglass, or dug out earth lined

with a synthetic liner.
E. The overflow or drain end of the raceway should contain an across-the-

raceway weir preceded by a baffle board, which is raised from the bottom the
same distance as the depth of water flowing over the weir. (Figure 5)
(NOTE: Baffles, when properly used, keep the raceway bottom clean.)
F. A screen, containing approximately 1 square foot of screen for each 25 gpm

water flow, is placed before the baffle board. (Figure 5)
(NOTE: An inexpensive screen can be made out of hail screen attached to

a redwood frame; choose 1/4 inch or 1/2 inch mesh size depending on fish
size.)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 5
Baffle Board
Weir
/(Dam boards in slots
maintain water depth)
o
,,...__......._....-......_....". - ....___ , \-_../.____./____
\
01.
1 \ \ J \
Water to next
raceway or drain.
/e
Screen Same as depth of water
going over dam boards.
XIV. Water use systems

A. Single pass Water flows through only one unit and is then discharged.
B. Single reuse Two units in series use the same water.
a
574
A0-595
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Multiple reuse Several units in series use the same water.
k.%0TE. Ideally, fish should be raised intensively in single-pass systems, but

the lack of suitable quantities of water make this impractical. The culturist
should know that the carrying capacity in succeeding reuse units will be less
than that of the first pond in the series. There are no set figures for capacity
reductions.)
XL Typical stocking/loading rates

A. Stocking ponds
(NOTE: The carrying capacity of a pond is limited because of temperature

build-up and oxygen content. Stocking rates are measured in pounds of fish
per surface acre or in numbers. The following are generalized rates. The
actual rate should always be specifically calculated for the species and water
quality parameters of a pond.)
1. Coldwater ponds usually produce enough oxygen and natural food to

support tha extensive culture of about 100 pounds of trout per surface
acre.
2. In the Midwest and Southwest U.S., spring stocking a 1-acre pond with
500 2- to 4-inch rainbow fingerlings will produce 7- or 8-inch (4 ounce)
trout the first year; stocking half that rate will produce 10-inch (8-ounce)
trout.
3. In the Mid- to Northeastern U.S., the standard fall stocking rate is 600
3- to 4-inch rainbow fingerlings per surface acre to produce 10-inch trout
the first year.
4. In general, 2-inch to 4-inch trout fingerlings are more likely to survive

to pan size than are 1-inch to 2-inch fingerlings.
B. Loading raceways
1. Raceway loading rates are dependent on many factors, but particularly

on fbw rates, exchange rates, DO levels, and water velocity.
2. As a rule of thumb, trout are loaded at densities in pounds per cubic

foot no greater than 0.5 times their length in inches.
EXAMPLES: Load 2-inch trout at 1 pound per cubic foot; load 4-inch
trout at 2 pounds per cubic foot; load 6-inch trout at 3
pounds per cubic foot, and so on.
C. Cages
1. In Oklahoma, the upper cage limit for trout is fifteen 7-inch (3-ounce)
fingerlings per cubic foot of cage to produce 1/2-pound to 3/4-pound fish
at spring harvest.
575
596
INFORMATION SHEET
2. The maximum safe pond limit is about 1,200 trout per acre, but this
figure can be exceeded with experience, especially in ponds over 5
acres and those with a constant flow of water through them.
XVI. Flow and density indexes

A. Flow index The relationship of fish weight and size to water inflow; deals
with amount of oxygen available for life support and growth
B. Density index The relationship of fish weight and size to water volume;
thP spatial relationship of one fish to another
AQ-597

UNIT X
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1 KEEP TROUT PRODUCTION RECORDS
To be successful in trout production, yot, must be a good manager, and to manage your
ente:prise profitably, you must keep thorough and accurate records.
There are many reasons for keeping good records, one of the most important being that
many lending institutions require records before they will lend money. You will also need
your records for income tax purposes. Without records, you will not be able to calculate
feed conversion ratios aild optimum loading rates. You will not know whether you are
making or losing money. And, finally, if you do not keep records, you will not be able to
identify problem areas that neea correcting for the most efficient and economical
management.
This assignment sheet is based on National Fish Hatcheries' recordkeeping methods and
recommendations. The following charts and instructions were printed in Fish Hatchery
Management, a 1982 publication of the Fish and Wild!ife Service, by Robert Piper, et al.
Your instructor will provide you with data from a commercial trout operation. Use that data
to complete the following National Fish Hatcheries production records.
577
AQ-599
ASSIGNMENT SI-KET #1
STATION
LOT NUIABER SPECIES

LOT HISTORY PRODUCTION
NUMBER OFFISH WEIGHT OF FISH LENGTH WEIGHT PER 1000 FISH

INITIAL FEEDING DATE
FISH ON HAND WEIGHT ORTAL WEIGHT GAIN F000 FED FUD CONVERSION
u NTI TT OF EDEADT
IA FISH SHIPPED '
FISH ADDeD
-
(POUNDS) (FOUNDS) COST
0 END OF MONTH PER) ITY
TO PER PER
MAME wEIGHT NUMBER wilGHT MONTH TO DATE MONTH TO DATE TO DATE TIONTA DATE MUNI) 1000
l'IT fili00011A87 'HEIGHT MUM) NUMBER
H
0 7 9 I3 is 12 i3 I,* IS 10 17
1 3 S
TOTAL
LENGTH ON CURRENT AvERAGE OAILy LENGTH TEMPERATURE

DAY FA
NO DAYS LENGTH %CREAE TEMPERATURE
LAST DAy suOrag s S mcREAsE UN TS
OF 0 OlET
SINCE INITIAL 0NCH(s)
UNITS
PER INCI GAN
N IDENTIFICATION OF MONTH LENGTH INCREASE )3 DAY
YEAR FEEOING MONTH
--
tJuL T
INCHES INCHES FOR FAO TO OATE FOR FAO TO OATE FOI. FAO TO OATE
IAN) ) H 25 aa 27 20
+ra 19 70 2, 2,2 2*
TOM.
PERCENT SURVIVAL UNTIL TRANSFERRED. RELEASE() OR DISTRIBUTED SAC FRI, % FEECNNG FRY ; FISH %
REMARKS
Temperature units are monthly temperature units, which equal 1°F above 32°F for the
average monthly water temperature.
From Fish Hatchery Management. With permission.
5 78
I
AQ-601

UNIT X
iSSIGNMENT SHEET #2 CALCULATE RACEWAY CARRYING CAPACITY BASED ON

FLOW AND DENSITY INDEXES
The carrying capacity of a raceway is dependent on a number of factors, most particularly

water chemistry, oxygen levels, flow rates, and fish densities. Most carrying capacity
tables are based on the maximum fish load possible without oxygen depletion.
In this assignment sheet you will use flow and density indexes to calculate raceway trout
Joading (carrying) capacities.
This assignment sheet is divided into three parts. Part I provides examples and
information on Flow Index calculations. Part II provides information on Density Index
calculations, and Part III presents some practical problems so that you may use the two
indexes to practice calculating carrying capacities.
PART I
Carrying capacity is the animal load a system can support. Carrying capacity depends on
water flow, volume, exchange rate, temperature, oxygen content, pH, size and species of
fish being reared, and the accumulation of metabolic products.
In 1955, David Haskell presented two major premises . regard to raceway loading.
1. The carrying capacity is limited by oxygen consumption and accumulation of

metabolic products.
2. The amount of oxygen consumed and the quantity of metabolic products

produced are proportional to the amount of food fed.
Haskell states, "If the carrying capacity of a trough or pond is known for any particular size
fish at a particular temperature, then the safe carryino capacity for other sizes and
temperatures is that quantity of fish which will require the same weight of feed daily."
Based on Haskelrs premises, a formula was derived for a Flow Index in which fish size
in inches is used instead of weight of food fed to calculate the safe carrying capacity for
various sized trout.
EXAMPLE. 900 pounds of trout can safely be held in a raceway supplied with 150 gpm
water. What is the Flow Index?
1. To calculate the Flow Index, use the formula:
F = W ÷ (L x W)
Where F = Flow Indw,
W = Known permissible weight of fish
L = Length of fish in inches
W = Water inflow in gpm
5 79
602
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
F = W = (L x W)
= 900 (4 x 150)
= 1.5
2. To find the maximum or permissible weight of fish when it is not known, either add
fish to a rearing unit with a uniform water flow until the oxygen content is reduced
to the minimum acceptabl6 level (5 ppm for trout), or determine the existing weight
of fish in a rearing unit by adjusting the water inflow until the oxygen content is
reduced to 5 ppm; then uz. the Flow Index and the following formula to determine
permissible loading weight:
W=FxLx I
Where W = Maximum fish weight
F = Flow Index
L = Length of fish in inches
I = Inflow requirement in gpm
EXAMPLE: In the example above, a Flow Index of 1.5 was determined for a
raceway safely holding 900 pounds of 4-inch trout in 150 gpm water
flow. (1) How many pounds of 8-inch trout can be loaded? (2) How
many pounds of 2-inch trout?
(1) W=FxLx I
= 1.5 x 8 x 150
= 1,800 pounds of 8-inch trout
(2) W = F >. L x I
= 1.5 x 2 x 150
= 450 pounds of 2-inch trout
3. U the weight of the fish is increased or decreased in a raceway, the adjusted water
inflow requirement can be calculated using the formula:
I=W (F x L)
= (1800 450) = (1.5 x 8)
= 188 gpm inflow

AQ-603
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
PART II
While the Flow Index allows the calculation of carrying capacity in relation to water flow,
or, more specifically oxygen availability, the Density Index allows the culturist to load fish
according to density pounds of fish per cubic foot of .earing space.
A rule of thumb that is used to avoid overcrowding is to hold trout at densities in pounds
per cubic foot no greater than 0.5 their length in inches: 2-inch trout at 1 pound per cubic
foot, 4-inch trout at 2 pounds per cubic foot, and so on.
The following formula is used to avoid overcrowding raceways:
W=Dv.VxL
Where W = Permissible weight of fish
D = Density Index (0.5 for rainbow trout)
V = Volume of raceway ir; cubic feet
L = fish length in inches
Raceway or pond volumes can be calculated using the formula V = W -4- (D x L).
PART III
Solve the following problems to practice calculating raceway carrying capacities.
1. 1200 pounds of 3-inch trout can be safely held in a raceway supplied with 225 gpm
water. What is the Flow Index?
2. What would be the Flow Index in 1 above if the water flow was 175 gpm?
3. How many pounds of 8-inch trout can safely be held in a raceway with a Flow Index
of 1.2 and an inflow rate of 150 gpm?
4. How many pounds of 4-inch trout can safely be held in a raceway with a Flow Index
of 2.0 and an inflow rate of 250 gpm?
5. You want to add 350 pounds of 4-inch trout to the raceway in problem 4. What is
the adjusted water inflow requirement?
6. You have a raceway that is 60 feet long by 6 feet wide with a 2 foot water depth.
How many pounds of 8-inch rainbow trout can you safely load?
7. How many pounds of 4-inch rainbow trout can you load in a raceway that is 80 feet
long, 8 feet wide, with a water depth of 2.5 feet?
8. How many pounds of 6-inch rainbow trout can be safely loaded in the raceway of
problem 7?
581
604
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
9. How many pounds of 2-inch rainbow trout can be loaded in the raceway in problem
6?
10. Is the following statement true or false? Why? "Fish density can be increased as
fish increase in size."
0c2
AQ-605

UNIT X
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3 PREDICT AMMONIA LOADS BASED ON FOOD

CONSUMPTION, FISH LOAD, AND WATER FLOW RATE
When fish excrete ammonia into the water, some of it reacts with the water to produce
ammonium ions, nonto::ic forms of ammonia, and the rest is present as un-ionized
ammonia, which at levels above 0.0125 ppm is toxic to trout. Standard water quality
measurements do not distinguish between the two forms, and both are grouped as "total
ammonia."
Because of the importance of ammonia to fish production, total ammonia in raceway or

trout rearing water should be measured on a regular basis. However, the cultunst can
estimate total ammonia with a formula based on fish metabolism.
This assignment sheet is divided into two parts. Part I provdes information and examples
on calculating total ammonia. Part II presents some practical problems so that you may
practice calculating total ammonia.
PART I
While ammonia can e "'ter the water from the water source and from microbes breaking
down waste feed, most of it comes from fish metabolism. The amount of metabolism and
thus the amount of ammonia excreted is conditioned by the amount of food fish eat.
Because of this, for each hatchery and feed type, an ammonia factor can be calculated
with the following formula:
Ammonia Factor = ppm Total Ammonia x Inflow gpm = Lb. Food/Day
To establish the factor, total ammL lia should be measured in raceways, tanks, and ponds
several times over one day. Once the factor is established, the formula can be turned
around to give estimates of total ammonia:
ppm Total Ammonia = Lb. Food/Day x Ammonia Factor = Inflow gpm
EXAMPLE. A raceway with three units in a series has a water flow of 200 gpm. Fish in
the first unit receive 10 pounds of food per day, the second unit is fed 5
pounds of feed per day, and the third unit is fed 20 pounds of feed per day.
The ammonia factor is 3.0. In the absence of any water treatment, what is
the expected concentration of total ammonia nitrogen at the bottom of each
unit?
Unit 1: 10 x 3 -I- 200 = 0.15 ppm
Unit 2: (10 + 5) x 3 = 200 = 0.23 ppm
Unit 3: (10 + 5 + 20) x 3 = 200 = 0.53 ppm
583
606
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3
PART II
Solve the following problems to practice calculating total ammonia in trout raceways and
rearing units.
1. A raceway with four units in series has a water flow of 235 gpm. Fish in the first
unit are fed 30 pounds of feed a day, those in the second unit are fed 14 pounds,
those in the third unit are fed 7 pounds, and thuse in the fourth unit are fed 7
pounds. The ammonia factor is 2.5. What is the expected concentration of total
ammonia nitrogen in the bottom of each unit?
Unit 1 =
Unit 2 =
Unit 3 =
Unit 4 =
2. A 2-unit raceway with an inflow of 300 gpm is fed 55 pounds of feed each unit daily.
The ammonia factor is 2.6. What is the estimated total ammonia concentration in
each unit?
Unit 1 =
Unit 2 =
3. What is the ammonia factor for a system with 0.42 ppm Lotal ammonia, 250 gpm
water flow, and 30 pounds of food fed per day?
Ammonia factor =
4. What would be the ammonia factor for problem 3 if the inflow was 150 gpm?
Ammonia factor =
5. What would be the ammonia factor for problem 3 if the fish were fed 60 pounds of
feed?
Ammonia factor =
584 o
AQ-607

UNIT X
Assignment Sheet #1 Evaluated to the satisfaction of the instructor
Assignment Sheet #2
i. 1.7
2. 2.2
3. 1,440 pounds
4. 2,000 pounds
5. 293 gpm
6. 2,880 pounds
7. 3,200 pounds
8. 4,800 pounds
9. 720 pounds
10. True; because of the relationship between the amount of feed that can be
metabolized and the pounds of fish that can be carried
Assignment Sheet #3
1. Unit 1 = 0.32 total ammonia

Unit 2 = 0.46 total ammonia
2. Unit 1 = 0.47 total ammonia

3. 3.5 ammonia factor
585
AQ-609

UNIT X
JOB SHEET #1 ARTIFICIALLY SPAWN TROUT BROODFISH
1. Spawning bench
2. Spawning pan
3. Cotton gloves
4. Anesthetic
5. Ripe female and male trout in separate holding tanks
6. Two additional holding tanks empty of fish
7. Dip nets
8. Tub of clean water
9. Balance scale sensitive to 1 gram
10. One-cup measure
11. Feather for stirring
12. Trout incubator
B. Procedure
1. Calculate the amount of anesthetic needed for each trout holding tank.
(NOTE: This calculation is explained in Unit VIII if you need to review.)
2. Administer the correct amount of anesthetic to each of the holding tanks, and
then set tip work station while waiting for anesthetic to take its full effect.
(MOTE: Rainbow trout placed in a 265 ppm solution of MS-222 require 30

to 45 seconds to become relaxed.)
3. Dip-net female trout from holding tank, and then rinse the anesthetic off by
dipping the fish in and out of a tub of clean vrter.
586
610
JOB SHEET #1
4. Strip eggs from female trout:
(NOTE: Handle fish as little as possible to reduce stress, and avoid

contaminating the eggs or sperm with blood, skin mucus, or water.. Blood may
clotiand plug$ths4egg'ssnicropylethe opening'through which the-Sperm niUst
enter The fish's skin/mucus may contain- the anesthetic used to sedate'the
brood fish, if ,it contaminates the' s§awning pan, it will reduce sperm motility.
Prolonged exposure ofseither eggs or sperm to water reduCes 'fertility. The
eggs water-harden and will no longer admit the sperm. Sperm mixed with
water is very active for 15 seconds, but after 2 minutes, no activity is
recorded.)
a. Grasp female trout new-the heathwith your dominant hand.
b. Grasp female trout's body just above the%tail-with your non-dominant

hand.
c. Hold the trout belly downward close to the lip of a clean, dry spawning
pan. (Figure 1)
(NOTE: By positioning the fish at the lip of the pan, water running off
of the fish and your hands will not go into the pan.)
d. Force eggs out by gently massaging.the fish, beginning just forward of

the vent and working back toward' it. (Figure 1)
CAUTION: Avoid heavy pressure. Avoid putting pressure too far

forward oh the body as there is danger of damaging the
heart or other org-ans.
FIGURE 1
Cooney Ne4raska Game and-Parks Commission
58 7
AQ-611
JOB SHEET #1
e. If eggs do not flow freely, choose another female; the fish is not
sufficiently ripe or the vent is malformed and plugged, and the fish
should not be used.
f. When the eggs have been extruded, return the female fish to a holding
tank containing no anesthetic and allow the fish to recover.
5. Holding the male fish over the pan of eggs, add a small amount of milt
(sperm) from the male fish, stripping the milt in the same way that you
stripped the eggs from the feMale fish. (Figure 2)
FIGURE 2
If
Courtesy Nebraska Game and Parks Commission
6. Return male broodfish to unanesthetized broodfish holding tank.
7. Add=a half to a full cup of water to help activate the sgerm, and gently but
thoroughly mix the milt and eggs with your finger or a feather.
8. Leave the mixed eggs and sperm in a dim area undisturbed for 5 minutes.
9. Add water to wash the eggs; allow eggs to water-harden by leaving them in
a dim location for 30 to 90 minutes.
10. Count eggs by hand if small numbers are involved, or drain and weigh in pre-
weighed baskets to the nearest 0.1 gram several 100-egg samples.
11. Calculate numbers by dividing the total weight of the eggs by the average
weight of one egg.
12. Place eggs in incubator.
13. Clean work area and return equipment and materials to proper storage.
588
AQ-613

UNIT X
JOB SHEET #2 INVENTORY A RACEWAY LOAD
1. Crowding screens
2. Live box, 3' x 3' x 2' high
3. Dip nets
4. Metric beam balance for weighing small fist:
5. Avoirdupois spring scale
6. Measuring board graduated in millimeters
7. Anesthetizing agent
B. Procedure
1. Stop feeding fish 18 to 24 hours before inventory to minimize the effects of

the handling stress caused by the crowding and weighing process.
2. Place a crowder screen a few feet below the water intake, after making sure
that the area above the screen is free of fish.
3. Use other crowder screens to crowd fish from the lower end of the raceway
to the point where the fish obscure the bottom edge of the crowding screen.
4. Set the live box into the water on the downstream side of the lower screen.
5. Place five dip-nets of fish into the live box.
6. Remove one dip-net sample for weighing and crsunting.
7. Release the rest of the fish below the downstream screen.
(NOTE: Steps 5, 6, and 7 will be repeated five times so that five samples
of fish are subsampled from five different groups of fish.)
8. Weigh fish
a. Tare a container of water to zero on the scale by placing the container

on the scales and adjusting the value to zero.
585
614
JOB SHEET #2
b. Dump the dip-netted fish into the container of water and record the
weight to the nearest appropriate unit.
(NOTE: Weigh at least 100 grams of 1.5- to 3-inch fish per sample on
the metric beam balance. Samples of fish 3 to 6 inches should be
weighed to the nearest gram, and samples of fish more than 6 inches
should be weighed to the nearest pound on the spring scale.)
9. Count the number of fish per pound in at least three samples.
10. Divide the total number of fish in all samples by the sum of the individual
sample weights to obtain an accurate raceway count; record.
No. of Trout in Raceway =
11. Anesthetize at least oneand preferably twoof the pound-count samples,

and measure the fish to the nearest millimeter; record all lengths.
12. Divide the sum of the lengths by the number of fish measured to obtain an
average length; record.
Average length =
13. Using the data obtained, estimate the total pounds of fish in the raceway,
provided the initial loading weight and number are known and the accrued
mortality subtracted (Assignment Sheet #2).
Est. Total Pounds of Trout in Raceway =
14. Remove crowder screens.
16. Resume normal feeding practices after a period of 4 to 5 hours in which the
fish adjust.
59 0
I
AQ-615

UNIT X
PRACTICAL TEST #1
JOB SHEET #1 ARTIFICIALLY SPAWN TROUT BROODFISH
Student's name Date
Evaluator's name Attempt No
Student instructions: When you are ready to perform this task, ask your instructor
to observe the procedure and complete this form. All items listed under "Process
PROCESS EVALUATION
try again.)
The student: Yes No
1. Calculated amount of anesthetic. 00

2. Administered anesthetic to holding tanks. 00
3. StOped eggs from female trout. 0 El
4. Stripped milt from male trout. 00
5. Mixed eggs and milt and allowed to water-harden. 00
6. Counted eggs. 00
7. Placed eggs in incubator. 00
591
-_,
616
PRODUCT EVALUATION
evaluation.)
Well Acceptably
Criteria: done done Incomplete Unacceptable
Calculating and administering

anesthetic 4 3 2 1
Strippino female 4 3 2 1
Stripping male 4 3 2 1
Mixing milt and eggs 4 3 2 1
Counting eggs 4 3 2 1

3 Moderately skilled Has performed job during training program; limited additional

criteria.)
592
AQ-617

UNIT X
PRACTICAL TEST #2
JOB SHEET #2 INVENTORY A RACEWAY LOAD
Student's name Date
Evaluator's name Attempt No
Student instructions: When you are ready to perform this task, ask your instructor
to coserve the procedure and complete this form. All items listed under "Process
PROCESS EVALUATION
try again.)
The student: Yes No
1. Stopped feeding to minimize stress. D0

2. Placed screen:: and collected trout. El CI
3. Selected 5 dip-net samples. D0

4. Counted and averaged fish for weight count. O CI
r.J. Measured and averaged fish length. D0
6. Estimated total number of raceway fish. O CI
7. Estimated total pounds of trout in raceway. D0
8. Returned equipment to proper storage. O CI
593
618
PRODUCT EVALUATION
numbers. Each item must be rated at least a "3" for mastery tc be demonstrated. (See
student materials should be reviewed and another lest procedure must be submitted for
evaluation.)
Well Acceptably
Criteria: done done Incomplete Unacceptable
Pond preparation and sampling 4 3 2 1
Averaging numbers 4 3 2 1
Averaging weight 4 3 2 1
Averaging length 4 3 9 1
Total fish estimate 4 3 2 1


criteria.)
59 4
-
AQ-619

UNIT X
TEST
NAME SCORE
1. Match terms related to commercial trout production with their correct definitions.
a. Fish that lives in salt water but spawns 1. Eyed egg

in fresh water
2. Cock
b. Egg in which two black spotsthe
developing eyes of the embryocan 3. Hen
easily be seen
4. Alevins (sac fry)
c. Cubic feet per second
5. Stripping
d. The average number of pounds of feed
eaten by the fish to gain 1 pound of 6. Water-hardening
weight
7. Shocking
e. A structure for measuring/controlling
water flow 8. cfs
f. Containing fully developed eggs; ready 9. fps

to spawn
10. Standard
_A- Feet per second Environmental
Temperature (SET)
h. Process that takes place within a 30 to
90 minute period after spawning in 11. Feed conversion ratio
which the egg becomes turgid with (FCR)
water, loses its stickiness, and can no
longer be fertilized 12. Swim-up fry
I. Manually releasing eggs and milt from 13. Ripe

broodfish
14. Kype
.. Fry that obtain nourishment from
attached yolk sac
k. Male trout
I. Female trout
m. Length between tip of snout and end of

tail
n. Fry that have lost their yolk sac and

are ready for food
595
620
TEST
o. Secretion that contains sperm produced 15. Milt

by the male fish
16. Complete feed
p Feed that supplies 100 percent of the
dietary requirements of the fish; used 17. Total length
when there is little or no access to
natural food 18. Weir
q. Process of sharply striking egg trays, 19. Anadromous

siphoning eggs from one container to
another, or pouring eggs from incubator 20. Total ammonia
trays into tub of water Porn 2 to 3 feet
to detect undeveloped or infertile eggs
r. The temperature at which all of the

species physiological systems operate
optimally
s. Upward curving hook of lower jaw that

occurs at spawning
t. The measurement of both forms of

dissolved ammonia, ammonium, NH4+,
ionized, and ammonia, NH3, un-ionized
2. Select factual statements about trout culture. Write the correct numbers in the
blanks.
a. To what family does the trout belong?
1) Salmonidae
2) Ictalurus
3) Lepomis
b. How many species are there in the trout family?
1) 86
2) 43
3) 68
c. Which of the following coldwater species is most commonly farmed for

food?
1) Brook trout
2) Rainbow trout
3) Brown trout
d. Of the 14 species of trout found in North America, what species is of

most importance in fish farming?
1) Rainbow trout
2) Brook trout
3) Brown trout 58u
AQ-621
1
TEST
e. All members of the family are coldwater fish requiring highly pure, highly
oxygenated water below which of the following temperatures?
1) 78°F
2) 68°F
3) 58°F
f. Which of the following is the most popular table fish in the U.S. today?
1) Catfish
2) Trout
3) Sport fish such ar bass
What is the leading trout-producing state?
1) lowa
2) Indiana
3) Idaho
h. In southern states where trout may be cultured during the winter months
in cages, what is the approximate growing period?
1) MO days
2) 228 days
3) 110 days
3. Label the external anatomy of the rainbow trout in the illustration below.
a.
597
622
TEST
4. Select basic watt quality requirements for trout culture. Write the correct numbers
in the blanks.
a. What is the optimum range and the SET for trout culture water
temoerawro?
1) 33°F to 7C°F; 65°F

2) 50°F to 60°F; 59°F
3) 39°F to 55°F; 50°F
b. What is the recommended flow rate for raceway and tank culture?
1) 0.05 to 0.09 fps

2) 0.25 to 0.50 fps
3) 0.01 to 0.05 fps
c. What is the minimum DO concentration where eggs are hatched?
1) 5 ppm
2) 7 ppm
3) supersaturation
d. What is the most economical water hardness range for trout culture?
1) 20 ppm to 50 ppm dissolved solids or more

2) 75 ppm to 150 ppm dissolved solids or more
3) 50 ppm to 250 ppm, dissolved solids or more
e. Below which of the following levels must nitrite be held for optimum
growth and health?
1) 0.1 to 0.2 mg/L

2) 0.5 to 0.7 me/L
3) 0.3 to 0.6 mg/L
f. At which of the following values should pH be maintained?
1) 6.9 arm 7.9

2) 7.8 and 8.4
3) 7.5 and 8.0
g. What is the optimum water replacement time for raceways?
1) 20 to 30 minutes, or 2 to 3 changes per hour

2) 60 minutes, or 1 change per hour
3) 10 to 15 minutes, or 4 to 6 changes per hour
h. If levels of NH3, un-ionized ammonia, exceed 0.0125 ppm, what

happens?
1) Trout will die within hours

2) Trout will exhibit erratic behavior
3) A decline in trout growth and health my occur
59
AQ-623
TEST
5. Match trout farming enterprises with their descriptions. Write the correct numbers
in the blanks.
a. Fingerlings are grown in raceways until 1. Fee-fish pond

they are bout 8 to 14 inches long: they
are then sold to restaurants, retail 2. Eyed-egg production
markets, fee-fish operators, or to private
pond owners. 3. Fingerling production
b. Adult trout are reared and held in 4. Food-fish production

isolated ,:aceways or ponds until the
spawning season when the female is
ripe; the eggs are then stripped from
the female and fertilized with milt from
a male.
c. Eight-inch or longer trout are stocked

in a pond and fished by the public for
a fee; some operators lease fishing
privileges on an annual basis.
d. Eyed eggs are managed in special

trays or running water; after hatching,
fish are managed until they grow to
fingerling size-1 to 6 inches; they are
then sold to other growers or to private
pond owners.
6. List the five phases of trout production.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
7. Complete statements about broodfish management. Write the correct numbers in

the blanks.
a. Female broodfish should be between years old for quality egg

production.
1) 1 to 2
2) 3 to 4
3) 4 to 5
599
624
TEST
b. Use female broodstock years old.
1) 1 to 2
2) 2 to 3
3) 4 to 5
c. Rotate in broodstock, and dispose of broodstock that has become

too old.
1) new, younger
2) mature, tested
3) hybrid, vigorous
d. Know the for the strain of rainbow trout you are culturing.
1) disease history
2) production rate
3) spawning times
e. Maintain broodstock in water temperatures of or less.
1) 59°F
2) 58°F
3) 56°F
f. Choose female broodstock with bellies and swollen vents.
1) distended
2) concave
3) dark-colored
.9. Choose male broodstock with a pronounced and bright color.
1) vent
2) kype
3) alevin
8 Comp:ete statements about egg management. Write the correct numbers in the
blanks.
a. Ship eggs only in one of four developmental stages; as immature eggs

in the I:ving female, as mature, unfertilized eggs, as fertilized
eggs, or as eyed eggs.
1) water-hardened
2) hard water
3) water-softened
6 00
AQ-625
TEST
b. Take great care not to shake or jar the eggs during their sensitive
stagea period extending roughly hours after ferti"7.ation.
1) 12
2) 24
3) 48
c. Shock, clPan, measure, and count eggs during the stage of

development.
1) fertilized
2) eyed
3) unfertilized
d. Disinfect eggs received frcm ether hatcheries in to prevent spread

of disease.
1) batches of 1,000
1' a separate facility
3) aluminum buckets
e. Maintain eggs in a hatching trough or vertical tray incubator, and

ensure that oxygen-rich water flows through them.
1) on submerged screen trays

2) on floating boards
3) in submerged jars
f. Maintain DO content of water at ppm during incubation.
1) 5
2) 6
3) 7
g. Keep eggs covered and away from .
1) inlet water flow

2) trough walls
3) direct light
h. Incubate eggs at temperatures for the strain you are culturing.

1) Minimum
2) Maximum
3) Optimum
6 01
626
TEST
9. Complete statements about fry and fingerling management. Write the correct
a. Yolk-sac fry require. .
1) high-protein feed because they get only carbohydrate from the yolk
2) starter feed around the clock from automatic feeders
3) no feed because they get their nutrition from the yolk
b. When the yolk sac is absorbed, the fry .
1) forage among the aquatic flora for food

2) swim to the water surface for food
3) fast for 24 hours until digestion is complete
c. Swim-up fry are reared in ranging in size from 12' x 18" x 12"
up to 20' x 3' x 3'.
1) raceways
2) submerged trays
3) troughs
d. Swim-up fry required a feed containing a minimum of protein.
1) 34 to 45 percent
2) 35 to 40 percent
3) 45 to 50 percent
e. Once fingerlings are inches long, they can be placed in raceways

or ponds.
1) 1+
2) 2+
3) 3+
f. Fingerlings require a feed containing at least protein.
1) 35 to 50 percent
2) 30 to 40 percent
3) 32 to 4E: percent
10. Select from a list general guidelines for feeding different sized trout. Write an "X"
in the blank before eRch correct guideline.
a. Feed swim-up fry starter feed from around-the-clock feeders, or feed

small amounts eight or nine times a day, distributing feed well across
the water surface.
b. Feed 1-inch to 2-incn fry #1 or #2 granules five or six times a day.
c. Feed 2Yeinch to 41/2-inch fingerlings #5 crumbles four or five times a

day.
602
AQ-627
TEST
-1
.. . Feed trout 4 to 6 inches 1/4-inch pellets four times daily according to
feeding chart.
e. Feed trout 6 inches and larger 3A6-inch pellets four times a day.
f. Feed broodstock 1/2-inch pellets two or three times a day.
11. Select from a list gJneral management guidelines. Write an "X" in the blank before
each correct guideline.
a. Feed rainbow trout a high-quality, complete commercial feed with a

minimum protein content of 32 percent.
b. Regularly monitor DO, water temperature, pH, and ammonia.
c. Keep routine and accurate records; keep daily records of mortality and
feed fed.
d. Regularly examine fish growth data to determine average lengths and

weig hts.
e. Practice partial harvesting so that fish do not become overcrowded, or

have ready enough extra raceways for fish to grow into.
f. Estimate raceway water flow rates and volumes on a daily basis.
.g. Calculate feeding rates and use detailed feeding schedules provided by
feed dealers so that you do not over- or underfeed.
12. Select facts about types of impoundment and rearing units. Write the correct
a. In which types of container culture systems are trout most commonly

produced?
1) Linear or circular raceways

2) Vertical raceways
3) Single pass raceways
b. Trout can be cultured in earth ponds as small as which of the following?
1) 1.0
2) 0.5
3) 0.1
6 03
628
TEST
c. How should the bottoms of earthen ponds be treated?
1) Planted in rice or water primrose to provide shelter and

supplemental nutrients
2) Contain benthic organisms and adequate aquatic flora for browsing
3) Be covered with coarse gravel (cobble)
d. Trout may be intensively cultured in , both in freshwater and in

sea water.
1) Cages
2, Pens
3) Live-cars
13. Select facts about raceway design. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. What is the typical length, times width, times water depth ratio for
raceways?
1) 10:2:2
2) 30:3:1
3) 15:5:1
b. How much freeboard is added to the water depth dimension to prevent

trout from leaping from the raceway?
1) 4 to 8 inches
2) 12 to 24 inches
3) 6 to 12 inches
c. What is the correct raceway floor slope?
1) 0.6 to 1.0 inches per 10 feet of length

2) 0.4 to 0.8 inches per 12 feet of length
3) 6 to 10 inches per 15 feeL of length
d. Which of the following is NOT a raceway construction material?
1) Concrete
2) Fiberglass
3) Pre-formed plastic
e. How much should the baffle board be raised from the bottom of the
raceway?
1) The same distance as the freeboard

2) The same distance as the depth of water going over the weir
3) The same distance as the screen width
604
AQ-629
TEST
f. Which of the following is the recommended screen size?
1) 2 square feet of screen for each 10 gpm water flow

2) 0.5 square foot of screen for each 20 gpm water flow
3) 1 square foot of screen for each 25 gpm water flow
14. Match water use systems with their correct descriptions. Write the correct numbers
in the blanks.
a. Two units in series use the same water 1. Single reuse
b. Water flows through only one unit and 2. Single pass

is then discharged
3. Multiple reuse
c. Several units in series use the same
water
15. Complete statements about typical stocking/loading rates. Write the correct numbers
in the blanks.
a. Coldwater ponds usually produce enough oxygen and natural food to

support the extensive culture of about pounds of trout per surface
acre.
1) 100
2) 300
3) 600
b. In the Midwest and Southwest U.S., spring stocking a l-acre pond with
500 2-4 inch rainbow fingerlings will produce trout the first year.
1) 10-irch (8 ounce)
2) 8- or 9-inch (6 ounce)
3) 7- or 8-inch (4 ounce)
c. In the Mid- to Northeastern U.S., the standard fall pond stocking rate
is rainbow fingerlings per surface acre to produce 10-inch trout
the first year.
1) 400 2- to 4-inch
2) 500 4- to 6-inch
3) 600 3- to 4-inch
d. In general, 2- to 4-inch trout fingerlings are more likely to than

are 1-inch to 2-inch fingerlings.
1) Grow
2) Survive
3) Die
605
630
TEST
e. Raceway loading rates are dependent on many factors, but particularly

on flow rates, exchange rates, DO levels, and .
1) Water velocity
2) Water depth
3) Water hardness
As a general rule of thumb, trout are loaded at densities in pounds per

cubic foot no greater than their length in inches.
1) 0.3
2) 0.5
3) 0.8
g. In Oklahoma the upper cage limit for trout is fingerlings per

cubic foot of cage to produce 1/4-pound to VI-pound fish at spring
harvest.
1) twenty 5-inch
2) twelve 8-inch
3) fifteen 7-inch
h. The maximum safe pond limit [stocked in cages] is about trout
per acre.
1) 500
2) 1,000
3) 1,200
16. Distinguish between Density Index and Flow Index. Write and "X" in the blank
before the description of Flow Index.
a. The relationship of fish weight and size to water volume; the spatial
relationship of one fish to another
b. The relationship of fish weight and size to water inflow; deals with the
amount of oxygen available for life support and growth
(NOTE: Test questions 16 through 20 list the assignment and job sheets. They are an
scheduling and evaluation procedures.)
17. Keep trout production records. (Assignment Sheet #1)
18 Calculate raceway carrying capacity based on flow and density indexes. (Assignment
Sheet #2)
19. Predict ammonia loads based on food consumption, fish lopd, and water flow rate.
a. Artificially spawn trout broodfish. (Job Sheet #1)
b. Inventory a raceway load. (Job Sheet #2)
606
AQ-631

UNIT X
ANSWERS TO TEST
1. a. 19 k. 2
b. 1 I. 3
c. 8 m. 17
d. 11 n. 12
e. 18 o. 15
f. 13 p. 16
g. 9 q. 7
h. 6 r. 10
i. 5 s. 14
j. 4 t. 20
2. a. 1 e. 2
b. 3 f. 2
c. 2 g. 3
d. 1 h. 1
3. a. Caudal peduncle
b. Adipose fin
c. Dorsal fin
d. Lateral line
e. Maxillary
f. Pectoral fins
g. Ventral fins
h. Anus
i. Anal fin
j. Caudal fin
4. a. 2 e. 1
b. 1 f. 3
c. 2 g. 1
d. 3 h. 3
5. a. 4
b. 2
C. 1
d. 3
6. a. Broodstock maintenance and spawning

b. Egg incubation and hatching
C. Sac fry management
d. Swim-up fry management and feeding
e. Fingerling to food fish management and feeding
607
632
ANSWERS TO TEST
7. a. 2
b. 2
C. 1
d. 3
e. 3
f. 1
9. 2
8. a. 1 e. 1
b. 3 f. 3
c. 2 g. 3
d. 2 h. 3
9. a. 3
b. 2
C. 3
d. 3
e. 2
f. 1
10. a, d, e
11. t, c, e, g
12. a. 1
b. 3
C. 3
d. 1
13. a. 2
b. 3
C. 1
d. e
e. 2
f. 3
14. a. 1
b. 2
C. 3
15. a. 1 e. 1
b. 3 f. 2
C. 3 g. 3
d. 2 h. 3
608
AQ-633
ANSWERS TO TEST
16. b
17. 20. Evaluated to the satisfaction of the instructor
609
AQ-635
COMMERCIAL BAITFISH PRODUCTION

UNIT XI
E BAIT
Now UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completion of this unit, the student should be able to evaluate the local demand for
baitfish and determine the feasibility of undertaking commercial baitfish production. These
competencies will be evidenced by completing the procedures in the assignment and job
sheets and by scoring a minimum of 85 percent on the unit test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Match terms associated with commercial baitfish production with thei r correct
definitions.
2. Complete factual statements about the baitfish industry.
3. List marketing options.
4. Select from a list factors affecting marketing success.
5. Identify popular baitfish species.
6. Distinguish among general characteristics of popular baitfis species.
7. Select factual statements regarding guidelines for the sele tion of broodstock.
8. Distinguish among the reproductive and spawning cha acteristics of golden

shiner, fathead minnow, and goldfish.
9. Match propagation methods with their descriptions.
10. Match to their correct descriptions methods of p ond preparation for the
propagation and rearing of baitfish.
11. Match predators with their control techniques.
12. Discuss propagation techniques and stocking rates for golden shiners and
goldfish.
13. Distinguish between free-spawning and fry t ransfer methods of propagating

fathead minnows.
14. Discuss fertilization techniques for plankto production.
610
636
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
15. Complete statements about feeding practices.
16. Complete statements about basic harvestiri equipment needs.

17. Select from a list general guidelines for harvesting and transferring baitfish to
holding troughs.
18. Match harvesting methods with their correct descriptions.
19. Select from a list guidelines for maintaining baitfish in holding troughs.
20. Match grading procedures with correct grading equipment.
21. Select from a list guidelines for transporting fish to long distance markets.
22. Select from a list guidelines for transporting fish to short distance markets.
23. Survey baitfish dealers to evaluate local supply and demand. (Assignment
Sheet #1)
24. Visit a baitfish farm and report on the operation. (Assignment Sheet #2)
a. Trap, count or weigh, and grade a sample of baitfish. (Job Sheet #1)
b. Make a spawning mat. (Job Sheet #2)
c. Bring baitfish eggs into hatching area and watch them hatch. (Job Sheet
#3)
Gii
A0-637

UNIT XI
A. Arrange a field trip to a local baitfish producer to assIst students in completing

assignment and job sheets.
B. Gather equipment and materials necessary for students to complete job sheets.
Explain and demonstrate aces as necessary.
C. Invite a local baitfish producer to the class to talk about personal experience with
the various aspects of commercial baitfish production. species characteristic and
desirability, pond preparation ana management, propagation, feedings, transporting,
marketing and recordkeeping.
D. Provide students with objective sheet.
E. Provide students with information sheet.
F. Discuss unit and specific objectives.
G. Discuss information sheet.
H. Schedule assignment sheets and critique in class.
I. Schedule, demonstrate, and evaluate job sheets.
J, Give test.
(NOTE: As the test is iong, it may be helpful to administer it in two or more

sections.)
A. Dupree, Harry K., and Jay V. Huner. Third Report to the Fish Farmers: The Status
B. Giudice, John J., D. Leroy Gray, and J. Mayo Martin. Manual for Bait Fish Culture
in the South. Fayetteville, Arkansas. University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension
Service and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, n.d.
C. Reigh, !Robert C., ed. Proceedings of the Louisiana Aquaculture Conference, 1988.
Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, 1988.
C12
AO-639

UNIT XI
INFORMATION SHEET
A. Propagation Reproduction; raising or breeding
B. Slurry. Thin, watery mixture of feed
C. Seeding Pumping plankton from a pond with bloom to a pond without

bloom to promote plankton growth
D. Spawning mat Artificial nest, generally of Spanish moss or a synthetic

material such as spandex, on whidti fish lay eggs (Figure 1)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 1
From Manual for Balt Fish Cuhure In the South by John J. Guidice, et. al. With permission.
E. Saprophyte Organism that lives on &lad or decaying organic matter
F. Parasite Organism that lives in or on another live organism, generally

causing harm
G. Protozoa Microscopic, single-celled animals living in water; mostly parasitic
H. Omnivorous Eating both vegetable and animal food
I. Carnivorous Eating only animal food
J. Ovarian Having to do with the ovaries, the female egg producing,glands
K. Tubercles Hornlike-projections on the head of breeding fathead-minnows
L. Domestic Tame; bred and raised in captivity
M. Head Inflow 'end of holding trough
61 3
640
INFORMATION SHEET
N. Foot Drain end of holding trough
0. Metabolism (metabolic) Chemical and physical processes by which an

organism breaks down matter and releases it as waste or energy
P. Temper To allow fish to adjust to different water chemistry and temperature
Q. Pond run Ungraded by size or sex
II. Facts about baitfish industry

A. Baitfish have been raised in the mid-western United States since the 1920s
B. In the United States, commercial production of baitfish is worth more than
$100 million at the fish farm level.
C. The major fish species raised for bait are golden shiners, fathead minnows,
and goldfish, all of the minnow family.
D. The major baitfish-producing states are Arkansas, Kansas, Missouri, and

Minnesota.
Arkansas is the major baitfish-producing state in the South, supplying about

one-half of the nation's supply.
F For the past several years, the water acreage devoted to baitfish production
nearly equal to that of catfish production has remained stat:e.
POINT OF INTEREST: During 1985-1987, baitfish in Arkansas was

unchanged with about 21,000 acres in golden shiners, 3,600 acres in
fathead minnows, and 2,700 acres in goldfish. Catfish farming, on the
othei hand, is experiencing a period of rapid growth.
HI. Marketing options
A. Producers can sell fish to wholesalers (jobbers) who then sell them to retail
markets.
B. Producers can sell fish directly to area retailers.
C. Producers can retail the fish themselves, selling all or part of their fish directly
to fisherman.
61 4
C
AQ-641
INFORMATION SHEET
IV. Factors that affect marketing success 'Assignment Sheet #1)

A. Fisherman are very demanding consumers.
B. Bait needs and fisherman's demands change with the seasons.
C. Overupply or shortages of bait are not always foreseeable, and yet are
realities that must be expected and dealt with.
D. The retail price may be so high that sales drop as fishermen seine for their
own bait or use artificial lures
E. Prices can fall when a competitor cuts prices to promote business.
F. Poor weather can reduce sport fishing and thus cause a decline in sales.
G. Baitfish are perishable and do not lend themselves well to stockpiling or

increased inventories.
H. As profits increase, competition becomes keener.
V. Most popular baitfish species (Figures 2-5)
A. Golden shiner
FIGURE 2
B. Fathead minnow
FIGURE 3
642
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Fathead minnow, breeding male
FIGURE 4
From Eddy and James C. UnderNI, How to Know, the Freshwater Frshes, 3rd ed. Copyright 1978.
Wm. C. Brown Publishers. Dubuque, Iowa. All rights reserved. Reprhled by special permission.
D. Goldfish
FIGURE 5
,
-)
Figures 2, 3, and 5 from Manual for Balt Fish Culture in the South by John J. Guidice, et. al.. With
permission.
616
A0-643
INFORMATION SHEET
VI. Species characteristics
Characteristic Golden shiner Fathead minnow Goldfish
Physical Deep body; large, Streamlined body, Thick body, large

appearance loosely attached smail scales, dull olive to red or gold
silver or gold color, rounded scales, long
scales; downward dorsal fin; does graceful fins; can
curving lateral line, not often grow grow to 2 pounds
pointed dorsal fin; larger than 3 if not overcrowded.
can grow to over inches.
10 inches.
Hardiness Delicate, easily Somewhat delicate Very hardy; easy

damaged species but hardier than to handle,
prone to losing its golden shiner; can transport, and
scales; sensitive to be handled store.
handling during hot carefully during hot
weather; excitable: weather; males
leaps from holding may die after
tanks and bait spawning.
containers.
Popularity Most popular Popular baitfish Not a widely

baitfish because of because it popular baitfish
its bright, flashing tolerates careful because of its
appearance and handling in warm sluggishness on
liveliness on hook. weather. hook.
Markets/uses Casting bait for Casting bait for Trot line bait;
sport fishing sport fishing; new feeder fish for
variety (rosy ;ed) carnivorous
used as feeder aquarium fish;
fish and as forage used as forage
fish for bass. fish for bass and
catfish broodfish
617
644
INFORMATION SHEET
VII. Guidelines for selection of broodstock

A. Golden shiner
1. Avoid wild stock; select instead domestic stock that has been raised in
captivity as these broodfish are easier to handle.
2. Select broodstock each year from the yearling population to protect

against Plistophora ovariae, an ovarian protozoan.
(NOTE: The older the female, the more likely she is to be infected.
Female golden shiners grow faster than males. Some have been known
to live for 8 years and attain a length of over 10 inches.)
3. Choose healthy, lively broodstock with upright fins and no missing scales
or dull areas on the sides or back.
B. Fathead minnow
1. Select male broodstock with care as adult males grow larger than
females, a characteristic that may create problems when a mechanical
grader is used for broodstock selection.
2. Separate sexes by using a 15/64 to 16/64 bar grader.
3. Select lively, healthy broodfish with upright fins, and no missing scales,
head or eye deformity, or distended abdomen.
4. Be aware that many adult males die after spawning.
C. Goldf::F.
1. Select broodstock that will produce the color most desired by the market
in your area.
EXAMPLES: If bronze is the preferred color, broodstock should be so

selected. For 100% bronze offspring, the broodstock pair
should be bronze Shubunkin variety. If an increase in the
number of red stock is desired, early-coloring fingerlings
should be selected from the rearing ponds and reared in
separate ponds for later use as broodstock.
2. Select broodstock that will produce the slim-bodied stock generally

preferred by fishermen.
3. Before spawning occurs, remove any broodfish with an undesirable

shape or color.
4. Choose lively, healthy broodstock with upright, flowing fins and no signs
of disease or parasite infection.
(NOTE: Though goldfish are a hardy species, they are plagued by many
parasites and diseases.)
618
o
AQ-645
INFORMATION SHEET
VIII. Reproduction and spawning
Fathead minnow Goldfish

Characteristic Golden shiner
1 year 1 year
Sexual maturity 1 year
Starts when water Starts when water
Spawning season Starts when water
temp. nears 65°F temp. reaches 60°F.
temp. reaches 70°F
and continues and continues
through June in during cool periods
South. in summer; may
start again in fall.
Male develops dark Female's vent

Breeding No significant
head covered with becomes larger,
appearance change from
breeding tubercles, redder, and
nonbreeding protrudes more than
appearance. and a thick pad on
back behinc head. male's; at all times
male can be sexed
(NOTE: The pad is by noting serrated
used for preparing [:),-:`.oral spines;
the nest site and in female's are not
caring for the eggs.) serrated.
200 to 500 during 2,000 to 4,000

Average number of Up to 10,000
each of many during each of
eggs several spawns.
repeated spawns.
After fertilization Same as, or very

Nesting habits Eggs released
male places eggs similar to, golden
randomly, preferably
above living plants, on underside of shiner.
but also cling to hard objects in
rocks, debris, and shallow water;
roots; culturists culturists place
place spawning bricks, smooth
mats in pond for pieces of tile, and
egg deposits. floating boards in
ponds for egg
deposits.
Eggs hatch in 4 to Eggs usually hatch Eggs hatch in 2 to

Hatching 8 days, depending
8 days at water in 5 to 6 days;
temperatures of male guards eggs on water temp.; no
until fry emerge. protection given to
75°F to 80°F; no
protection given to eggs or fry by the
eggs or fry by the adults.
adults.
mum
62 9
646
INFORMATION .SHEET
IX. Propagation niethods (Job'Sheet

A. Wild or. free spawning -7 Spawning; egg laying, hatching; and growing of
ybung ocbur in the.Same pond.
B. Egg transfer Spawning- arid egg laying occur in a specially prepared

spawning-pond; eg-gs Ware tranSferred to a rearing.,pond.
C. Fry transfer Fry produced by,,either free spawning or egg-transfer method

are trapped, counted and- transferred.to rearing ponds.
X. Pond preparation toe propagation and rearing,(Job Sheet #2)

A. Wild or free spawning pond -- Pond- is drained or lowered, predators are
killed or controlled, and' grass is planted on the dry bottom or along the
shoreline to *Vide natural spawning sites; or, if plant growth :iS scarce,
spawning Mats are.placed in pond:
B. Spawning ,pond 'for egg transfer method to prevent uncontrolled egg

deposits, all aquatic vegetation ,and leaves and roots of marginal plants are
killed;;predators are killed Or controlled; spawning mats are placed in groups
1 inch below.shallow. water at edge of pond with ends tOuching.
C. Spawning- pond .for fathead minnow fry' transfer Predators are killed or
controlled, and existing spawning sites are,supplemented witnloCks, pieces
of 'tile, bricks, or 4- by 12-inch sectiOnS of board stapled to a wire at 12-inch
intervals and stretched parallel to the shore in shallokwater. (Figures 6 and
7)
FIGURE 6 - FIGURE 7
-
Flaures 6 ad7 torn Manual for Bail fish Culture .In thp South by John J. Guidice, et. at
With **ion:
D. Fry rearing :pond Pond is rid of taxkis, cleared of 'all predators, arid
fertili?edlo -eirtablish a planktenbloorn, which provides natural food for fry and
also shades out aquatic weeds.
AQ-647
INFORMATION SHEET
Xl. Predators and their control
Prey
Predator Egg Fry Fingerling Broodfish Control
Turtle X X X X Shoot or trap; completely dry pond and

treat small potholes with calcium
hypochlorito (HTH).
X
Fill bottom of pond to 1 inch flood
Snail
and treat with 10 ppm copper sulfate;
then add 500 pounds per acre of
hydrated limestone.
X X Same as for turtles, or stock with 6 or

Crayfish
8 channel catfish per surface acre;
channel catfish should be free of
disease or parasites.
X X Apply 3 gallons of diesel fuel plus 1

Insects
quart of crankcase oil per surface acre;
apply upwind side of pond and let
flow across surface; start before
stocking with eggs; repeat once a week
until fish are 1 inch long.
Cyclops and large X X After eggs are placed in pond, apply

zooplankton Masoten at 0.25 ppm.
Wild fish X X X X Use well water or screen and filter

surface water; treat potholes with
hydrated lime or calcium hypochlorite
after harvest.
X X Shoot; trap; mow levees closely.

Snakes
Frogs and tadpoles X X X Harvest adults, and in spring dip out

egg masses; remove cover on pond
banks and in pond.
Muskrat X Trap and/or use zinc phosphide-treated

bail.
Birds X X Use scaring devices; shoot ducks during

waterfowl season; all other birds are
protected by law. CHECK WITH LOCAL
AUTHORITIES BEFORE TAKING ANY
CONTROL MEASURES!
i
4
Adapted from Manual for Baitfish Culture in the South by John J. Guidice, et. al. With permission.
621
4
648
INFORMATION SHEET
XH. Propagation and stocking of golden shiner and goldfish (Job Sheet #1)
(NOTE: Propagation methods for golden shiner and goldfish are very similar.)
A. Wild or free spawning method:
1. Stock golden shiner at a rate of 20 to 40 pounds of ungraded broodfish

per acre; stock 100 to 300 goldfish broodstock per acre, depending on
size.
2. If spawning activity diminishes, stimulate it by rapidly raising the level

of the pond or by adding potassium permanganate, which chemically
shocks the fish into spawning.
3. To extend the spawning season, add large quantities of cool water,

preferably to small narrow ponds.
4. After adults have spawned, remove them from the pond and store in
another pond for future broodstock use, or sell as bait.
B. Egg transfer method
1. Stock 400 to 500 pounds of golden shiners per acre and goldfish at a
rate of 800 to 1,000 pounds per acre.
2. When the fish are ready to spawn, place spawning mats 1 inch below
shallow water with one side of the mat at the edge of the pond,
arrarging mats end to end in groups.
3. Transfer mats to rearing ponds when they are uniformly covered with
eggs.
(NOTE: Do not leave mats in ponds until eggs become so abundant that
they touch. Too many eggs on a mat encoL age the growth of a
saprophytic fungus that may spread over developing eggs.)
4. Estimate the number of eggs on each mat, and then--depending on the

average number of eggs per mat--stock from 50 to 75 mats per acre
in golden shiner ponds; 50 to 150 mats per acre in goldfish rearing
ponds.
5. When spawning becomes very light, remove most of the mats from the
spawning pond, leaving at least one mat in each spawning area to
prevent fish from depositing eggs on other material.
6. After spawning stops and hatching is completed, remove, wash, and

store all spawning mats.
622
AQ-649
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Fry transfer method
1. When the fry produced by either the wild spawning method or the egg
transfer method are about 3/4 inch long, capture with lift traps or short,
fine-mesh seines during coolest part of the thy.
2. Count the fry by first counting the number of fry in 1 ounce and then
multiplying by the number of ounces transferred.
EXAMPLE: If by count, there are 200 fry per ounce, and there are 32
ounces in a quart, the volume of fry needed to yield a
stocking of 200,000 is 31.25 quarts per acre.
3. Transfer fry to rearing ponds in buckets graduated in quarts; stock

golden shiners at rates from 50,000 to 200,000 per acre and goldfish
at rates from 25,000 to 1 million per acre.
(NOTE: Actual stocking rates depend on how soon salable fish are
needed, size of fish desired, level of pond management, and the length
of the growing season.)
XIII. Propagation of fathead minnows

(NOTE. Propagation methods differ for fathead minnows because of their different
spawning habits. Fathead culture is restricted tc use of either the free spawning
method or the fry transfer method.)
A. Wild or free-spawning method
(NOTE. Large ponds can be stocked using the free spawning method, but the
disadvantage is that these ponds tend to become overpopulated, resulting in
stunted populations.)
1. Stcck at a rate of 500 to 2,000 broodfish per acre at a 5:1 ratio, 5

females to 1 male.
2. Provide supplemental spawning sites by placing rocks, pieces of tile,

bricks, or boards in the pond.
B. Fry transfer method
(NOTE: This is the favored method of fathead minnow producers.)
1. Stock prepared spawning ponds with 20,000 to 25,000 broodstock per

acre at a 5:1 female to male ratio.
2. Provide supplemental spawning sites by placing rocks, pieces of tile,

3. When they are 1/2 to 3/4 inch long, capture fry with fine-mesh seine or
lift trap, estimate numbers, and transfer to rearing ponds.
62 3
_
650
INFORMATION SHEET
4. Stock rearing ponds at a rate of 50,000 to 300,000 fish per acre.
XIV. Fertilization for the production of plankton
(NOTE: Success in raising baitfish fry depends on the management of

planktonnatural food for fryso that it is available when the fry are ready to eat.)
A. Organic and inorganic fertilizers are used to establish plankton blooms in fry
rearing ponds.
B. The bloom should be dense enough so that a Secchi disc can be seen only
faintly at 10 inches.
C. If the water begins to clear of plankton, more fertilizer is applied, or the pond
is seeded from a nearby pond with a good bloom.
D. If soil analysis indicates a need, finely ground limestone is added before or

while the pond is filling.
E. Nitrate of soda and super-phosphate are used on acid soils, and ammonium
phosphate is used on basic soils.
F. When organic and inorganic combinations are used, manures are applied at
rates of 400 to 1,000 pounds per surface acre while 100 pounds of a
16-20-0 inorganic fertilizer or equivalent is applied per surface acre.
G. To produce a bloom with inorganic fertilizer used alone, the :armer applies
about 200 pounds of 16-20-0 per application per acre.
H. Some producers use liquid fertilizers with good results. when sprayed on the
water surface, more phosphorus is available for pond organisms instead of
being tied up in the bottom soil.
624
AQ-651
INFORMATION SHEET
XV. Feeding practices
Feeding Practices
Species Extensive Culture Intensive Culture
Golden Pond water is fertilized until plankton If fry come to the surface and eat when a small
shiner bloom creates Secchi disc reading of 8 amount of food is thrown into pond, they can be fed
to 9 inches; bloom is maintained until feed.
fry reach about 1 inch and before hot
weather. When starting fry on feed, ponds are checked at
downwind edge 2 hours after feeding to see that all
After fish reach 1 inch, fertilizer is feed has been eaten; if feed is left, feed amounts
reduced and fresh water is added until are reduced.
Secchi disc reading is 14 inches; pond
is maintained at 14-inch reading. For faster growth, shiners are fed more than once a
day, and as they grow, their feed is increased every
few days.
Heavily fed shiner ponds can be fed at least 40

pounds of feed per acre per day with resulting
production levels of 600 to 800 pounds per acre.
Fathead Same as for golden shiner. Young fish are begun on starter feed in fertilized
minnow ponds that contain up to 25,000 broodfist,, with
some producers also feeding grower feed for the
broodfish.
When fry are transferred to fertilized rearing pond,

they are fed starter feed on all sides of the pond
until they are about 3/4 inch long.
When fry are about 3/4 inch long, the producer

changes to pelleted grower feed, blending 3 parts
pellets with 1 part starter feed until fish learn to eat
the pellets, at which time a full pellet ration is fed.
Generally production levels will vary from 350 to

1,200 pounds per acre.
Goldfish Water is fertilized until plankton bloom Fertilization is the same as for golden shiner pcnds;
creates a Secchi disc reading of 5 to 7 production may be increased with supplemental
inches. feeding using golden shiner diets in which egg yolk
is substituted for some other ingredients such as
After fish grow to about 1 inch long and feather meal.
before hot weather, the water is cleared
by pumping in fresh water or by After the fish are feeding well and are about 1 inch
stopping fertilization to allow the bloom long, the starter meal is changed to pellets as it was
to recede to a Secchi disc reading of for fathead minnows.
10 inches; the pond is maintained al
this reading. Fish are fed an amount they can consume in 2 to
3 hours.
Fertilizer and feed in intensive cultures can produce

yields of 3,000 pounds or more per acre.
625
652
INFORMATION SHEET
XVI. Basic harvesting equipment
A. Knot less woven nylon seine.and dipnets made of 3/16-inch mesh (Figures 8
and 9)
(NOTE: To seine a whole pond, the seine should be 33 percent longer than
the width of the pond to compensate for Ole semicircle formed when the net
is moved forward. Likewise, the depth of the seine should be 33 percent
greater than the maximumpond depth.)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 8
From Manual for Bait Fish Culture In the South by John J. Guidice, et. at. With permission.
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 9
From Manual for Bait F7sh Culture In the South by John j. Guidice, et. al. With permission.
B. Clean, zinc coated or plastic buckets, 4 to 5 gallon capacity
C. One-ton truck with two 300gallon tanks for transfer of fish to holding tanks
.626
AQ653
INFORMATION SHEET
D. Lift traps if harvesting fathead minnows or goldfish; screen box if harvesting

entire population of small pond (Figures 10 and 11)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 10
From Manual for Balt -1-;:h Culture in'the South by John J. Guidice, et. al. With permission.
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 11 .
j.,
. 'r- ..-+.;
From Manual for Balt Fish Culture In the South by John J. Guldice, et. al. With permission.
654
INFORMATION SHEET
E. Cylinder traps with one or two funnels if harvesting fathead minnows in cold
weather (Figure 12)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 12
F. Holding tanks, 10 to 40 feet long and 2 feet deep, supplied with fresh, cool
water and equipped with an aeration device
XVII. Harvesting methods
A. Pond draining
1. This method is used to harvest the entire population of a small pond;

and IS-a particularly good method for harvesting delicate golden- shiners
because it requires no seining.
2. The water level is lowered and the fish are confined to a small area so
-water temperature can be lowered overnight--ideally to 6(
by adding- well or spring water.
3. In the early morning, the fish are fluShed through the drainpipe and
collected in a screen box at the outflow) or dip netted from the harvest
basin into buckets.
B. Seining the whole pond
1. Seines of the appropriate mesh size, length, and depth are pulled slowly
from one end of the pond to the other, trapping the4ish in a small area.
2. Dip nets are used to dip the fish from the seine into buckets for relay
to the .harvest truck.
C. Baiting and seining
1. This method is generally used for partial harvests.
2. Fish are baited into a corner of the pond with wet or pelleted feed that
will sink near the shore in shallow water.
628
AQ-655
INFORMATION SHEET
3. The feeding fish are captured by pulling a seine slowly and quietly
across the corner with a length of rope.
4. As soon as the seine is pulled and gathered, it is moved to deeper

water so the fish can move away from the surface.
5. Fish are dipped from the seine with dip nets and relayed to the harvest
truck in buckets as for full pond seining.
D. Lift traps
1. Lift traps are used in harvesting goldfish and fathead minnows
2. Lift traps are usually constructed of 3/16-inch nylon mesh on a 4-foot

square steel frame that can be carried in a pick-up; they are generally
suspended in the pond from a pipe resting on a fulcrum pole. (See
Figure 10)
3. Fish are baited into this nylon mesh trap while it is lying on the bottom
of the pond.
4. The net is lifted, and the captured fish are then dipped from the trap
and relayed to the harvest truck in buckets.
E. Cylinder traps
1. Cylinder traps are used to harvest fathead minnows in cold weather
2. They are made of wire mesh 1 foot in diameter and 2 feet long, and
are baited with small bags of fish food. (See Figure 12.)
3. Fish that enter the traps cannot easily get out through the small funnel
opening.
4. Traps are emptied directly into buckets for relay to harvest truck.
XVIII. General harvesting and hauling guidelines
A. When baiting is not used, withhold feed for at least 24 hours prior to harvest
to prevent fouling of holding water.
B. In summertime harvest ponds whose surface temperatures are 75°F and above
with great care and during cool, early morning hours.
C. Slow the metabolic rate of excitable golden shiners by dropping the water
temperature 15 degrees.
(NOTE. Golden shiners can tolerate abrupt temperature drops of 15 degrees

for short periods of time; this technique "sedates" these nervous fish and
makes harvesting and handling easier for both the producer and the fish.)
629
656
INFORMATION SHEET
D. To avoid shock, gradually lower the water temperature to 60° F to 65°F for
fathead minnows and baitsized goldfish as these species cann at tolerate 15-
degree temperature drops.
E. Fit harvesting tanks with at least one agitator or with a source of compressed
air or oxygen, and aerate the tank water before placing fish in tanks.
F. If more than one tank is used, empty the buckets of fish alternately into the
tanks to prevent overcrowding of one tank while the other is being filled.
G. In cool weather load each tank with about 1 pound of fish per gallon of water,
in warm weather, reduce the load to about 2/3 pound per gallon.
XIX. Guidelines for maintaining baitfish in holding troughs

A. Following harvest, hold baitfish undisturbed for at least 24 hours so that they
can undergo a "hardening" process before grading and handling, and so that
they will pass all food and not foul the transport water.
B. Control water quality by ensuring adequate water exchange and aeration, and
by avoiding overcrowding.
(N )TE: Baitfish hold best in water containing a minimum of 3 to 5 ppm

oxygen.)
C. In the summer, hold baitfish at water temperatures close to 70^F by blending

warm water with cooler well water.
D. Continually monitor holding troughs, removing dead ol injured fish routinely.
E. Remove any tadpoles, trash fish, and detritus from holding troughs.
F. Return to the pond any fish that have been stored over 1 week.
G. When they are emptied, scrub holding troughs with a chlorinated material, such
as household bleach, and rinse well.
H. Have a back-up energy source for pumping and aeration.
I. Have available back-up equipment, such as aerators, and an adequate supply

of water.
630
AQ-657
INFORMATION SHEET
XX. Grading equipment and procedures
A. Single grader panel (Figure 13)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 13
From Manual for aait Fish Culture in the aouth by John J. Guislice, et al. Mtn permission.
1. A panel of spaced vertical, bars is slowly moved from the head to the
foot of the trough.
2. Th Os?, fish that are too large to slip-through the bars-are irappedat the
foot and &loved to another holding tank with fish.of similar size.
B. Multiple grader panels
1. Grader panels are -arranged in the trough so ,thrat bar space gets
progressively smaller toward the head of the troug-h.
2. Fish are placed in the first compartment at the foot of the trough, and
are graded as they swim toward the inflowing water.
C. Grader box (Figure 14)
1. A free-standing or floating box with spaced vertical bars is placed in the

water and fish are placed Wit.
(NOTE: Fathead minnows grade better in ,floating box graders with

bottan panels.)
631
658
INFORMATION SHEET
2. The larger fish that cannOt pass between the bars are moved to another
holding-tank with fiSh of,a similar size. (Figure 14)
EXAMPLE: FiGURE 14
From Manual for Bait Fish Culture in the South by John J, Guidice,-et. al. With permission.
D. Barrier screens, tank nets, and- crowders (Figure 15)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 15=Barrier screen
From Manual br Bait Fish Culture in the South by John J. Guidice, et. al. With permission.
G32
AQ-659
INFORMATION SHEET#
1. Wooden or metal frames covered with screen, netting, or perforated

metal plates are inserted into the guide slots on the sides of the holding
trough.
2. Screens, crowders, and tank nets are used to move fish within the tank,
and Ao block fish from certain areas.
XXI. Transporting fish to long-dktance markets

A. Long-distance markets are markets more than 24 hours away.
B. Fish are shipped to market on transport vehicles--generally ,trucks--equipped

with-several to many large aluminum, fiberglass, or plywood transport tanks.
C. The tanks are closed systems aerated with compressed air, liquid oxygen,
mechanical agitators, or a combination of these methods.
D. Fish are slowly tempered to the water temperature of the receiving tanks,
usually 20 minutes for each 10 degree decrease in water temperature.
E. Loading rates depend on size of fish, length of transport, water temperature,

and water quality.
EXAMPLES: Tables 1 and 2
Table 1: NorMal Load Capacity in Pounds per Gallon of Water for

Baitfish Transported by Tank (with Agitators or Blower
System) in Hard Water at 65°F
Average Duration of Transport
Length Hours
(Inches) 1 6 12 24
2 2 1.5 1 1
3 3 2 1 1
The 'loading rale can be increased-by 25% when' pure oxygen is added. For
each 10°F increase in water temperature, the load should be decreased by
25%.
Table adapted from Harry K. Dupree and Jay V. Huner, "Transportation of Live Fish," Third Report to
the Fish Farmers, 1984.
6 3 3-
660
INFORMATION SHEET
Table 2: weight in Pounds. per Thousand Ba Wish

Total Length Golden Fathead
(Inches) Shiner Minnow Goldfish
..,
2 3.9 3.3 6.4

2.5 5.4 7.6 9.0
3 8.6 11.0 17.0
3.5 13.5 19.8 24.5
4 19.0 24.4 40.0
Table adapted from Harry K. Dupreeand Jay V. Huner, 'Transportation of.Live Fish," Third Report to
the Fish Farmer, 1984.
F. Because fish are crowded into transport tanks for economy, the production of
water-fouling fish -wastes is kept at a minimum in one:or more of the following
ways:
1. Fish are starved for a period of time .before loading;
2. The fish's metabolic rate is lowered by cooling the water in-the transport
tanks to 60°F by icing;
(NOTE: Some transport trucks have ice compartments above each tank,
others pump cool water through coiled tubing from an ice compartment
atone end of' the unit.)
3. The fish's rnetabolic7rate is lowered by adding 0.1% to 0.3% table salt

or an anesthetic chemical to the water.
(NOTE: Salt is often added to the transport water of excitabie golden

shiners.)
)(XII. Transporting fish to short-distance markets

A. Short-distance markets are markets less than 24 hours away.
B. Fish are starved for a minimum of 24 hours and the night before transport,
the temperature of holding tank water is gradually reducedlo 60°F; salt or an
anesthetic chemiCal may be added.
C. On the morning of the transport, 6 pounds of baitfish are placed in 14 pounds

of water in thick plastic bags, about 18 inches wide by 32 inches long.
D. Each bag is Inflated with oxygen and sealed by twisting the top, folding it
clown, and- securing it tightly with a rubberband.
E. Bags of fish are placed in styrofoam-lined cardboard boxes for temperature

control and loaded on transport trucks or another type of transport vehicle.
634
AQ-661
COMMERCIAL BAITFISHI.PRODUCT1ON
UNIT XI
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
SURVEY BAITFISH DEALERS TO P/ALUATE
LOCAL SUPPLY AND DEMAND
Visit bait retailers in your area to evaluate local supply and demand for baitfish. Use your
knowledge of the area and the'yellow pages of the phone directory to locate three or four
bait stores. Visit each of these businesses and talk with the owners to find the anSwers
to questions such as those that follow. Write your questions and answers in a nätebook
so that you can compare answers and draw conalusions following your interviews.
Sample Questions
1. What baitfish species do you sell?
2. Which species is most popular with the consumers in this area?
3. Have customers requested a species that you do not stock?
4. What size baitfish is in most demand?
5. Who is your source of supply?
6. How dependable is your supply source? Can you get' the baitfish you need when
you need them?
7. What prices are you presently paying the supplier for each species?
8. What prices are you presently selling each species for?
9. How does species demand change seasonally?
10. What are the peak demand periods?
11. How many pounds of baitfish do you generally purchase annually?
12. How often do you take deliveries?
13. How large are your holding facilities and what are your holding techniques?
14. How long do you generally hold stock?
15. What is your average mortality loss on delivered fish?

AQ-663
COMMERCIAt. SAITFISH PRODUCTION

UNIT XI
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
VISIT A BAITFISH FARM AND REPORT ON THE OPERATION
Make arrangements to visit a baitfish farm in your area. If possible, plan to visit in the
spring when the producer is getting brood ponds ready, handling.spawning mats, flooding
fry ponds, feeding production ponds, and harvesting and loading fish for sale. Plan to
spend at least two full days observing the day-to-day pond management and recordkeepitig
practices used by the producer.
Ask many questions and record answers and your observations in a notebook. After your
visit write a report on the operation you observed. Present your report orally to the class.
Sample Questions
1. Why did the producer select the species being raised?
2. How did the producer get started in the baitfish business?
3. What is the size of the enterprise? How long has the producer been in the baitfish
farming business?
4. What financing wap necessary and what local ingtutions,were helpfyl?
5. What documentation (cost projections, etc.) did the financial institution(s) require?
6. What start-up problems did the producer encounter?
7. What advice would the producer give to someone thinking of undertaking commercial
baitfish production?
8. What markets does the producer serve, and tit* stable are these markets?
9. What market methods does the producer use? To wholesaler? To retailers? Direct
to consumer?
10. What are the present wholesalo and retail prices being asked?
11. Approximately how large a profit margin does the producer realize yearly?
12. What harvesting and hauling methods does the producer use?
13. What recordkeeping system does the, producer 'keep?
14. What pond preparation and predator control rnethocfs does the producer use?
15. To whom ,does the producer turn for parasiteand disease diagnosis?
16. Where does the producer purchase 'feed? Medtoain? Chemicals? Equipment?
Transport services? Pond construction .setvices?
636
664
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
17. How, where, and how long does the producer store feed?
18. What types of commercial feed are bought?
19. What are feed prices at present?
20. Does the producer mix farm-formulated feeds?
21. What harvesting and hauling methods does the producer use?
22. How many holding troughs does the producer maintain, and how are they arranged?
23. What is the major water source? What is the water capacity?
24. What aeration equipment is used?
25. What is the primary power source?
63 7
AQ,665

UNIT XI
JOB SHEET #1
TRAP, COUNT OR WEIGH, AND
GRADE A SAMPLE OF BAITFISH
1. Pick-up truck
2. Lift seine/fulcrum and boom
3. 16% protein bait feed
4. Scales
5. Galvanized or plastic buckets
6. Floating grader of appropriate bar space
TABLE 1
Space Between Bars

(Inches Fish Size Pounds/1,000
13/64 - 16/64 Small crappie bait 3 to 5

17/64 - 23/64 Large crappie bait 6 to 12
23/64 - 32/64 BasS bait 12 to 20
33/64 - Trotline bait 20 and over
Table adapted from John J. Giudice, D. Leroy Gray, and J. Mayo Marrin, Manual-for Baitfish Culture
ln the South. With permission.
7. 3/16-inch nylon mesh crp- hets
8. Pencil and paper for recording data
B. Procedure
1. Transport equipment to capture site in pick-up.
2. Set up' fulcrum and boom, and attach lift seine.
3. Place a portion of the 16% feed in the seine, arid lower the seine-slowly to
the pond bottom.
4. While waiting for the fish to gather, set up hanging scale.
638
666
JOB;SHEET #1
5. Fill a couple of buckets about half full with pond water; weigh each bucket and
record weight.
Bucket #1 = lb./oz. water
Bucket #2 = lb./oz. water
6. When fish have gathered in the lift oet, use the fulcrum/bOom to lift it until the
top edges are about 5 inches,above the water surface.
7. Dip out fish with dip net, count, and transfer to buckets; record the total
number in each bucket.
Bucket #1 = fish
Bucket #2 = fish
8. Weigh each bucket and then subtract first weight from this weight to get total
weight of fish.
Bucket #1 = fish at lbs.
Bucket #2 = fish at lbs.
9. Divide the number of fish into the total wetht to get the average weight per
fish.
Average Weight = _(Lbs. Bucket #1 + Lbs. Bucket #2)

per Fish (No. Fish/Bucket #1 + No. Fish/Bucket #2)
Average Weight = oz.

per Fish
10. Place floating grader in the pond and empty the buckets of fish into the
grader.
11. Release the Jish into the pond, gather equipment, and return it to proper
storage.
639
AQ-667

UNIT XI
JOB SHEET 42
MAKE A SPAWNING MAT
1. 8 feet woven steel-welded wire with 2- by 4-inch mesh
2. Wire cutters
3. Pliers
4. Steel tape
5. 1 dozen hog rings
6. Quantity of Spanish moss or synthetic material such as Astroturf or spandex
B. Procedure
1. Use wire cutters to clip length of wire to approximately a 20 inch width.
2. Measure 48 inches from one end, and fold the wire mesh in half at this point,
using pliers to bend wire.
3. Sandwich Spanish moss between the two layers of woven wire.
4. Secure the moss between the top and bottom by fastening the wire layers
together with hog rings.
5. Use wire cutters to remove selected wires from the top side, making the mesh
size 4 by 4 inches.
6. Clean work area and return equipment to proper storage.
640
A0-669

UNIT XI
JOB SHEET413
BRING BAITFISH EGGS INTO HATCHING AREA
AND WATCH THEM HATCH
1. Spawning mat
2. Magnifying glass
B. Procedure
1. When spawning mat is uniformly covered with egas, remove it from spawning
pond and transfer it to rearing pond.
2. Estimate the number of eggs on the mat by counting the number in one 4 by
4 square of wire mesh and multiplying by the number of squares on the mat.
3. Record the date that the mat was placed in the rearing pond.
4. Observe the mat daily; record developments and the date of first hatching.
5. Observe the sac fry and record the date when they first become swim-up fry.
641
AQ-671

UNIT XI
PRACTICAL TEST #1
J03 SHEET #1 TRAP, COUNT OR WEIGH, AND GRADE

A SAMPLE OF BAITFISH
Student's Name Date
Evaluator's Name Attempt no.
Evaluation" must receive a "yes" for you to receive an overall performance evaluation.
PROCESS EVALUATION
try again.)
The student: Yes No
1. Prepared seine, scale, and buckets properly. O 0

2. Dipped and counted fish properly. 0 0
3. Weighed and averaged weight properly. O 0
4. Used grader properly. O 0
5. Released fish and returned equipment. O 0
642
- - _
.672
PRODUCT EVALUATION
evaluation.)
Criteria:
Preparation Excellent Acceptable Fair Poor

4 3 2 1
Weighing and Averaging Accurate Acceptable Poor Inaccurate

4 3 2 1
Grader use Effective Acceptable Poor Unacceptable

4 3 2 1
Skilled Can perform job with no additional training.

Unskilled Is familiar with process, but is unable to perform,job.
(EVALUATOR NOTE: If an average score is needed to coincide with ct competency

of criteria.)
64 3
AQ-673

UNiT X!
PRACTICAL TEST #2
JOB SHEET #2 MAKE A SPAWNING ma
Student's Name Date
Evaluator's Name Attempt no
Student instructions: When you are ready to perform this talk, ask your instructor to
observe the procedure and complete this form. All items lid under "Proess
PROCESS EVALUATION
(EVALUATOR NOTE: Place a check mark ir. the "Yes" or "No" blanks to designate
whether or not the student has satisfactorily achieved each step in this pfocedure. If the
try again.)
The student:
1. Cut woven wire to proper dimensions.

2. Sandwiched Spanish moss into mat properly.
3. Secured moss and wires with hog rings.
4. Trimmed top mesh to proper size.
5. Returned equipment to proper storage. 0 0
644
PRODUCT EVALUATION
performance evaluation key below.) If the 'student is unable to demonstrate mastery,
evaluation.)
Criteria:
Mesh preparation Excellent Good Fair Poor

4 3 2 1
Moss application Excellent Good Fair Poor

4 3 2 1
Final trim Excellent Good Fair Poor

4 3 2 1
Mat Quality Excellent Good Fair Poor

4 3 2 1

3 Moderately skgied Has performed job during training program; limited addaiona
,equired to develop skill.
(EVALUATOR NOTE: If an average sccre is needed to coincide with a competency

of criteria.)
AQ-675

UNIT XI
PRACTICAL TEST #3
JOB SHEET #3 BRING BAITFISH EGGS INTO HATCHING AREA

AND WATCH THEM HATCH
Student's Name Date
Evaluator's Name Attempt no
PROCESS EVALUATION
try again.)
The student: Yes No
1. Selected uniformly egg-covered mat. O 0

2. Used 4 x 4 square to estimate eggs on mat. 0 0
3. Recorded date eggs went to rearing pond. O 0
4. Observed hatching on daily schedule O 0
and recorded developments.
5. Recorded date sac fry appeared. O 0
6. Recorded date swim-up fry appeared. 0 0
646
676
PRODUCT EVALUATION
evaluation.)
Criteria:
/
Preparation Excellent Good Fair Poor
4 3 2 1
Counting and Estimating Accurate Acceptable Poor Inaccurate

Eggs 4 3 2 1
Daily Observations Complete Acceptable Too few Unacceptable

4 3 2 1
Hatching and other Complete Acceptable Too few Unacceptable

observations 4 3 2 1

(EVALUATOR NOTE: If .An average score is needed to coincide with a competency

of criteria.)
64 7
AQ-677
COMMERCIAL BAITFISH PRODUCIION

UNIT XI
TEST
Name Score
1. Match terms associated with commercial baitfish production with their correct
definitions. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. Eating both animal and vegetable food 1. Propagation
b. Reproduction; raising or breeding 2. Slurry
c. Microscopic single-celled animals living 3. Spawning mat

in water; mostly parasitic
4. Saprophyte
d. Drain end of holding trough
5. Parasite
e. To allow fish to adjust to different water
chemistry and temperature 6. Protozoa
f. Artificial nest, generally of Spanish 7. Omnivorous

moss, or a synthetic material such as
spandex, on which fish lay eggs 8. Carnivorous
g. Tame; bred and raised in captivity 9. Ovarian
h. Thin, watery mixture of feed 10. Tubercles
i. Inflow end of holding trough 11. Domestic
j. Organism that lives on dead or 12. Head

decaying organic matter
13. Foot
k. Organism that lives on another live
organism, generally causing harm 14. Metabolism
I. Chemical and physical processes by 15. Temper

which an organism breaks down matter
and releases it as waste or energy
m. Hornlike projections on the head of

breeding fathead minnows
n. Pumping plankton from a pond with

bloom to a pond without bloom to
promote plankton growth
o. Ungraded by size or sex
64'
678
TEST
Having to do with the ovaries, the 16. Seeding

female egg-producing glands
17. Pond run
A. Eating only animal food
2. Complete factual statements about the baitfish industry. Write the correct numbers
in the blanks.
a. Baitfish have been raised in the mid-western United States since the
1) 1920s
2) 1940s
3) 1950s
b. In the United States commercial production of baitfish is worth

at the fish farm level.
1) $500 million
2) $300 million
3) $100 million
c. The major fish species raised for bait are , all cf the minnow
family.
1) golden shiners, fathead minnows, and goldfish

2) common shiners, plains minnows, and silver chubs
3) red shiners, creek chubs, and longnose daces
d. The major baitfish-producing states are
1) Oklahoma, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Missouri

2) Arkansas, Kansas, Missouri, and Minnesota
3) Georgia, Louisiana, West Virginia, and Maryland
e. is the major bait-producing state in the South, supplying about
1/2 of the nation's supply.
1) Mississippi
2) Louisiana
3) Arkansas
f. For the past several years, the water acreage devoted to baitfish
productionnearly equal to that of catfish productionhas .
1) remained stable
2) grown rapidly
3) decreased considerably
649
A0-679
TEST
3. List baitfish marketing options.
a.
b.
C.
4. Select from a list factors affecting marketing success. Write an "X" in the blank
before each factor.
a. Fishermen are very undemanding consumers.
b. Bait needsand fishermen's demandschange with the seasons.
c. Oversupply or shortages of bait are not always foreseeable, and yet are
realities that must be expected and dealt with.
d. The retail price may be .,c high that sales drop as fishermen seine for
their own bait or use artificial lures.
e. Prices can rise when a competitor cuts prices to promote business.
f. Good weather can increase sport fishing and thus deplete the stock.
g. Baitfish are perishable and do not lend themselves well to stockpiling

or increased inventories.
h. As profits decrease, competition becomes keener.
5. Identify the following baitfish species. Write the correct names under the illustrations.
.650
680
TEST
'651,
AQ-681
TEST
6. Distinguish among general characteristics of popular baitfish species. Write "GS" in

the blanks before characteristics of golden shiners, "FM" in the blanks before
characteristics of fathead minnows, and "G" before characteristics of goldfish.
a. Delicate, easily damaged species prone to losing its scales; sensitive

to handling during hot weather; excitable: leaps from holding tanks and
bait containers.
b. Not a widely popular baitfish because of its sluggishness on the hook.
c. Used for casting bait for sport fishing; new variety (rosy red) used as
feeder fish and as forage for bass.
d. Thick body, large olive to red or gold scales, long graceful fins; can
grow to 2 pounds if not overcrowded.
e. Somewhat delicate, but can be handled carefully during hot weather;

males may die at spawning.
f. Deep body; large, loosely attached silver scales; downward curving

lateral line, pointed dorsal fin; can grow to over 10 inches.
g. Trot line bait; feeder fish for carnivorous aquarium fish; used as forage
fish for bass and catfish broodfish.
h. Streamlined body, small scales, dull color, rounded dorsal fin; does not
often grow larger than 3 inches.
i. Very hardy, easy to handle, transport, and store.
Most popular baitfish because of its bright, flashing appearance and

livelinese on hook.
k. Casting bait for sport fishing.
Popular baitfish because it tolerates careful handling in warm weather.
7. Select factual statements regarding guidelines for the selection of broodstock. Write
Golden Sidners
a. Avoid wild stock; select instead domestic stock that has been as
these broodfish are easier to handle.
1) raised in captivity
2) inoculated against disease
3) over-wintered at least one season
652
682
TEST
b. Select broodstock each year from the population to protect

against Phistophora ovariae, an ovarian protozoan.
1) fry
2) adult
3) yearling
c. Choose healthy, lively broodstock with fins and no missing scales

or dull areas on the sides or back.
1) folded
2) dark red
3) upright
Fathead minnow
a. Select male broodstock with care as adult males than females, a

characteristic that may create problems when a mechanical grader is
used for broodstock selection.
1) grow larger
2) are more delicate
3) are more round-bellied
b. Separate sexes by using a bar grader.
1) 12/16 or 14/16
2) 15/64 or 16/64
3) 15/32 or 16/32
c. Select lively, healthy broodfish with no or distended abdomen.
1) tubercles on head
2) head or eye deformity
3) upright fins or scales
d. Be aware that .
1) many adult males die before spawning

2) many adult females die after spawning
3) many adult males die after spawning
Goldfish
a. Select broodstock that will
1) produce the fry size most desired by the market in your area
2) produce the color most desired by the market in your area
3) produce the weight most desired by the market in your area
6 53
AQ-683
TEST
b. Select broodstock that will produce the generally preferred by

fishermen.
1) slim-bodied stock
2) thick-bodied stock
3) short-bodied
c. Before spawning occurs, remove any broodfish with .
1) soft, flowing fins

2) a marketable shape or color
3) an undesired shape or color
d. Choose lively, healthy fish with no signs of disease or .
1) pigment
2) parasites
3) plankton
8. Distinguish among the reproductive and spawning characteristics of golden shiner,

fathead minnow, and goldfish. Write "GS" before characteristics cf golden shiners,
"FM" before fathead minnows, and "G" before characteristics of goldfish. Some
blanks may contain more than one answer.
a. Sexually mature at 1 year.
b. Releases 2,000 to 4,000 eggs during each of several spawns.
c. Breeding appearance is not significantly different than that of

nonbreeding appearance.
d. Eggs usually hatch in 5 to 6 days; male guards eggs until fry emerge.
e. Spawning starts when water temperature reaches 60°F.
f. Eggs released randomly, preferably above living plants, but also cling
to rocks, debris, and roots; culturists place spawning mats in pond for
egg deposits.
A. Releases up to 10,000 eggs.
h. During breeding season, male develops dark head covered with breeding
tubercles, and a thick pad on back b hind head.
i. Spawning season starts when water temperature nears 65°F, and

continues during cool periods in summer; may start again in fall.
i. During breeding, female's vent becomes larger, redder, and protrudes

more than male's; at all times male can be sexed by noting serrated
pectoral spines; female's are not serrated.
654
684
TEST
k. After fertilization, male places eggs on underside of hard objects in

shallow water; culturists place bricks, smooth pieces of tile, and bloating
boards in ponds for egg deposits.
I. Eggs hatch in 2 to 8 days, depending on the water temperature no

protection is given to eggs or fry by the adults.
m. Spawning starts when water temperature reaches 70°F and continues

through June in the South.
n. Releases 200 to 500 eggs during each of many spawnings.
o. Eggs hatch in 4 to 8 days at water temperatures of 75°F to 90° F; no

protection is given to the eggs or fry by the adults.
9. Match propagation methods with their descriptions. Write the correct numbers in
the blanks.
a. Spawning and egg laying occur in a 1. Wild or free

specially prepared spawning pond; eggs spawning
are transferred to a rearing pond.
2. Egg transfer
b. Spawning, egg laying, hatching, and
growing of young occur in same pond. 3. Fry transfer
c. Fry produced by either of the other

methods, are trapped, counted, and
transferred to rearing ponds.
10 Match to their correct descriptions methods of pond preparation for propagation and
rearing. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. To prevent uncontrolled egg deposits all 1. Wild or free-

aquatic vegetation and leaves and roots spawning pond
of marginal plants are killed; predators
are killed or controlled; spawning mats 2. Spawning pond for
are placed in groups 1 inch below egg transfer method
shallow water at the edge of the pond
with edges touching.
b. Predators are killed or controlled, and

existing spawning sites are
supplemented with rocks, pieces of tile,
bricks, or 4- by 12-inch sections of
board stapled to a wire at 12-inch
intervals and stretched parallel to the
shore in shallow water.
655
AQ-685
TEST
c. Pond is drained or lowered, predators 3. Spawning pond for

are killed or controlled, and grass is fathead minnow fry
planted on the dry bottom or along the transfer
shoreline to provide natural spawning
sites; or, if plant growth is scarce, 4. Fry rearing pond
spawning mats are placed in the pond.
d. Pond is rid of toxins, cleared of all

predators, and fertilized to establish a
plankton bloom, which provides natural
food for fry and also shades out
aquatic weeds.
11. Match predators with their control techniques. Write the correct numbers in the
bianks.
a. After eggs are placed in pond, apply 1. Turtle

Masoten at 0.25 ppm.
2. Snail
b. Use scaring devices; shoot in season;
check with local apthorities before 3. Crayfish
taking any control measures.
4. Insects
c. Shoot or trap; completely dry pond, and
treat small potholes with calcium 5. Cyclops and large
hypochlorite (HTH). zooplankton
d. Harvest adults, and in spring dip out 6. Wild fish

egg masses; remove cover on pond
banks and in pond. 7. Snakes
e. Shoot; trap; mow levees closely. 8. Frogs and tadpoles
f. Fill pond to 1 inch flood and treat with

10 ppm copper sulfate; then add 500
pounds per acre of hydrated limestone.
Apply 3 gallons of diesel fuel plus 1

quart of crankcase oil per surface acre;
apply upwind side of pond and let flow
across surface; start before stocking
with eggs; repeat once a week until fish
are 1 inch long.
h. Same as for turtles, or stock with 6 or

8 channel catfish per surface acre;
channel catfish should be free of
aisease or parasites.
656
686
TEST
i. Trap and/or use zinc phosphide-treated 9. Muskrat

bait.
10. Birds
Use well water or screen filter surface
water; treat potholes with hydrated lime
or calcium hypochlorite after harvest.
12. Complete statements about the propagation and stocking of golden shiner and
goldfish. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
Wild or free-spawning method
a. Stock golden shiner at a rate of pounds of ungraded broodfish

per acre; stock goldfish broodstock per acre, depending on size.
1) 10 to 20; 50 to 100
2) 20 to 40; 100 to 300
31 40 to 50; 300 to 600
b. If spawning activity diminishes, stimulate it by .
1) rapidly lowering the level of the pond or by adding calcium

hypochlorite, which chemically shocks the fish into spawning.
2) rapidly raising the level of the pond or by adding large quantities
of warm water, which shocks the fish into spawning.
3) rapidly raising the level of the pond or by adding potassium
permanganate, which chemically shocks the fish into spawning.
c. To extend the spawning season, , preerably to small narrow

ponds.
1) add large quantities of cool water

2) add large quantities of hydrated lime
3) add large quantities of potassium permanganate
d. After the adults have spawned or sell as bait.

1) remove them from the pond and store in another pond for future
broodstock use
2) remove the females from the pond and store the males in another
pond for future broodstock use
3) remove the males from the pond and store the females in another
pond for future broodstock use
Egg transfer method
a. Stock pounds of golden shiners per acre and goldfish at a rate

of pounds per acre.
1) 200 to 300; 500 to 800

2) 100 to 250; 200 to 500
3) 400 to 500; 800 to 1,000
657
AQ-687
TEST
b. When the fish are ready to spawn, place spawning mats below
shallow water, with one side of the mat at the edge of the pond,
arranging mats end to end in groups.
1) 1 foot
2) 1 inch
3) 1/2 meter
c. Transfer mats to rearing ponds when .
1) eggs become so abundant that they touch

2) they are uniformly covered with eggs
3) egos number approximately 10,000
d. Estimate the number of eggs on each mat! and then depending on

the average number of eggs per mat stock from mats per acre
in golden shin ,_ nds; mats per acre in goldfish rearing ponds.
1) 10 to 25; 20 to 40
2) 20 to 50; 50 to 75
3) 50 to 75; 50 to 150
e. Wher spawning becomes very light, remove most of the mats from the
spawi ling pond, leaving at least in each spawning area to prevent
fish from depositing eggs on other material.
1) 1 mat
2) 2 mats
3) 3 mats
f. After spawning stops and hatching is completed, all spawning

mats.
1) remove, sterilize, and store

2) remove and discard
3) remove, wash and store
Fry transfer method
a. When fry produced either by the wild spawning or egg transfer method
are about long, capture with lift traps or fine-mesh seines during
coolest part of day.
1) 1/2 inch
2) 5/8 inch
3) 3/4 inch
656
688
TEST
b. Count the fry by first counting the number of fry in and then
multiplying by the number of transferred.
1) 1 quart; quarts
2) 1 pound; pounds
3) 1 ounce; ounces
c. Transfer fry to rearing ponds in buckets graduated in quarts; stock

golden shiners at rates from per acre and goldfish at rates from
per acre.
1) 25,000 to 100,000; 50,000 to 1/2 million

2) 50,000 to 200,000; 25,000 to 1 million
3) 75,000 to 500,000; 75,000 to 5 million
13. Distinguish between free-spawning and fry transfer methods of propagating fathead
minnows. Write "FS" in the blanks before descriptions of free-spawning methods,
and "FT in the blanks before descriptions of fry transfer methods. Blanks may
contain more than one answer.
a. Stock prepared spawning ponds with 20,000 to 25,000 broodstock per

acre at a 5:1 female to male ratio.
b. When they are 1/2 to 3/4 inch long, capture fry with a fine-mesh seine
or lift trap, estimate numbers, and transfer to rearing ponds.
c. Stock at a rate of 500 to 2,000 broodfish per acre at a 5:1 ratio, 5

females to 1 male.
d. Provide supplemental spawning sites by placing rocks, pieces of tile,

e. Stock rearing ponds at a rate of 50,000 to 300,000 fish per acre.

14. Discuss fertilization techniques for plankton production. Answer the following
questions.
a. What are the two basic types of fertilizers used to establish plankton blooms
in fry ponds?
b. What Secchi disc reading indicates that the bloom is dense enough?
AQ-689
TEST
c. What two steps can be taken if the water begins to clear of plankton?
d. If a need is determined when is finely ground Emestone added?
e. What two compounds are used on acid soils?
f. What compound is used on basic soils?
g. When the two types of fertilizers are used in combinations, what is the
application rate for manures? For inorganic fertilizers?
Manures*
Inorganic fertilizers*
h. What is the application rate for inorganic fertilizer used aione?
What is the advantage to spraying liquid fertilizers on the pond surface?
15. Complete statements about feeding practices. Write the correct numbers in the
blanks.
a. In extensive culture, pond water for golden shiner or fathead minnow

production is fertilized until a plankton bloom creates a secchi disc
reading of inches; bloom is maintained until fry reach about
inch and before hot weather.
1) 4 to 5; 1/4 inch
2) 6 to 8; 1/2 inch
3) 8 to 9; 1 inch
6 60
12,===
690
TEST
b. In intensive culture, if golden shiner fry when a small amount of

food is thrown into the pond, they can be fed feed.
1) come to the surface and eat

2) swim to the bottom
3) do not hide in the vegetation
c. Pond water for extensive culture of fathead minnows and golden shiners
is maintained at a Secchi disc reading.
1) 13-inch
2) 14-inch
3) 15-inch
d. When starting golden shiner fry on feed, ponds are checked at

downwind edge after feeding to see that all feed has been eaten
1) 1 hour
2) 2 hours
3) 3 hours
e. Heavily fed shiner ponds can be fed at least of feed per acre per
day with resulting production levels of 600 to 800 pounds per acre.
1) 40 pounds
2) 50 pounds
3) 60 pounds
f. Young fathead minnows are begun on starter feed in fertilized ponds

that contain up to bro3d fish, with some producers also feeding
grower feed for the broodfisn.
1) 125,000
2) 2,500
3) 25,000
_A- Fathead minnow fry in the rearing pond are fed

about 3/4 inch long.
until they are
1) on all sides cf the pond

2) on the downwind side of the pond
3) on two sides of the pond
h. When fathead minnow fry are about 3/4 inch long, the producer changes
to feed, blending 3 parts to 1 part starter feed until the fish learn
to eat the new feed and a full ration is fed.
1) powdered grower feed

2) pelleted grower feed
3) sinking starter feed
6 61
AQ-691
TEST
i. Extensively cultured goldfish are fed by fertilizing the water until a

plankton bloom creates a Secchi disc reading of .
1) 3 to 5 inches
2) 9 to 14 inches
3) 5 to 7 inches
_______j-
After goldfish in extensive culture grow to about 1 inch, the plankton
bloom is allowed to recede to a Secchi disc reading of ; the pond
is maintained at this reading.
1) 10 inches
2) 12 inches
3) 14 inches
k. Fertilization of intensively cultured goldfish ponds is the same as that

for golden shiners, but production may be increased with supplemental
feeding using golden shiner diets in which is submitted for some
other ingredients such as feather meal.
1) soybean meal
2) egg yolk
3) rice bran
I. Intensively cultured goldfish are fed any amount they can consume in
1) 5 to 10 minutes
2) 2 to 3 hours
3) 12 hours
m. Fertilizer and feed in intensive goldfish cultures can produce yields of

pounds or more.
1) 6,000
2) 5,000
3) 3,000
16. Complete statements about basic harvesting equipment needs. Write the correct
a. The seine and dip nets should be made of
1) Knot less woven nylon of 3/16-inch mesh

2) Knotted woven rayon of 5/8-inch mesh
3) Braided, treated cotton of 1/3-inch mesh
662
692
TEST
b. Buckets should be made of plastic or be zinc coated, and should have

a capacity of .
1) 4 or 5 quarts
2) 4 or 5 gallons
3) 4 or 5 pints
c. The producer needs a 1-ton truck with tanks for transfer of fish
to holding tanks.
1) three 50-gallon
2) two 100-gallon
3) two 300-gallon
d. For harvesting the entirl population of a small pond, the producer needs
a .
1) film car
2) sc, Jen box
3) boom hoist
e. are needed for harvesting fathead minnows or goldfish.

1) Lift traps
2) Full-pond seines
3) Panel traps
f. are needed for harvesting fathead minnows in cold weather.

1) Cylinder traps
2) Lift traps
3) Inflatable seines
The producer will need holding tanks , supplied with fresh, cool
water and equipped with an aeration device.
1) 5 to 10 feet long and 3 feet deep
2) 6 to 12 feet long and 1 foot deep
3) 10 to 40 feet long and 2 feet deep
663
A0-693
TEST
17. Match harvesting methods with their correct descriptions. Write the correct numbers
in the blanks.
(NOTE Numbers will be used more than once and some blanks may contain more
than one number.)
a. . Used to harvest fathead minnows in 1. Pond draining

cold weather.
2. Seining the whole
b. Used to harvest the entire population pond
of a small pond; particularly good
method for harvesting delicate golden 3. Baiting and seining
shiners.
4. Lift traps
c. Generally used for partial harvests.
5. Cylinder traps
d. Used in harvesting goldfish and fathead
minnows.
e. Water level is lowered and dish are

confined to small area so that water
temperature can be lowered overnight
ideally to 60°Fby adding well or
spring water.
f. Are made of wire mesh 1 foot in

diameter and 2 feet long, and are
baited with small bags of fish food.
_A- Fish are baited into a corner of the

pond with wet or pelleted feed that will
sink near the shore in shallow water.
h. Seines of the appropriate mesh size,

lengtn, and depth are pulled slowly
from one end of the pond to the other,
trapping the fish in a small area
i. Fish are baited into this nylon mesh

trap while it is lying on the bottom of
the pond.
i. Dip nets are used to dip the fish from

the seine into buckets for relay to the
harvest truck.
664
694
TEST
k. Usually constructed of 3/16-inch nylon

mesh on a 4-foot square steel frame
that can be carried in the bed of a
pick-up; are generally suspended in the
pond from a pipe resting on a fulcrum
pole.
In the early morning, the fish are

flushed through the drainpipe and
collected in a screen box at the
outflow, or dip netted from the harvest
basin into buckets.
m. Are emptied directly into buckets for

relay to the harvest truck.
n. Net is lifted on fulcrum pole, and the

captured fish are dipped from the net
and relayed to the harvest truck in
buckets.
o. Fish that enter the traps cannot easily

get out through the small funnel
opening.
Feeding fish are captured by pulling the

seine slowly and quietly across the
corner of the pond with a length of
rope.
q. As soon as the seine is pulled and

gathered, it is moved to deeper water
so the fish can move away from the
surface.
18 Select from a list general guidelines for harvesting and transferring baitfish to holdng
troughs. Writ; an "X" in the blank before each correct guideline.
a. When baiting is not used, withhold feed for at least 12 hours prior to
harvest to prevent fouling of water.
b. In summertime, harvest ponds whose surface temperatures are 75°F and

above with great care and during cool, early morning hours.
c. Slow the metabolic rate of fathead minnows by dropping the water
temperature 15 degrees.
d. To avoid shock, gradually lower the water temperature to 60°F to 65°F

for golden shiners and bait-sized goldfish as these species cannot
tolerate 15-degree temperature drops.
6 65
AQ-695
to TEST
e. Fit harvesting tanks with at least one agitator or with a source of

compressed air or oxygen, and aerate the tank water before placing fish
in tanks.
f. If more than one tank is used, empty the buckets of fish into one tank
to prevent underfilling tanks.
_9.
In cool weather, load each tank with about 1 pound of fish per gallon
of water; in warm weather, reduce the load to about 2/3 pound per
gallon.
19. Select from a list guidelines for maintaining fish in holding troughs. Write an "X"
in the blank before each correct guideline.
a. Following harvest, hold baitfish undisturbed for at least 24 hours so

that they can undergo a "hardening" process before grading and
handling, and so that they will pass food and not foul the transport
water.
b. Control water quality by ensuring adequate water exchange and aeration,

and by avoiding overcrowding.
c. In summer, hold baitfish at water temperatures close to 75°F by blending

warm water with cooler well water.
d. Continually monitor holding troughs, chemically treating sick or injured

fish routinely.
e. Remove any tadpoles, trash fish, and detritus from holding troughs.
f. Return to the pond any fish that have been stored over 3 weeks.
g. When they are emptied, scrub holding troughs well with a chlorinated
material, such as household bleach, and rinse well.
h. Have a back-up energy source for pumping and aeration.
i. Have available back-up equipment, such as aerators, and an adequate

supply of water.
20. Match grading procedures with correct grading equipment. Write the correct
a. A free-standing or floating container 1. Single grader panel

with spaced vertical bars is placed in
the water and fish are placed in it; the
larger fish cannot pass between the
bars and are moved to another holding
tank with fish of similar size.
666
696
TEST
b. Are arranged in the trough so that bar 2. Multiple grader

space gets progressively smaller toward panels
the head of the trough; fish are placed
in the first compartment at the foot of 3. Grader box
the trough and are graded as they
swim toward the inflowing water. 4. Barrier screens, tank
nets, and crowders
c. Wooden or metal frames covered with
screen, netting, or perforated metal
plates are inserted into the guide slots
on the sides of the holding trough; are
used to move the fish within the tank,
and to block fish from certain areas.
d. Is moved slowly from the head to the

foot of the trough; those fish that are
too large to slip through the bars are
trapped at the foot and moved to
another holding tank with fish of similar
size.
21 Select from a list factual statements about transporting fish to long-distance markets.
Write an "X" in the blank before each correct statement.
a. Long-distance markets are more than 12 hours away.
b. Fish are shipped to market on transport vehicles generally trucks

equipped with several to many large aluminum, fiberglass, or plywood
transport tanks.
c. The tanks are open systems aerated with compressed air, liquid
nitrogen, mechanical agitators, or a combination of these methods.
d. Fish are slowly tempered to the water temperature of the receiving

tanks, usually 40 minutes for each 5 degree decrease in water
temperature.
Loading rates depend on size of fish, length of transport, water

temperature and water quality.
Water-fouling wastes are kept at a minimum by starving the fish for a

period of time before loading;
____ Lower the fish's body temperature by cooling the water in the transport
tanks to 60°F by icing;
h. Lower the fish's metabolic rate by adding 0.1% to 0.3% table scIt or an
anesthetic chemkal to the water.
667
AQ-697
TEST
22. Select from a list factual statements abcut transporting fish to short-distance markets
a. Short distance markets are less than 12 hours away.
b. Fish are starved for a minimum of 24 hours, and the night before
transport, the temperature of the holding tank water is gradually reduced
to 60°F; salt or an anesthetic chemical may be added.
c. On the morning of transport, 10 pounds of baitfish are placed in 10

pounds of water in thick plastic bags, about 18 inches wide by 32
inches long.
d. Each bag is inflated with oxygen and sealed by twisting the top, folding
it down, and securing it lightly with a rubber band.
e. Bags of fish are placed styrofoam-lined cardboard boxes for

in
temperature contiol and loaded on transport trucks or another type of
transport vehicle.
(NOTE: If the following activities have not bean accomplished prior to the test, ask your
instructor when they should be complet.A.)
23. Survey baitfish dealers to evaluate local supply and demand. (Assignment Sheet
#1)
24. Visit a baitfish farm and report on the operation. (Assignment Sheet #2)
a. Trap, count or weigh, and grade a sample of baitfish. (Job Sheet #1)
b. Make a spawning mat. (Job Sheet #2)
c. Bring baitfish egys into hatching area and watch them hatch. (Job Sheet #3)
6 68
-
AQ-699

UNIT XI
ANSWERS TO TEST
1. a. 7 j. 4
b. 1 k. 5
c. 6 I. 14
d. 13 m. 10
e. 15 n. 16
f. 3 o. 17
g. 11 P. 9
h. 2 q. 8
I. 12
2. a. 1
b. 3
C. 1
d. 2
e. 3
f. 1
3. a. Pmducers can sell fish to wholesalers (jobbers) who then sell them to retail
markets.
Producers can sell fish directly to area retailers.
. Producers can retail the fish themselves, selling all or part of their fish directly
to fishermen.
4. b, c, d, g
5. a. Fathead minnow
b. Goldfish
c. Fathead minnow, breeding male
d. Golden shiner
GS g. G
G h. FM
FM i. G
G j. GS
FM k. GS
GS I. FM
7. Golden shiners
a. 1
b. 3
c. 3
669
700
ANSWERS TO TEST
Fathead minnow
a.
b. 2
C. 2
d. 3
Goldfish
a. 2
b. 1
C. 3
d. 2
8. a. G, GS, FM I. FM
b. G j. G
c. GS k. FM
d. FM I G
e. G m. GS
f. GS, G n. FM
g. GS o. GS
h. FM
9. a. 2
b. 1
C. 3
10. a. 2
b. 3
C. 1
d. 4
11. a. 5 f. 2
b. 10 g. 4
C. 1 h. 3
d. 8 i. 9
e. 7 j. 6
12. Wild or free-spawning method
a. 2
b. 3
C. 1
d. 1
670
AQ-701
,
ANSWERS TO TEST
Egg transfer method
a. 3
b. 2
C. 2
d. 3
e. 1
f. 3
Fry transfer method
a. 3
b. 3
C. 2
13. a. FT
b. FT
c. FS
d. F.., FT
e. FT
14. a. Organic; inorganic

b. 10 inches
c. Applying fertilizer; seed from nearby pond
d. Before or while pond is filling
e. Nitrate of soda; super-phosphate
f. Ammonium phosphate
g. 400 to 10,000 pounds/surface acre
100 pounds/surface acre
h. 200 pounds/ surface acre
i. Makes phosphorus available for pond organisms instead of tying it up in
bottom soil
15. a. 3 h. 2
b. 1 i. 3
c. 2 j. 1
d. 2 k. 2
e. 1 I. 2
f. 3 m. 3
g. 1
16. a. 1 e. 1
b. 2 f. 1
c. 3 g. 3
d. 2
6 71
702
ANSWERS TO TEST
17. a. 5 j. 2, 3, 4
b. 1 k. 4
C. 3 I. 1
d. 4 m. 5
e. 1 n. 4
f. 5 o. 5
g. 3 P. 3
h. 2 q. 3
i. 4
18. b, e, g
19. a, b, e, g, h, i
20. a. 3
b. 2
C. 4
d. 1
21. b, e, f, h
22. b, d, e
23-24. Evaluated to the satisfaction of the instructor.
G72
',..,_,..--_,ALIImm
AQ-703
COMMERCIAL CRAYFISH PRODUCTION

UNIT XII
UNIT OBJECTIVE
AtZer completion of this unit, the student should be able to identify crayfish species
commonly cultured in the U.S., distinguish between male and female crayfish, and discuss
commercial crayfish production methods. These competencies will be evidenced by
completing the procedures in the assignment and job sheets and by scoring a minimum
oi 85 percent on the unit test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After compledon of this unit, the student should be able to
1. Match terms associated with commercial crayfish production with their correct
definitions.
2. Complete statements about crayfish aquaculture.
3. Match crayfish body parts with their functions.
4. Select from a list factual statements about species selection.
5. Distinguish between red swamp and white river crayfishes.
6. Select from a list factual statements about the reproduction and life cycle of
crayfish.
7. Match crayFsh pond types with their descriptions.
8. Complete statements about open pond design.
9. Arrange in order the open pond management cycle.
10. Discuss recirculating ponds.
11. Complete statements about water quality requirements for crayfish.
12. Complete statements about start-up stocking rates.
13. Complete statements about feeds and feeding practices.
14. Sebct from a list factual statements about harvesting crayfish.
15. Complete statements about handling and shipping crayfish.
6 73
704
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
16. Identify crayfish species and sexes. (Assignment Sheet #1)
17. Identify the external and internal parts of a crayfish. (Assignment Sheet #2)
18. Research techniques for soft-shell crayfish production, and report to the class.
19. Demonstrate the ability to construct a crayfish trap. (Job Sheet #1)
G 74
AQ-705

UNIT XII
A. Obtain as many different species of live crayfish as possible. Place in numbered

containers and display so that students can complete Assignment Sheet #1.
B. Obtain a copy of Pennak's Fresh Water Invertebrates of the United States, or a

similar resource, to aid students in completing Assignment Sheet #1.
C. Obtain dissecting knives and frozen crayfish for each student, so that students may
complete Assignment Sheet #2.
D. Gather materials necessary for the completion of Job Sheet #1. Have available
sample traps and seines for student inspection.
E. Make transparencies.
F. Provide students with objective sheet. Discuss unit and specific objectives.
G. Provide students with information sheet. Discuss information sheet.
H. Provide students with assignment and job sheets. Discuss, demonstrate, and
schedule assignment and job sheets.
I. Give test.
A. Black, Joe B. and Jay V. Huner. "Breeding Crayfish," Carolina Tips, Vol. 42, No. 4.
Burlington, North Carolina, April 1, 1979.
B. "Crawfish in Louisiana," Agricultural Notes #86-001. Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Center

for Small Farm Research, College of Agriculture, Southern University, n.d.
C. "Crawfish. Louisiana at Its Best," Pamphlet, Lafayette, Louisiana. Louisiana Crawfish

Farmers Associatiori, n.d.
D. Cu Iley, Dr. Dudley D. "Water Quality and Soft-Shell Crawfish Production" Paper.
Forestry, Wildlife, and Fisheries, [no pub., no date].
E. De La Bretonne, Lawrence W. Jr., and Robert P. Romaire. "Commercial Crawfish

Cultivation Practices: A Review." Journal of Shellfish Research, Vol. 8, No. Si,
1989.
F. Dupree, Harry K., and Jay V. Huner, eds. Third Report to the Fish Farmers: The
Washington, D C.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984.
706
G. Fore, John. "Soft-Shell Crawfish," Pamphlet. Denham Springs, Louisiana. Louisiana

Soft-Shell Crawfish Association, Louisiana Crawfish Promotion Board, and Louisiana
Seafood Promotion and Marketing Board, n.d.
H. Huner, J. V., and J. E. Barr. Crawfish in the Classroom. Baton Rouge: Louisiana
Department of Education and Louisiana Sea Grant College Program, n.d.
Huner, J. V., and Vernon 1. Pfister. "Feasibility of Stocking Juvenile Crawfish in

Small Ponds," from review in Crawfish Tales. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Center for
Small Farm Research, College of Agriculture and Home Economics, Southern
University, November 198/.
J. McLarney, William. The Freshwater Aquaculture Book. Point Roberts, Washington,

Hartley & Marks, lr,c., 1984.
K. Reigh, Robert C., ed. Proceedings of the Louisiana Aquaculture Conference, 1988.
Baton Rouge, Louisiana, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, 1988.
L. Romaire, Robert P. "Overview of Harvest Technology Used in Commercial Crawfish

AquacuiVire." Journal of Shellfish Research, Vol. 8, No. 1, 1989.
GP"76
AQ-707

UNIT XII
INFORMATION SHEET
A. Regenerate The ability to regrow a lost body part, such as a claw
B. Glair Glue-like substance secreted by the female crayfish; used to attach

laid eggs to her swimmerets
C. Gastroliths Two small stones in the crayfish's head in which calcium

carbonate is stored; used for hardening the shell atter molting (Transparency
2)
D. Crustacean Class in arthropod phylum containing crayfish, crabs, lobsters,

shrimp, prawn, and others
E. Decapod An animai, such as a crayfish, with ten legs
F. Exoskeleton Hard odter shell
(NOTE: In crayfish, the exoskeleton is made of inorganic calcium carbonate'

(chalk) and a mixture of chitin and modified proteins.)
G. Polytrophic Eating a wide variety of material, both plant and animal
H. Purging Process of cleansing crayfish systems by not feeding and

changing water often during the holding period
I. In berry Said of female crayfish carrying eggs
J. Peeling plant Crayfish processing plant
II. Facts about crayfish culture
A. Freshwater crayfish are decapod crustaceans found throughout the world.
(NOTE: Of the 500+ species of crayfish worldwide, about 300 are native to
North America; Australia has 100 species, Europe about 10, and western Asia
one. Though crayfish are found in Africa, it has no native species.)
B. Crayfish are a nutritious food eaten in many parts of the world; they are
particularly well-liked in Scandinavia and are used extensively in the Cajun
dishes now popular in the U.S.
C. In addition to being marketed for food, crayfish are also sold to biological
supply houses and schools, sold for fish bait, and exported to European
countries, especially Sweden.
677
708
INFORMATION SHEET
D. Ten to 20 million pounds of crayfish are harvested annually in Europe, Africa,

and Australia, with 100 million pounds or more harvested in the U.S.
E. Of the world's production of eaible crayfish, 80 percent are harvested or
caught in Louisiana as a cash crop that was worth $65 million in 1988, when
135,000 acres of ponds were in production.
F. The red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) and the white river crayfish
(Procambatus acutus) are the two species most commonly cultured in the U.S.
(See Figures 1 and 2.)
(NOTE: In Louisiana and parts of Texas, the word "crawfish" is used instead
of "crayfish," and "crawdad" is another common reference to crayfish.)
III. Crayfish body parts and their functions (Transparency 1)

A. Chela (claw) One of two front legs used for defense and to :qnture food
and hold prey
B. Antennule One of two smal! sensors covered with setaetiny hairlike

structures sensitive to touch, smell, and taste
C. Cephalothorax The midsection of a crayfish, consisting of the head and

thorax fused together and enclosed by the carapace
D. Carapace Rigid, very hard part of the exoskeleton that protects the heart
and gills
E. Abdomen (tail) Powerfully muscled body section that permits the crayfish
to move rapidly backward; underneath are located five pairs of swimmerets
F. Swimmerets Leg-like structures on the abdomen used fur mating and
transporting eggs and young (also known as pleopods)
G. Uropod Paddle-shaped abdominal structures used for swimming backwards
H. Telson Terminal abdominal structure that, with the uropods, forms the tail
fan that allows the crayfish to swim backwards
I. Pereipods Eight walking legsfour on each sideattached to the thorax

behind the claws
J. Rostrum Rigid, beak-like shell section that protects brain, stomach, and
eyes
K. Compound eye Organ of sight, providing excellent color vision

L. Antenna One of two large sensors covered with setae and used for touch
and smell
78
_
AQ-709
INFORMATION SHEET
IV. Species selection
A. The two species of crayfish that have been found to be best suited for
commercial culture are:
1. The red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkh),
2. The white river crayfish (Procamburus acutus acutus)
B. Culturists should try to select species that produce large hatches and that go
into a dormant period while in berry.
C. The species most adaptable for culture are those found in shallow, swampy
waters, particularly those waters that diy up seasonally.
D. Since crayfish have specific habitat requirements, avoid selecting a species

native to fast-moving rocky streams or permanent iakes and ponds with stable
conditions.
E. Avoid alr,deep burrowing crayfishthose that dig burrows 20 to 30 feet

deepas they are seldom found on the surface and do not perform well in
ponds.
F. Know how to recognize the different species of crayfish (Assignment Sheet #1)
so that you avoid selecting a dwarf species common to roadside ditches; the
adult size dwarf species is only 0.8 to 1.8 inches.
POINT OF INTEREST: One species, Shufeldt's dwarf, is very common to

crayfish pondsespeCally new onesand proud owners are sometimes
disappointed to learn that what they thought was an excellent crop of newly
hatched red swamp or white river crayfishes is really a pond full of grown
dwarf crayfish.
679
INFORMAON
V. SpecIésicfentificaftow(Figuits 1. and 2; Assignrhent Sheet '41)

A. top-vieW: white Tivercrayfish left, -red:swamp right.
FIGURE 1
B. Bottom view: white river crayfish left, red.sw.amp right;
FIGURE 2
67.8ti
AQ-711
INFORMATION SHEET
VI. Reproduction and life cycle

A. Sperm is transferred from the male to the female on abdominal swimmerets
and is stored in a rneptacle at the base of the female's abdomen. (Figure 3)
FIGURE 3
Male Female
Genital
Genital Opening
Opening Sperm
Copulatory Receptacle
Appendages
From Crawfish in the Classroom. With Permission
B. Three to 4 months later (average), the female burrows underground where

she lays 100 to 500 dark brown eggs that are fertilized with the stored sperm
and firmly glued to her swimmerets with secreted glair.
(NOTE: Depending on temperature, egg laying may take place from 1 to 8

months after mating.)
681
7
712
INFORMATION SHEET
C. The eggs hatch in 2 to 3 weeks at 70°F, but the young crayfish remain
attached to the mother for another 3 weeks until they have undergone two
molts and are large enough to fend for themselves.
D. After molting, the crayfish absorbs water and expands, doubling in weight, its
new exoskeleton remains soft for about 12 hours and then graduay hardens
as it absorbs calcium carbonate from the supply stored in its gastroliths and
from food and water.
E. A crayfish molts about 11 times before reaching maturity, and has a life span
of from 1 to 3 years, depending on the species.
POINT OF INTEREST: Crayfish in their soft-shell stage are being cultivated

and marketed as a seafood delicacy that requires no shelling. However,
cultivation of soft-shelled crayfish has shown recent decline because markets
failed to expand with production. (Assignment Sheet #3)
VII. Types of crayfish ponds

A. Marsh pond Created by diking off some marginal low-lying land that has
little value for any other purpose, these are low production ponds, averaging
300 to 500 pounds, per acre.
13. Wooded pond Occurring naturally in swampy or flooded areas, these

ponds contain trees, shrubs, and natural vegetation and have a low production
rate, averaging about 400 to 600 pounds per acre, they are difficult to harvest
because of trees, roots, stumps, and other obstacles.
C. Open rice pond Normally managed for rice production, crayfish ar.-3 a
secondary crop in these ponds that can average up to 2,500 pounds per
acre; after the rice is harvested, the stubble is left as forage for the crayfish.
D. Open permanent pond Designed especially for cultivating crayfish, rice is
usually planted as forage in these ponds that have a production rate averaging
1,200 pounds per acre.
VIII. Open pond design

A. Open ponds vary in size from 5 to 80 surface acres, but to be commercially
productive, open permanent ponds must be at least 20 surface acres, with 20-
to 40-acre ponds most common.
B. Open ponds are ideally constructed on flat land and , ' high-calcium, heavy
clay soils fertile enough to support a rice or other foragd crop for the crayfish.
(NOTE: Heavy clay soils are not desirable for rice ponds, but are desirable
for permanent open ponds.)
C. Perimeter levees are constructed 3 feet high to maintain a water level of 18

to 24 inches with a freeboard of at least 1 foot.
682
AQ-713
INFORMATION SHEET
D. Levees are built to a minimum 9-foot base width to prevent the crayfish from
causing leakage when they burrow into the levee.
E. Land slope should not be greater than 6 inches from levee to levee.
F. To aid in water circulation and reduce pumping costs, baffle levees should be
placed every 150 to 200 feet and extend to within 40 to 50 feet of the levee
on the open side. (Figure 4)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 4
Pump
4, Aerate
41. 4.-Water Flow
8-12"
Baffle Levee
Pipe h
.4.. -4 .
8-12"
Baffle Levee Pipe
...... ........w.b...
., Outlet
IX. Open permanent pond management cycle
A. In ecrly spring, adult crayfish are stocked at rates of 25 to 100 pounds per
aci e.
B. In late spring, the pond is slowly drained, forcing adult crayfish to burrow and
lay eggs.
C. Eggs hatch out in large numbers during summer and early fall.
D. During the summer, the pond bottom is allowed to dry and is then cultivated
and planted with rice, rye grass, or millet.
E. In early fall the land crop is harvested, the pond is shallowly flooded, and
water is circulated to maintain water quality.
(NOTE: In most ponds, rice is not harvested; only 25 percent to 30 percent

of ponds are double-cropped, and in the other ponds, rice is planted strictly
for forage not as a grain crop.)
F. The pond is then flushed of the oxygen-deficient water caused by the decay
of the crop stubble, and is filled with fresh, aerated water.
G. In the South, crayfish are harvested again in late fall and in winter.
(NOTE. In the Northeast and Midwest, growth does not begin until late spring
and the crayfish are harvested only in the summer.)
683
714
INFORMATION SHEET
X. Recirculating open ponds

A. Recirculating ponds are constructed with internal levees so that water may be
recycled.
B. After first flood, drain, and refill, the pond water is recycled and reused many
times, aerating each time it is recycled.
C. When the water reaches the end of the cycle, it is relifted by a pump and
dropped through a cascade aeration screen. (Figure 5)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 5
D. Recirculating ponds have many advantages:
1. Discharge permits may not be required,
2. Less water is used,
3. Ponds may be located in water shortage areas,
4. Pumping costs are decreased because the pump lift required is much
less than pumping from an external source.
Xl. Water quality

A. Water may be obtained from a surface source, groundwater, or both, but
should be fresh to slightly brackish (salinity at less than 2 ppt), and requires
a pumping capacity of about 70 to 100 gpm/acre.
B. Water history should be evaluated for pollutants that will kill

crayfishespecially those pesticides normally used to treat rice, soybeans, and
cotton crops.
6 84
AQ-715
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Surface water should be pumped through a ;2-inch expanded metal screen to

remove large predatory fish.
D. Well water (groundwater) should be analyzed for its oxygen and iron content.
(NOTE: Well water is apt to have iron levels above 0.2 ppm and should be
carefully analyzed for iron content. Levels above 0.2 ppm coat the gills of the
crayfish, interfere with oxygen intake, and can cause death. Iron can be
removed by aerating water first.)
E. DO in the pond water should be maintained at high concentrations, ideally at

5 mg/L or higher with a minimum level of 3.0 mg/L.
(NOTE: At DO levels of 2.0 mg/L and less, crayfish are sometimes seen at
the water surface, turning on their sides to expose their gills to the oxygen in
the air, or they may even crawl out of the pond.)
F. The best pH for crayfish growth is near 7.0, and growth rate changes are
noticeable when the pH drops below 6 or rises above 9.
G. Pond water should be hard (high calciui i content) for hardshell production, but
tray water for soft-shell production should be soft (no more than 5 mg/L
calcium) to retard shell hardening.
XII. Start-up stocking rates
A. Ponds constructed in early spring are stocked in mio- to late spring with an
average broodstock of 50 pounds of crayfish per acre.
(NOTE: Stocking is done just before the dormant period. Then the pond is
drained, planted, and reflooded to coincide with the hatching of the young.)
B. Crayfish are stocked at a 1:1 ratio: one female to one male.
C. At least 10 percent to 20 percent of females should have brown to tan eggs.
D. Low stocking rates are used in wet areas where there are existing populations
of commercial crayfish.
XIII. Feeds and feeding practices
A. While basically scavengers and "fetritus feeders, crayfish will eat almost
anything organic.
B. Crop stubble such as rice, aquatic plants, rotted leaves, and rotted hardwoods
provide the greatest bulk of food consumed; rice seed is generally planted at
100 pounds per acre to provide forage, and spoiled hay is sometimes used
for supplemental feeding.
(NOTE. Louisiana culturists crif growers of bait crayfish have successfully fed
aquatic plants, sorghum, soybc.an meal, millet, cornmeal, cottonseed meal, rice
bran, cut hay, potatoes, commercial fish food, ground fresh fish, and even dog
and cat food.)
685
716
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Depending on water temperature, a crayfish eats 1 to 5 percent of its body

weight per day, stopping 2 to 3 days before molting.
D. Intensive feeding of cultured crayfish has rarely been done, though crayfish
feeds have recently been developed to use as supplemental feed in ponds and
as feed for crayfish held in trays for soft-shell production.
E. Soft-shell crayfish in trays are fed 1 to 3 percent of their body weight once
a day or half that amount in morning and again in the evening.
F. Crayfish are not fed 24 hours before harvestina and are often purged before
marketing.
XIV. Harvesting
A. Harvesting crayfish is time consuming (120 to 180 days) and expensive (40
to 60 percent of the budget).
B. Crayfish can be harvested with a variety of traps (Job Sheet #1), by seining,
or by complete draining of ponds.
C. Most food-sized crayfish a, e trapped; bait-sized and soft-shell crayfish are

generally seined with a seine more heavily weighted than that used for fish.
D. Using Y3 pound of bait per trap, traps are baited daily with fish, manufactured
bait, or a combination of both, and are fished 4 to 6 days a week at a
cnncentration of 15 to 30 traps per acre, with 20 traps per acre most common.
E. On-farm labor or workers on shares are used to harvest crayfish; a person

"walking" a pond can fish 400 traps per day, but new front and rear wheel
boats enable a farmer to run 200 traps per hour.
(NOTE: New mechanical harvesting methods may reduce the high cost of
baiting and emptying the traps. Harvesting methods will receive increased
research in the next few years.)
XV. Handling and shipping

A. Crayfish are frequently graded into three sizes, both at the pond and at the
peeling plants:
1. 15 per pound and larger animal for export;
2. 16 to 25 per pound live market product;
3. 25 and greater per pound food crayfish for peeling.
B. Hard-shell crayfish can be held in shallow troughs for several days with little
feed; they are stocked in the troughs at densities of 70 per square foot (2 to
3 inches long) or 45 per square foot (3 to 4 inches long).
686
_
AQ-717
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Water in the holding troughs is not allowed to rise above their legs and is
changed at least once a day, thus preventing them from molting and a'so
purging their systems.
(NOTE: If the crayfish are completely covered with water, the water must be
aerated. Crayfish can molt only if completely covered with water, and for this
reason, as well as the expense of aeration, they are usually kept in very
shallow water in the holding troughs.)
D. Crayfish 3 inches long or longer are usually shipped in porous bags kept cool
(42°F to 46°F) and damp.
E. Smaller bait-sized crayfishloosely packed to prevent crushing and to permit

air circulationare shipped in damp moss or coarse sawdust and refrigerated
at 40°F to 75°F.
(NOTE: The gill chambers of crayfish are located on both sides of the head.
As long as these chambers are damp, the crayfish can breathe and survive.)
687
AQ-719
Parts of a Crayfish
Antenna
Antennule
Eye
Rostrum
Cephalothorax
Walking Carapace
Legs
Abdomen
(Tail)
Telson Uropod
Adapted from Crawfish in the Classroom. With permissbn.
688 TM 1
AQ-721
0 Preparation of Soft-Shell Crayfish

./' --f;' -----'
1. Grasp crawfish by carapace.
With knife or scissors

cut just behind the eyes
to remove head.
3. Squeeze carapace to force out

the two small calcium deposits.
TM 2
AQ-723

UNIT XII
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
IDENTIFY CRAYFISH SPECIES AND SEXES
Your instructor has provided samples of a number of species of crayfish. They are
displayed live in numbered containers on a specimen table. Examine each crayfish and
determine whether it lb a male or female. Use Pennak's Fresh Water Invertebrates of the
United States, or a similar resource guide, to identify each species. Rec I your
observations below, adding numbers if necessary.
#1 M F; Species:
#2 M F; Species:
#3 M F; Species:
#4 M F; Species:
#5 M F; Species:
#6 M F; Species:
690
AQ-725
COMMERCIAL -CRAYFISH:PRODUCTION
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
IDENTIFY THE'EXTERNALANO-INTERNAL
PARTS OF A CRAYFISH
Your instructor will-provide youmith,a crayfish. Examine its fsatures'and use Transparency'
1 to aid- you In identifying its externeparts. TeSt your mernory by Working,With,a'partner
and naming, the Oft to each other without-the, aid of a labeled:illyetration.
After you, are satisfied that you'can,identify the external parts of 'the..drayfish, 'work with
the
your partner to,disSect ihe,crayfish. Find and identify the internal parts illustrated' in-
figure below.
FIGURE 1: Internal Parts of a Crayfish

Heart Ovary
Abdominal
Museles
Stomach
Drain
Green Gland
titadder
Sleuth Ventral
Esophagus Nem*
Coed
Mork, Intestine
Gland osiduct
Aaus
From Crawfish in the Classroom. With permission.
691
AQ-727

UNIT XII
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3
RESEARCH TECHNIQUES FOR SOFT-SHELL CRAYFISH
PRODUCTION, AND REPORT TO THE CLASS
This assignment sheet requires that you gather resource material on soft-shell crayfish
production and write a report to be given to the class. Include in your report basic
production, harvesting, and marketing techniques. Point out the differences between soft-
shell and hard-shell production, and determine advantages and disadvantages of soft-shell
culture.
Write to the Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, Louisiana State University

Agricultural Center, Knapp Hall, Baton Rouge, LA 70803-1900, explaining your project
and asking for information. Also use the resources available at your school and public
library. If you live near a producer of soft-shell crayfish, this person, of course, would also
be an excellent source of information.
692
AC):729'
COMMERCIAL CRAYFISH pRQOUCTION

UNIT XII
JOB- SHEET #1
CONSTRUCT A CRAYASH TRAP
1. Roll of 3-footwide chicken wire or plastic-coated wire
(NOTE: The mesh size wili'vary with the size of crayfisiVbeing harvested. Use
3/4-inch niesh fOr Crayfish 3 incheS and longer; 5/6-inCh mesh for crayfish 2
1/2 inches and longer; and 1/2-inch mesh for crayfish 1 3/4 inohes and
longer.)
2. Wire cutters
3. Pliers
4. 3-foot length of heavy-duty fishing line
5. Large fishing weights (sinkers), about 40 (optional)
6. One large.fishiug bobber or buoy
B. Procedure (Figure 1)
FIGURE 1
Fishing
Sinkers
1. Cut a 3-foot by 4-foot length of chicken wire.
2. Roll into a cylinder and attach at the seam by bending the ends of the wire
together with the pliers.
3. Set the cylinder on its end on the remaining chicken,wire and cut a circle for
the bottom about 9 inches larger than the circumference of the cylinder.
692
730
JOB SHEET #1
4. Attach the ,ottom to the cyli.ider by bending and clipping the edges of the
circle, and bending the ends of the wire together with pliers.
5. Cut a 1-foot piece of chicken wire and shape as shown in Figure 2.
FIGURE 2
i
6. Roll this piece into a funnel shape, and attach at the seam by bending the
edges of the wire together with pliers.
7. Fit the funnel into the open end of the trap, and attach by bending the wire
with pliers.
8. Clamp fishing weights (sinkers) around the outside edge of the funnel opening
as shown in Figure 1.
(NOTE: Sinkers are rarely used, so this step may be omitted if local situation
does not require weights.)
9. Attach a 2-foot length of rope or heavy-duiy fishing line to the top center of
cage, and attach a large fishing bobber or buoy to the rope.
(NOTE: The buoy is used to mark the location of V e underwater trap.)
10. Return tools and materials to proper storage.
694
AQ-731

UNIT XII
PRACTICAL TEST #1
JOB SHEET #1
CONSTRUCT A CRAYFISH TRAP
Student's name Date
Evaluator's name Attempt no
observe the procedure and complete this form. All items listed under Process
PROCESS EVALUATION
whether or not the student has satisfactorily achieved each step in this procedure. lf the
try again.)
The student: Yes No
1. Selected proper tools and materials. O El

2. Cut wire to proper sizes and shapes. 0 0
3. Formed base of trap properly. O El
4. Formed funnel properly. O 0
5. Attached weights to trap. O El
6. Attached rope and buoy to trap. 0 0
695
732
PRODUCT EVALUATION
performance evakiation key below.) If the student is unable to demonstrate mastery,
ev_luation.)
Criteria: Excellent Good Fair Unacceptable
Cutting materials 4 3 2 1
Shaping materials 4 3 2 1
Final product 4 3 2 1

3 Moderately skilled Has performed job during training program; limited
additional training may be required.
2 Limited skills --tHas performed job during training program; additional
(EVALUATC NOTE: If an average score is needed to coincide with a competency profile,

criteria.)
696
AQ-733

UNIT XII
TEST
NAME SCORE
1. Match terms associated with commercial crayfish production with their definitions
a. Process of cleansing crayfish systems 1. Regenerate

by not feeding and changing water
often during the holding period 2. Glair
b. Glue-like substance secreted by the 3. Gastroliths

female crayfish; used to attach laid
eggs to her swimmerets 4. Crustacean
c. Two small stones in the crayfish's head 5. Decapod

in which calcium carbonate is stored;
used for hardening the shell after 6. Exoskeleton
m Ating
7. Polytrophic
d. Said of the female crayfish carrying
eggs 8. Purging
An animal, such as a crayfish, with ten 9. In berry

legs
10. Peeling plant
The ability to grow a lost body part,
such as a claw
_g. Hard outer shell
h. Eating a wide variety of material, both

plant and animal
Class in arthropod phylum containing

crayfish, crabs, lobsters, shrimp, prawn
and others
Crayfish processing plant
2. Complete statements about crayfish culture. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
Freshwater crayfish are found 'hroughout the world.
1) octaped mollusks
2) decapod crustaceans
3) biped vertebrates
697
734
TEST
b. Crayfish are a nutritious food eaten in may parts of the world; they are
particularly well liked in and are used extensively in the dishes
now popular in the U.S.
1) Mexico; Mexican
2) China; Chinese
3) Scandinavia; Cajun
c. In addition to being marketed for food, crayfish are also sold to

sold for fish bait, and exported to European countries, especially
1) biological supply houses and schools; Sweden

2) pet food producers; Latin America
3) organic fertilizer producers; England
d. Ten to 20 million pounds of crayfish are harvested annually in Europe,

and Australia, with million pounds or more harvested in the U.S.
1) 100
2) 200
3) 300
e. Of the world's production of crayfish, 80 percent is harvested or caught

in as a cash crop that was worth 65 million in 1988, when 135,000
acres of ponds were in production.
1) Mississippi
2) Louisiana
3) Texas
f. The crayfish and the crayfish are the two species most commonly
cultured in the U.S.
1) red bayou; white swamp

2) white river; red lake
3) red swamp; white river
3. Match crayfish body parts with their functions. Write the correct numbers in the
blanks.
a. Leg-like structures on the abdomen 1. Antenna

used for mating and transporting eggs
and young 2. Antennule
b. One of two small sensors covered with 3. Chela

setaetiny hairlike structures sensitive
to touch, smell, and taste 4. Swimmerets
698
AQ-735
TEST
c. Powerfully muscled body section that 6. Uropod

permits the crayfish to move rapidly
backward; underneath are located five 6. Cephalothorax
pair of swimmerets
7. Carapace
d. One of two front legs used for defense
and to capture food and hold prey 8. Abdomen (tail)
e. Paddle-shaped abdominal structures 9. Telson

used for swimming backwards
10. Pereipods
f. The midsection of a crayfish, consisting
of the head and thorax fused together 11. R^strum
and enclosed by the carapace
12. Compound eye
g. Terminal abdominal structure that
with the uropodsforms the tail fan
that allows the crayfish to swim
backwards
h. Organ of sight, providing excellent color

vision
i. Eight walking legsfour on each

sideattached to the thorax behind the
claws
______L One of two large sensors covered with

setae and used for touch and smell
k. Rigid, beaklike shell section that

protects the brain, stomach, and eyes
I. Rigid, very hard part of the exoskeleton

that protects the heart and gills
Select from a list factual statements about species selection. Write an "X" in the
a. Four species of crayfish have been found to be best suited for

commercial culture; the red river .crayfish, the white swamp crayfish, the
papershell crayfish, and the softshell crayfish.
b. Culturists should try to select species that produce, large hatches and
that go into a dormant period while in berry.
c. The species most adaptable for culture are those found in shallow, fast-
running streams, particularly those that dry up seasonally.
d. Since crayfish have specific habitat requirements, avoid selecting a

species native to fast-moving rocky streams or permanent lakes and
ponds with stable conditions.
6 99
13 6
TEST
e. Avoid also deep burrowing crayfishthose that dig burrows 2 to 3 feet

deepas they are seldom found on the surface and do not perform well
in ponds.
f. Know how to recognize the different-species of crayfish so that you

avoid selecting a dwarf species common to roadside ditches; the adult
size dwarf species is only 0.8 to 1.8 inches.
5. Distinguish between red swamp and white river crayfishes. Write the correct names
under the illustrations below.
a. Left: b. Right:
700
A0-737
TEST
6. Select from a list factual statements about the reproduction and life cycle of crayfish.
a. Sperm is transferred from the male to the female on the telson and is
stored in a receptacle in the female's abdomen.
b. Three to 4 months later, the female burrows underground where she

lays 100 to 500 dark brown eggs that are fertilized with the stored
sperm and firmly glued to her swimmerets with a glue-like substance.
c. The eggs hatch in 2 to 3 days at 80°F, but the young crayfish remain
attached to the mother for another 3 days until they have undergone two
molts and are large enough to fend for themselves.
d. After molting, the crayfish absorbs water and swells, often doubling in
weight; its new exoskeleton remains soft for about 12 hours and then
gradually hardens as it abs6rbs calcium carbonate from the supply
stored in its gastroliths and from food and water.
e. A crayfish molts about 11 times before reaching maturity, and has a life
span of from 1 to 3 years, depending on the species.
7. Match crayfish pond types with their descriptions. Write the correct numbers in the
blanks.
a. Normally managed for rice production, 1. Marsh pond

crayfish are a secondary crop in these
ponds that can average up to 2,500 2. Wooded pond
pounds per acre; after the rice is
harvested, the stubble is left as forage 3. Open rice pond
for the crayfish
4. Open permanent
b. Created by diking off some marginal pond
low-lying land that has little value for
any other purpose, these are low
production ponds, averaging 300 to 500
pounds per acre.
c. Designed especially for cultivating

crayfish, rice is usually planted as
forage in these ponds that have a
production rate averaging 1,200 pounds
per acre.
d. Occurring naturally in swampy or

flooded areas, these ponds contain
trees, shrubs, and natural vegetation
and have a low production rate,
averaging about 400 to 600 pounds per
acre; they are difficult to harvest
because of trees, roots, stumps, and
other obstacles.
701
738
TEST
8 Complete statements about open pond design. Write the correct numbers in the
blanks.
a. Open ponds vary in size from 5 to 80 surface acres, but to be

commercially productive, open permanent ponds must be at least
surface acres, with -acre ponds most common.
1) 10; 20- to 30
2) 5; 10- to 20
3) 20; 20- to 40
b. Open ponds are ideally constructed on flat land and of high- , heavy
clay soils fertile enough to support a rice or other forage crop for the
crayfish.
1) phosphorus
2) calcium
3) mineral
c. Perimeter levees are constructed feet hig1 to maintain a water level

of inches with a freeboard of at least 1 foot.
1) 5; 25 to 36
2) 3; 18 to 24
3) 6; 12 to 24
d. Levees are built to a minimum -foot base width to prevent the

crayfish from causing leakage when they burrow into the levee.
1) 9
2) 8
3) 7
e. Land slope should not be greater than from levee to levee.

1) 6 inches
2) 16 inches
3) 60 inches
f. To aid in water circulation and reduce pumping costs, baffle levees

should be placed every 150 to 200 feet and extend to within feet
of the levee on the open side.
1) 20 to 30
2) 40 to 50
3) 60 to 70
'702
AQ-739
9. Arrange in order the open pond management cycle. The first phase in the cycle has
been labeled. Write a "2" before the second phase of the cycle, a "3" order before
the third phase, and so on.
a. Pond bottom is allowed to dry and is then cultivated and planted with
rice, rye grass, or millet.
b. The pond is slowly drained, forcing adult crayfish to burrow and lay
eggs.
1 c. Adult crayfish are stocked at rates of 25 to 100 pounds per acre.
d. Crayfish are harvested.
e. Pond is flushed of oxygen-deficient water caused by the decay of the

crop stubble, and is filled with fresh, aerated water.
f. Eggs hatch out in large numbers.
g. Land crop is harvested, the pond is shallowly flooded, and water is

circulated to maintain water quality.
10. Discuss recirculating ponds. Answer the following questions.
a. What construction feature enables pond water to be recirculated?
b. When does the recirculating cycle begin?
c. What happens to the recycled water when it reaches the end of the cycle?
d. What advantages do recirculating ponds offer over conventional ponds?
11. Complete statements about water quality requirements for crayfish. Write the correct
a. Water may be obtained from a surface source, groundwater, or both,

but should be fresh to slightly brackish (salinity __), and requires a
pumping capacity of about gpm/acre.
1) at less than 3 ppt; 200

2) of more than 12 ppt; 150
3) at less than 2 ppt; 70 to 100
70 3
-
740
TEST
h. Water should be analyzed for pollutants that will kill crayfishespecially

those pesticides normally used to treat _.
1) rice, soybeans, and cotton crops
2) wheat, rye, and sorghum crops
3) root vegetable and peanut crops
c. Surface water should be to remove large predatory fish.
1) treated with a piscicide
2) sterilized with a surfactant
3) pumped through a 1/4-inch expanded metal screen
d. Well water (groundwater) should be analyzed for its content.

1) nitrogen and lead
2) oxygen and iron
3) hydrogen and copper
e. Oxygen in the pond wat9r should be maintained at high concentrations,

ideally at or higher with a minimum level of _.
1) 5 mg/L; 3.0 mg/L
2) 4 mg/L; 2.0 mg/L
3) 3 mg/L; 1.0 mg/L
f. The best pH for crayfish growth is near 7.0, and growth rate changes
are noticeable when the pH drops below or rises above .
1) 6.2; 7.7
2) 6.0; 7.2
3) 6; 9
9. Pond water should be hard (high calcium content) for hardshell

production, but tray water for soft-shell production should be soft (no
more than calcium) to retard shell hardening.
1) 8 mg/L
2) 5 mg/L
3) 6 mg/L
12 Complete statements about start-up stocking rates. Write the correct numbers in the
blanks.
a. Ponds constructed in early spring are stocked in mid- to late spring with
pounds of crayfish per acre.
1) an average broodstock of 50
704
AQ-741
TEST
b. Crayfish are stocked at a _.
1) 1:2 ratio; one male to two females

2) 1:2 ratio; one female to 2 males
3) 1:1 ratio; one male to one female
c. stocking rates are used in wet areas where there are existing
populations of commercial crayfish.
1) Low
2) High
3) Replacement
d. At least percent of females should have brown to tan eggs.
1) 5
2) 10 to 20
3) 50
13. Complete statements about crayfish feeds and feedings practices. Write the correct
a. While basically scavengers and detritus feeders, crayfish will eat almost
anything .
1) inorganic
2) organic
3) organic or inorganic
b. Crop stubble such as rice, aquatic plants, rotted leaves, and rotted
hardwoods provide the greatest bulk of food consumed; rice seed is
generally planted at 100 pounds per acre to prove forage, and is
sometimes used for supplemental feeding.
1) dog food
2) spoiled hay
3) feather meal
c. Depending on temperature, a crayfish eats percent of its body weight

per day, stopping 2 to 3 days before molting.
1) 1 to 5
2) 2 to 4
3) 3 to 5
d. of cultured crayfish has rarely been done.
1) Ranching
2) Intensive feeding
3) High-protein feeding
705
742
TEST
e. Soft-shell crayfish in trays are fed percent of their body weight once
a day or half that amount in morning and again in the evening.
1) 3 to 5
2) 2 to 4
3) 1 to 3
f. Crayfish are not fed 24 hours before harvesting and are often before
marketing.
1) disinfected
2) purged
3) stripped
14. Select from a list factual statements about harvesting crayfish. Write an "X" in the
a. Harvesting crayfish is time consuming (120 to 180 days) and expensive

(40 to 60 percent of the budget.) 1
b. Crayfish can be harvested with a variety of traps, by seining, or by
complete draining of ponds.
c. Most food-sized crayfish are seined; bait-sized and soft-shell crayfish are
generally trapped.
d. Traps are baited weekly with fish, manufactured bait, or a combination

of both.
4)
e. Traps are fished each day at a concentration of 20 to 40 traps per acre.
f. On-farm labor or workers on shares are used to harvest crayfish.

g. A person "walking" a pond can fish 200 traps a day, but new front and
rear wheel boats enable a farmer to run 50 traps on hour.
15 Select factual statements about handling and shipping crayfish. Write the correct
a. Which of the following are the three common grading sizes for crayfish?
1) 15 per pound and la;ger for export

16 to 25 per pound live market product
25 and greater per pound food crayfish for peeling
2) 10 per pound and larger for export

3) 20 per pound and larger for export

706
AQ-743
TEST
b. How long can hard-she!' crayfish be held in troughs with little feeding?
1) Several days
2) Several weeks
3) Several months
c. What is the usual trough stocking -iensity of 3- to 4-inch crayfish?
1) 70 per square foot

d. Why is the water in the holding troughs not allowed to rise above the
crayfish' legs?
1) Shallow water prevents them from mating and controls disease

spread
2) Shallow water prevents them from molting and purges their
systems
3) Shallow water prevents them from injuring themselves by
attempting to burrow and prevents escape from the trough
e. How are hard-shell crayfish 3 inches long or longer shipped?
1) In styrofoam containers held at 50°F with dry ice

2) In porous bags kept cool and damp
3) In 4 mil plastic bags filled with compressed air and sealed
f. How are bait-sized crayfish shipped?
1) Loosely packed in damp moss or coarse sawdust and refrigerated

at 40°F to 75°F
2) Loosely packed in burlap sacks
3) In plastic bags filled with compressed air and sealed
(NOTE. Test questions 16 through 19 list the assignment and job sheets. They are an
scheduling and evaluation dates.)
16. Identify crayfish species and sexes. (Assignment Sheet #1)
17. Identify the external and internal parts of a crayfish. (Assignment Sheet #2)
18. Research techniques for soft-shell crayfish production, and report to the class.
19. Demonstrate the ability to construct a crayfish trap. (Job Sheet #1)
707
AQ-745

UNIT XII
ANSWERS TO TEST
1. a. 8 f. 1
b. 2 g. 6
c. 3 h. 7
d. 9 i. 4
e. 5 j. 10
2. a. 2
b. 3
C. 1
d. 1
e. 2
f. 3
3. a. 4 g. 9
b. 2 h. 12
C. 8 i. 10
d. 3 i. 1
e. 5 k. 11
1. 6 I. 7
4. b, d, f
5. a. White river
b. Red swamp
6. b, d, e
7. a. 3
b. 1
C. 4
d. 2
8. a. 3
b. 2
C. 2
d. 1
e. 1
f. 2
708
746
ANSWERS TO TEST
9. a. 4
b. 2
C. 1
d. 7
e. 6
f. 3
g. 5
10. a. Internal levees

b. After first flood, drain, refill
c. It is relifted by pump and dropped through a cascade aeration screen
d. Discharge permits may not be needed; less water is used; ponds may be
located in water shortage areas; pumping costs are decreased
11. a. 3 e. 1
b. 1 f. 3
c. 3 g. 2
d. 2
12. a. 1
b. 3
C. 1
d. 2
13. a. 2 d. 2
b. 2 e. 3
c. 1 f. 2
14. a, b, e, f
15. a. 1 d. 2
b. 1 e. 2
C. 3 f. 1
16.-18. Evaluated to the satisfaction of the instructor.
70 9
_
AQ-747
OTHER COMMERCIAL SPECIES

UNIT XIII
UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completion of this unit, the student should be able to discuss the general
characteristics and commercial culture of various freshwater, marine, and hobby fishes,
and of prawns, bullfrogs, and alligators. These competencies will be evidenced by correctly
completing the procedures in the assignment sheets and by scoring a minimum of 85
percent on the unit test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Match terms related to various commercial fish and animal species with their
correct definitions.
2. Select facts to complete statements about the commercial culture of tilapia.
3. Select from a list methods of managing tilapia to control overpopulation.
4. Select facts to complete statements about the culture of largemouth bass.
5. Complete statements about the culture of bluegill and hybrid sunfish.
6. Select facts to complete statements about the culture of crappies.
7. Distinguish between descriptions/uses of common and Chinese carps.
8. Select from a list factual statements about the commercial production of striped
and hybrid striped bass.
9. Discuss marine species that can be cultured in freshwater.
10. Select factual statements about the commercial production of alligators.
11. Select facts to complete statements about the commercial production of

bullfrogs.
12. Select factual statements about the commercial culture of hobby and
ornamental fish.
13. Interview local hobby and ornamental fish retailers to determ;.e area supply
and demand. (Assignment Sheet #1)
71 0
748
OBJECTIVE SHEET
14. Visit a facility that cultures a species discussed in this unit, and report on the
operation. (Assignment Sheet #2)
71 1
A0-749

UNIT XIII
A. Provide students with objective sheet. Discuss unit and specific objectives.
B. Provide students with information sheet. Discuss information sheet, personalizing

it to your locality and situation.
C. Provide as much supplemental material on each species as possible. Use Third

Report bibliography as a source for finding these materials.
D. If available in your community, invite a producer of one of the species discussed in

this unit to discuss production methods with the class.
E. Survey the class to determine whether or not any of the students has ever raised
or is raising aquarium fish. Have this student or your local aquarium fish retailer talk
to the class about hobby fish.
F. Schedule assignment sheets and discuss in class. Prepare hobby fish retailer for
visits by students.
G. Give test.
A. Dupree, Harry K., and Jay V. Huner. "Propagation of Black Bass, Sunfishes,
Tilapias, Eels, and Hobby Fish," in Third Report to the Fish Farmers: The Status of
Warmwater Fish Farming and Progress in Fish Farming Research. Washington,
B. The Fish Book. NEBRASKAland Magazine. Lincoln, Nebraska. Nebraska Game and
Parks Commission, 1987.
C. Huet, Marcel. Textbook of Fish Culture. Breeding and Cultivation of Fish. Translated
by Henry Kahn. Surrey, England: Fishing News Books Ltd., 1970.
D. Huner, J.V., and Harry K. Dupree. "Propagation of Aquatic Animals Other than Fish.
Crayfish, Prawns, Bullfrogs, and Alligators," in rhird Report to the Fish Farmers:
The Status of Warmwater Fish Farming and Progress in Fish Farming Research.
E. McLarney, William. The Freshwater Aquaculture Book. Point Roberts, Washington.

Hartley & Marks, Inc., 1984.
F. Reigh, Robert C., ed. Proceedings of the Louisiana Aquaculture Conference, 1988.
Baton Route, Louisiana, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, 1988.
G. Swift, Donald R. Aquaculture Training ManuaL Surrey, England. Fishing News Books
Ltd., 1985.
71 2
750
H. Van Ramshorst, Dr. J. D., ed. Aquarium Encyclopedia of Tropical Freshwater Fish
Tucson, Arizona, 1981.
4)
71 3
AQ-751
OTHER COMMERCIAL SPECiES I

UNIT XIII
INFORMATION SHEET
Terms and definitions

I.
A. Polyculture Raising two or more species in the same pond or enclosure

i
B. Monoculture Raising a single species in a pond or enclosure
C. Unisex culture Raising only one sexusually maleof a species
D. Ranching Obtaining wild-bred stock and raising it to marketable size under

controlled conditions
E. Farming Breeding and raising stock under controlled conditions
F. Exotic A fish or animal that is not native to the state or locale
G. Brackish water Water that is slightly salty
H. Hybrid Crossbreeding fish of different varieties, races, or species
EXAMPLES: Hybrid striped bass (female striped bass x male white

bass) bluegill hybrid (female green sunfish x male bluegill
sunfish), redear hybrid (female green sunfish x male redear
sunfish)
I. Prolific Producing many young
J. Forage Food obtained by browsing or searching, or the act of searching

cr browsing for food
K. Anadromous Fish, such as salmon and striped bass, that move from salt-
water to freshwater rivers to spawn
L. Metamorphose To change from one form to another as from a tadpole

to a frog
71 4
752
INFORMATION -qHgET
TIlapin,(Figure.-1),
'OXAMPI.E: FIGURE 1
A. TilapiaWarrn; :freshWater-fish, hatiVe. to .Afriba,-.-arelmpqrtent: fodd"fish

In roughour the Middle: 'EaSti:Africa, ; I ndia, . and parre o ÀSia:end ,L,,atiri America;
they Were,-Iiretiritroduced intp,,the 'U.S.A: for vegettion-.6oritiol.
B. TilapIas,,are, faSt grower's, ,become sexually .mature a an tiaq,

every 6Weekeaftet-Maturity, have few diSeaSes or par'etites, antlIhrivel4nder
denditionelhat-would kill: most fish; moat- can live in brackish wter and torrie
adapt:1E44 to Sea:water.
C. BedeuSe Tilapias are:hardy and very prolific, -they are -COntidered threat:to-
the edological-balance, and 'their comMerCial produatiqn,imihe 0.$. it lirnited-
by stria:4,11/s governing-not only-their produCtion'by also their poSseSsiem,:and
by the-Short giowingSeason necessary:49r this .aold-intolerant'SpeCies;
(NOTE: Tilapias ,stop feeding when the water temberature falle,belOW60°Fi

and die at -water temperatures of 46°-551F. ,Deepite IhiSIntolerahde to, cold
water; :hdwever,,Iilapias have ditruptecLriative ,fish,pOpqlationslnipowerplant
reSeivoirs,ds :far north as southern Oklahoma where,they SurviVe.,in
-the- warrn-discharge'Weters.)-
D. Presently in =the 1):S:;:tilapias atelisedto controlunwantedaquaticvegetation,

in limited'nuenbers,;ae.a,lood.fish:and sport, species,,,as:feed.for brbodfishi -arid
as forage *ir carnivorque fish; they ,are-also Sold as hobby fish.
POINT OF INTERE'ST: Many spedies of tilaPia lare 'very colo-rful, ,and

because these fish Mature when,lhey are still small (at :abopt 6 trionthS)
and have iniereSting lpreeding habits; they have beOrne yeiy :06Pular
aquarium ,fish, Many species broqd,:both.eggs -and-'fryit., their MOUthe.
E. Tilapias have been polycultured with some success with food-sized. channel.,
batfish- and buffaloes.
715
AC/-753
INFdRMATIOR SHEET
;Methods:of-Managing iilapla to cpntrol AaverpopulatIon.
(NOTE: The-maj6r.problem,with-managing tilapia speciWor commercial ,culture is

oveNreproductiori and, the. resultaht overcrowding,and stunted. growth)
A. dontinuously4tarvest the largest fish with- a selectivaSeine net.
B. Remo Ve the- young from the .pond ,as they are produced, rear thein in fry
ponds, :and ,then stock them ih- grow=outportis:,
(NOTE:this-method is hot very suCcesSfulas the:fish, tend to- breed.bsfors

they are marketsize and OverpOpulatiOn.Can again,6cdur)
C. Use-predator fish for pOpplation Control.
D. Culture a-unisex population so that there can be no breeding.
(NOTE: All-male populationS are used. Males. are selected by hand, or

poPulations -are achieved by the use of hybrids, 6r by feeding young fish a
male-hOrmone to cause a sex reversatin feinales.)
E. Rear tilapia in cages where they cannot breed .sucCessfully as there is no

liond,bottom on which to spawn, or if they do sPawn the eggs fail out of the
cage and are lost.
F. Rear species that can grow in salt or brackish ,water; tilapia cannot breed:in
salty Water.
IV; Largemouth bass (Figure 2)
00INT 'OF INTEREST: In,some states largemouth:bass are regarded as game

fish and cannot be,Sold as food fish.
EXAMPI_E: FIGURE 2
Frdrilaidyand James:C. Underhill, How to, Know tho-Froshwater'Fishes, 3rd ed, Coppight 1978.
prownIlubliihers, Dubuque, iowa. All righti reServed. Beprinted bii'spedal permIssiori.
A. The.tiadk bass is a meniber thesunfishJarnily.and is Used as-a sport-fish

and, "-ta control the coMporition of pOpulatibris,
B. LargernOuthtass can- be .trained to eat artificial feed:
(V'
754
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Largemouths grow at very unetival rates and cannibalism becomes a problem

after fish are 11/2 indhes to 2 inches long.
D. Common polyculture combinations,are largentouth bass, channel catfish, and

bigmouth buffaloes; or largemouth bass and Channel catfish; or largemouth
bass and bluegill or hybrid sunfish.
(NOTE: In largemouth.bass/channel catfish polyculture, .fly or fingerlings are

stocked diractly into catfish ponds. The bass eat wild forage that competes
with catfiSh .for food.).
V. Bluegill and hybrid sunfish (Figure 3)

EXAMPLE: FIGURE 3 -- Redear sunfish
Wm. C. Brown Publishers,.Dubuque, Iowa. All rights.reserved. Reprinted by special permission.
A, Bluegill and hybrid sunfish are widely cultured for stocking recreational and
farm ponds.
B. Pure strain sunfishes spawn readily and are easy to produce; most species
hybridize spontaneously in both natural and culture ponds.
C. The best hybrid for sport fishing is a,female green sunfish crossed with either
a male bluegill or a redear sunfish.
D. Because sunfish interbreed so readily, pond,preparation is very important in

the monoculture production of theee fish: ponds must be thoroughly dried and
potholes treated with toxicants to kill unwanted'fish that might survive in holes
or crayfish burrows.
E. Culturists usually stock bluegills in fertilized ponds with largemouth bass to

control overpopulation as both species are highly carnivorous.
F. Presently, there is-some interest in monoculture of largemouth bass or single-

species sunfish.
71 7
AQ-755
INFORMATION SHEET
VI. Crapp les (Figure 4)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 4
WhIte.Crapple Black C., pple
From Eddy and James C. Underhill, How to Knowthe Freshwater Fishes, 3rd ed. Copyright 1978.
A. Members of the sunfish familyperappies are sornetimes used aS a substitute

for largemouth bass in turbid farm ponds that are marginal for bass/bluegill
populations.
B. Crappies are mainly used in lOw intensity polyculture in the south central
states and in fee-fishing ponds.
C. Crappies school and )spawn in colonies, deposit their sticky eggs near
overhead cover, and in the wad may grow to 12.inches in four years.
D. Crappies produce poorly in small ponds, so are usually cultured in ponds of

from 3 to 12 acres.
E. Crappies can overpopulate, and should be stocked when heavy, continual

htavest is planned.
VII. Carps
[POINT OF INTEREST: Colorful koi, sold as hobby fish, are a variety of common
carp.
A. Common carp (Figure 5)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 5
From Eddy and James C. Underhill, How to Know the Freshwater Fishes, 3rd ed. Copyright .1978.
756
INFORMATION SHEET
1. The common carpis -a member of the minnow family and was

introduced into the US. in the late 1800s.by the-U.S. Fish Corn Mission
with the. purpose of culturing it as a food.fish; while it never-caught on
as a food fish, it has become established -as,a wild-fiSh in 47 of the 50
states.
2. Though the common carp is the most important food fish in Europe. and
Asia, in the U.S. today, its most common prOduction is in polyculture
with catfish, and even then it is-not oftencultured.
3. The carp is an ideal species for aquaculture: it has been domesticated
over mány-years of selective breeding, grows rapidly, converts food very
efficiently, is disease resistant, tolerates low teMperatures, is an excellent
food fish.
4. The mirror carpa variety of conirnon carpis raised for trotline bait
in some areas, but in many states the use of carp as bait is illegal.
5. Presently, culture of common carp for food is extremely limited in the

U.S.; however, it is pi.edicted that in the future the common carp, like
the catfish, will become popular and will play an important role in
commercial aquaculture.
B. Chinese carp (Figures 6 and 7)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 6 Grass carp
71 9
AQ-757
INFORMATION'SHEET
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 7 Bighead carp, showing 3-month growth
1. Like common carp and tilapia, Chinese carps have long been cultured
in Asia and Europe for food fish; in the 1960s they were introduce4 into
the U.S. for aquatic Végetation control (grass carp) and for nutrient
removal in sewage and'animal waste lagoons (silver carp); today, their
acceptance as food fish is increasing in the U.S.
(NOTE: The grass carp is also called the white amur.)
2. The three most popular varieties feed differently: grass carp in nature
feed solely on aquatic plants but wHI take pelleted feed; bighead carp
feed naturally on plankton but will accept baiffish and sinkin catfish
feed; silver carp feed on plankton in both natural and nanaged
environments.
3. Chinese carps can be produced in monoculture, or in polycu ture of

grass carp/bighead carp or grass carp/silver carp, and grass carp are
sometimes used as aquatic weed control in catfish and baitfish jaonds.
4. Productinn techniques for intensive pond culture of channel Ltfish

generally apply to the monoculture of grass carp, but seining, handling,
and transportation are more difficult because Chinese carps jump over
the seine and thrash wildly when handled.
5. Some states have outlawed Chinese carps because of fears that they-
will become established and disrupt ecosystems as the common carp
is said to have done.
72 0
758
INFORMATION SHEET
VIII. Stripedebass (Figure 8)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 8
/
h .1A:3A .u.4.1N-40
Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. All rights reseriied. Reprinted by special permission.
A. Stripa bass and hybrid white bass/striped bass have become important sport
fish in U.S. reservoirs end rivers.
S. Striped bass and hybrids may also be used as management fish to help
control overabundahce of sunfish, particularly crappies.
C. They are a high-quality food fish, and there is some interest in their
commercial production for the food-fish market.
D. Striped baes can grow very large and are not suited for small ponds; in
addition they are anadromous in nature, coming into freshwater only to spawn.
E. Producing hybrid striped bass from broodstock is a lime-consuming and
complex procedure; the culturist must work with 15 to 30 pound female striped
bass, which are strong but delicate fish easily stressed by handling.
F. Generally, striped bass brood females are collected from the wild by
electroshock when they move upstream to spawn; they are then manually
stripped of their eggs or tank spawned, and the eggs are fertilized artificially
with milt collected from male white bass or male striped bass.
G. Fertilized and washed eggs are incubated in plastic or glass hatching jars, and
fry are transported or transferred to pond culture when they are 4 to 5 days
old.
H. Pond culture is the preferred method for producing fingerling striped bass and
hybrids, and success dependa on the production of zooplankton for food and
on careful grading and harvesting before the plankton are depleted and the
larger fish prey on the smaller fish.
(NOTE: Harvesting is a delicate procedure because any abrasion or

penetration of the frys' slimecoat usually-results in death caused by bacterial
or fungal infection.)
721
AQ-759
INFORMATION SHEET
IX. Marine species that can be cultured in freshwater
A. Red drum
1. Red drum fry have been producedlor many years in Texas for stocking
into estuaries in an attempt to increase populations ih the Gulf of
Mexico; presently red drurri,are-In demand as a food fish because or
the rise in popularity of Cajun cuisine-,
2. Freshwater stocking as a sport fish is limited to saltwater marsh areas

and to freshwater lakes rec6ving heated water from poWer plants
because these fish can survive Water temperatures below 50°F if salinity
is high, but die in low water temperatures in freshwater.
3. Culture of red drum is expensive'and time consuming, and mortality of

broodfish, fry, and fingerlings can be extremely high; further research
is necessary before commercial culture will be feasi4le:
B. Eels
1. The commercial production of food-sized eels and the capture of elvers

(small eels) for export has created interest among U.S. aqua. ..urists.
2. Eels spawn at sea and 'seed stock must be captured from the wild
when elvers migrate- upstreamlrom the sea; at thls time they are 2 to
3 inches long, transparent, and called glass.eels.
3. Eels are raised in ponds that require water quality management

techniques similar to those for catfish culture, and the elvers must be
trained to eat artificial feed.
4. WithOut a stable supply of elvers and with few American markets, eel
culture is risky, yet eel culture would supplement farm income where
seed eels can be obtained mid where ethnic and bait markets are
nearby.
C. Freshwater prav.n (Figure 9)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 9
722
760
INFOFIMATION SHEET
1. There is great demand for prawns, and freshwater prawns of the genus
Macrobrachium grow readily in freshwater, are large, and of high food
quality; they are also more manageable than marine varieties.
2. There is a developed prawn culture in Hawaii, but studies in the

southwestern U.S. have not been promising because this species cannot
survive water temperatures below 60°F, which limits the growing season
to 5 to 7 months.
3. Seed stocks are purchased from tropical growers, and the prawns breed
and spawn in fresh water; newly hatched larvae are placed in brackish
water and then stocked directly into fresh water as soon as they
metamorphose.
4. Prawns of 0.6 to 1.1 ounces can be harvested in about 140 to 150 days
and are then ready for sale or the table.
X. Alligators
A. Alligators are highly vah.ied for their hide and meat; demand is so great that
prices are high and alligator production is profitable.
B. Presently, alligators are being commercially cultured in Texas, Georgia, South

Carolina, Louisiana, and Florida.
C. Strict regulations govern intra- and interstate commerce in alligators and

alligator products.
D. Alligators are either farmed or ranched; in farming, eggs are collected each
year from pen-raised breeders, hatched, and used to establish the market
supply.
E. In ranching, eggs or hatchlings are collected each year from the wild
population, are raised under controlled conditions, and then a certain percent
are returned to the wild and the rest are marketed.
(NOTE: Generally, contracts are drawn up among the rancher, the landowner,
and the Department of Wildlife and Fisheries. In Louisiana, the rancher must
commit to both the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries and the
landowner to restock as alligators 48-inches or longer, 17 percent of the gross
number of eggs or hatchlings collected.)
F. Alligators may be raised outdoors in fenced earthen ponds, or indoors in

heated incubation and rearing containers.
G. In heated environments, alligators grow to harvestable length (5 to 6 feet) in

26 months; in unheated environments, 48 to 52 months are required.
723
A0-761
INFORMATION SHEET
Xl. Bullfrogs (Figure 10)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 10
A. The Japanese and Taiwanese practice open pond culture of bullfrogs from
eggs to adults, but their techniques have never been applied successfully in
the U.S., where presently there is limited commercial operation.
B. Most come from the wild, though demand for food frogs and live frogs for
biological research is greater than supply and availability is seasonal, making
the possibility of commercial production appealing.
C. However, frog culture is a very complex operation because of the complicated

life cycle and demanding feeding habits of the bullfrog.
XII. Hobby and ornamental fish
A. Muoi bred hobby fish are cultured at the more than 3C ) farms
located near Tampa in central Florida; other hobby fish arc. imported from
throughout the world, those imported are usually colorful, unique, and difficult
to propagate.
B. Tanks, vats, and earthen ponds are used to culture hobby fish, a typical farm
propagating 20 to 30 or more species in separate containers.
POINT OF INTEREST: A typical tropical fish or home aquarium text may

list 50 to 100 different species, not to mention popular mutants or hybrids
of various Lpecies.
7 24
dimmtm....mmmov
762
INFORMATION S_ gEET
[Romommew C. Feeding is one of the major costs of production because expensive pigments
(coloring agents) are often included in the feed to promote bright colors in the
fish.
D. Water temperature is a primary management concern of hobby fish producers

because most species are tropical and sensitive to temperatures below 60°F.
E. Predator controlespecially bird predatorscan be a problem be ause birds

can easily see and capture these bright, small fishes.
F. Great care must be taken when harvesting hobby fish. fish that die in retail
stores soon after purchase by the aquarium owner, must be replaced by the
producer.
G. Hobby fishes are normally shipped by air express, with about 15,000 to 20,000
containers shipped each week from Florida wholesalers to retailers throughout
the country.
725
6AQ-763
UNIT XIII
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
INTERVIEW LOCAL HOBBY AND ORNAMENTAL
FISH RETAILERS TO DETERMINE AREA SUPPLY AND DEMAND
In this assignment sheet, you will visit tropical fish retailers in your area to evaluate local
supply and demand.
Use your knowledge of the area and the yellow pages of the phone directory to locate
one or two tropical fish stoi ,s Visit each of these businesses and talk with the owners to
find the answers to questions :such as those that follow. Write your questions and answers
in a notebook so that you can compare answers and draw conclusions after your
inter\ aws.
Sample Questions
1. What tropical fish species do you sell? (Have the owner give you a tour of the
tanks, introducing you to the various species.)
2. Which species are domestically cultured and which are imported?
3- Which species is most popular with the consumers in this area?
4. Which,species are suitable for a community tank (polyculture) and which must be
monocultured? Why?
5. What are the retail and wholesale prices for the different species?
6. Who is your source(s) of supply?
7. How dependable is your supply source? Can you get the stock you want when you
want it?
8. Are stock delivered to your door or must you pick them up at a central supplier
elsewhere?
9. How are stock packaged when they arrive?
10. How do you acclimate your stock to the new environments?
11. What guarantees does your supplier provide concerning survive at and after time
of delivery?
12. How do you package the fish for customer transfer to the home?
13. What is your policy regarding replacing fish or stock that dies within a day or two
of purchase?
14. What is your average mortality loss on delivered stock?
726
764
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
15. How long do you generally hold fish before sale?
16. What types of diseases and problems have you encountered with the species you
stock for sale?
72 7
AQ-765

UNIT XIII
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
VISIT A FACILITY THAT CULTURES A SPECIES
DISCUSSED IN THIS UNIT AND REPORT ON THE OPERATION
Make arrangements to visit a facility that cultures a species introduced in this unit. Plan
to spend at least one full day observing the day-to-day pond management and
recordkeeping practices used by this producer.
Ask many quewons and record answers and your observations in a notebook. After your
visit, write a report on the operation you observed. Present your report orally to the class.
Sample Questions
1. How is the species being cultured? (Polyculture, monoculture, farmed, ranched,

intensive, extensive, etc.)
2. Why did the producer select this particular species?
3. How long has the producer been culturing this species?
4. What markets does the producer serve, and how stable are these markets?
5. What are the present wholesale and retail prices being asked for this species?
6. What breeding techniques does the producer use?
7. What harvesting methods does the producer use?
8. What pond preparation and predator control does the producN use?
9. What legal restrictions, if any, must the producer observe?
10. What recordkeeping system does the producer keep?
11. What type of feed is fed? Is feed purchased or produced on the farm?
12. What types of equipment are particular to this species?
13. What management problems has the producer encountered with this species?
14. What disease and parasite problems has the producer encountered with this
species?
15. Would the producer recommend this species to a beginning aquaculturist? Why or
why not?
728
AQ-767

UNIT XIII
TEST
NAME SCORE
1. Match tbi.ns related to various commercial fish and animal species with their correct
definition., Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
a. Water that is slightly salty 1. Polycultui e
b. Raising only one sexusually maleof 2. Monoculture

a species
3. Unisex culture
c. Food obtained by browsing or search-
ing, or the act of browsing or searching 4. Ranching
for food
5. Farmirg
d. Crossbreeding fish of different varieties,
races, or species 6. Exotic
e. Raising two or more species in the 7. Brackish water

same pond or enclosure
8. Hybrid
f. Obtaining wild-bred stock and raising it
to marketable size under controlled con- 9. Prolific
ditions
10. Forage
9. Producing many young
11. Anadromous
h. To change from one form to another as
from a tadpole to a frog 12. Metamorphose
i. Breeding or raising stock under

controlled conditions
Fish such as salmon or striped bass

that move from saltwater to freshwater
rivers to spawn
k. A fish or animal that is not native to

the state or locale
I. Raising a single species in a pond or

enclosure
729
768
TEST "'
2. Select facts to complete statements about the culture of tilapia. Write the correct
numbers in the !:Ianks.
a. Tilapias are warm, freshwater fish native to .
1) Asia
2) Africa
3) Australia
b. Tilapias are important food fish throughout the Middle East, Africa, Asia,
India, and parts of Asia and Latin America: they were first introduced
into the U.S.A. for .
1) vegetation control
2) parasite control
3) the gourmet food market
c. Tilapias are fast growers, become sexually mature at an early age,

spawn every after maturity, have few diseases or parasites, and
thrive under conditions that would kill most fish; most can adapt to
brackish water and some adapt readily to sea water.
1) 4 months
2) 6 weeks
3) 6 months
d. Because tilapias are hardy and very prolific, they are .
1) very popular culture fish

2) fast becoming a popular food fish
3) considered a threat to the ecological balance
e. Commercial production of tilapia is limited by .
1) strict laws governing their production and possession

2) the short growing season necessary for this cold intolerant species
3) both 1 and 2
f. Presently in the U.S., tilapias are used .
1) to control unwanted aquatic vegetation

2) as a popular food fish
3) as a baitfish species
g. Tilapias are also popular .
1) as feed for other fish

2) as hobby fish
3) both 1 and 2
730
o
AQ-769
TEST
h. Tilapia have been polycultured with some success with food-sized .
1) channel catfish and buffaloes

2) red drum and striped bass
3) prawns and crayfish
3. Select from a list methods of managing tilapia to control overpopulation. Write an

"X" in the blank before each correct method.
a. Continuously harvest the smallest fish with a selective seine net.
b. Remove the young from the pond as they are produced, rear them in
fry ponds, and then stock them in grow-out ponds.
c. Use predator fish for population control.
d. Culture a monoculture population so that there can be no breeding.
e. Rear tilapia in cages where they cannot breed successfully as there is

no pond bottom on which to spawn, or if they do spawn, the eggs fall
out of the cage and are lost.
f. Rear species that can grow in warm water; tilapia cannot breed in warm
water.
4. Select facts to complete statements about the culture of largemouth bass. Write the
a. This black bass is a member of the family and is used as a sport

fish and to control the composition of fish populations.
1) minnow
2) sunfish
3) salmonid
b. Largemouth bass can be trained .
1) to eat artificial feed

2) to spawn at convenient intervals
3) to forage selectively
c. Largemouths grow at very unequal rates and becomes a problem

after fish are 1 V2 inches to 2 inches long.
1) stunted growth
2) overpopulation
3) cannibalism
731
-
770
TEST
d. Common polyculture comb'nations are .

op
1) largemouth bass, channel catfish, and bigmouth buffaloes or
bluegill or hybrid sunfish
2) largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, and red drum or striped or
hybrid striped bass
3) both 1 and 2
5. Complete statements about the culture of bluegill and hybrid sunfish. Write the
correct words in the blanks.
a. Bluegill and hybrid sunfish are widely cultured for stocking
and ponds.
b. Pure strain sunfishes spawn readily and are easy to produce, most species
spontaneously in both natural and culture
ponds.
c. The best hybrid for sport fishing is the female sunfish
crossed with either the male or
d.
sunfish.
Because sunfish so readily, pond preparation

s
is very important in the of these fish; ponds
must be thoroughly dried and potholes treated with toxicants to kill unwanted
fish that might survive in holes or crayfish burrows.
e. Culturists usually stock bluegills in fertilized ponds with
to control overpopulation as both species are highly carnivorous.
f. Presently there is some interost in the of
largemouth bass or single-species sunfish.
73 2
4)
A0-771
TEST
6. Select facts to complete statements about the culture of crappies. Write the correct
a. Crappies are members of the family.
1) sunfish
2) minnow
3) salmonid
b. Crappies are sometimes used as a substitute for largemouth bass in

farm ponds that are marginal for bass/bluegill populations.
1) spring-fed
2) small
3) turbid
c. Crappies school and spawn in colonies, deposit their sticky eggs near
overhead cover, and in the wild may grow to inches in four years.
1) 12
2) 16
3) 22
d. Crappies produce poorly in small ponds, so are usually cultured in ponds

of from acres.
1) 10 to 20
2) 3 to 12
3) 12 to 20
e. Crappies can , and should be stocked when heavy, continual harvest

is planned.
1) be difficult to harvest
2) hybridize
3) overpopulate
7. Distinguish between characteristics/uses of Chinese and common carps. Write "CO"

before descriptions of common carp, and "CH" before descriptions of Chinese carp.
a. A member of the minnow family introduced into the U.S. in the late
1800s by the U.S. Fish Commission with the purpose of culturing it as
a food fish.
b. The three most popular species feed differently: grass carp in nature
feed solely on aquatic plants but will take pelleted feed; bighead carp
feed naturally on plankton but will accept baitfish and sinking catfish
feed; silver carp feed on plankton in both natural and managed
environments.
c. Some states have outlawed these carps because of fears that they wHI
become established and disrupt ecosystems.
733
1
772
TEST
d. The mirror carp is raised for trotline bait in some areas, but in many
states the use of carp for bait is illegal.
e. Presently the culture of this carp for food in the U.S. is extremely
limited; however, it is predicted that in the future, this carp, like the
catfish, will become popular and will play an important role in
commercial aquaculture.
f. Production techniques for intensive pond culture of channel catfish

generally apply to the monoculture of the grass carp, but seining,
handling, and transportation are more difficult because these carps jump
over the seine and thrash wildly when handled.
g. This carp is the most important food fish in Europe and Asia; in the U.S.
today, its most common production is in polyculture with catfish, and
even then it is not often cultured.
h. This carp is an ideal species for aquaculture; it has been domesticated

over many years of selective breeding, grows rapidly, converts food very
efficiently, is disease resistant, tolerates low temperatures, and is an
excellent food fish.
i. This carp has long been cultured in Asia and Europe for food fish; in
the 1960s, these carp were introduced into the U.S. for aquatic
vegetation control (grass carp) and for nutrient removal in sewage and
animal waste lagoons; acceptance as a food fish is increasing.
j. This carp can be produced in monoculture or in polyculture of grass
carp/bighead carp or grass carp/silver carp, and grass carp are
sometimes used as aquatic weed control in catfish and baitfish ponds.
8 Select from a list factual statements about the commercial production of striped and
hybrid striped bass. Write an "X" in the blank before each correct statement.
a. Striped bass and hybrid white/striped bass have become important sport
fish in U.S. reservoirs and rivers.
b. Striped bass and hybrids may also be used as management fish to

control overabundant aquatic vegetation.
c. They are a high-quality food fish, and there is some interest in their
commerdal production for the food-fish market.
d. Striped bass can grow very large, and are not suited for small ponds;
in addition they are anadromous in nature, coming into freshwater only
to spawn.
e. Producing hybrid striped bass from broodstock is a time-consuming and

complex procedure; the culturist must work with 15 to 30 pound female
striped bass, which are strong and hardy fish not easily stressed by
handling.
73 4
AQ-773
'TEST
f. Generally, striped bass brood males are collected from the wild by
seining or trapping when they move upstream to spawn; they are then
manually stripped of their eggs or tank spawned, and the eggs are
fertilized artificially with the milt collected from male white or striped
bass.
g. Fertilized and washed eggs are incubated in plastic or glass hatching

jars, and fry are transferred to pond culture when they are 1 or 2 days
old.
h. Pond culture is the preferred method of producing fingerling striped bass

and hybrids, and success d9pends on the production of zooplankton for
food and on careful grading and harvesting before the plankton are
depleted and the larger fish prey on the smaller fish.
Discuss marine species that can be cultured in freshwater. Answer the following
9.
questions.
a. Why has Texas produced red drum fry for many years?
b. Why are red drum in demand presently as a food fish?
c. Under what conditions can red drum survive low water temperaturos?
d. Why is commercial production of red drum presently not feasible?
e. Where do eels spawn?
f. How large are wild eels captured for commercial production?
g.
What are transparent eels, 2 to 3 inches long called?
h. What is the feasibility of commercially producing eels in the U.S.? Explain.
735
774
TEST
What makes the production of freshwater prawns commercially desireable?
What state leads in the culture of prawn?
k. What limits the growing season for prawn?
I. How are prawn seed stock obtained?
m. How long does it take prawns stocked at 0.6 to 1.1 ounces to be ready for
harvest?
10 Select factual statements about the commercial production of alligators. Write the
a. Which of the following makes alligator production profitable?
1) Great demand for highly valued hide and meat

2) Great demand for highly valued teeth and skeleton
3) Great demand for highly valued eggs and breeders
b. Which of the following states are presently commercially culturing
alligators?
1) Arizona and California

2) Louisiana and Florida
3) Mississippi and Oklahoma
c. Which of the following is true about intra- and interstate commerce in

alligators and alligator products?
1) It is illegal
2) It requires bonding and licensing
3) It is strictly regulated
736
AQ-775
TEST
d. Which of the following describes alligator ranching?
1) Eggs are collected each year from pen-raised breeders, hatched,

and used to establish a market supply
2) Eggs or hatchlings are collected each year from the wild
population, raised under controlled conditions; a certain percentage
are returned to the wild and the rest are marketed
3) Both 1 and 2
e. Which of the following describes alligator rearing options?
1) Outdoors in earthen ponds or indoors in aerated and air-

conditioned rearing containers.
2) Outdoors in fenced swamps or indoors in saltwater incubation and
rearing containers.
3) Outdoors in earthen ponds or indoors in heated incubation and
rearing containers.
f. Which of the following are the correct lengths of time for alligators to
grow to harvestable length in heated and unheated environments?
1) Heated: 26 months; unheated: 48 to 52 months

11. Select facts to complete statements about the commercial production of bullfrogs
a. McGc come from , though demand for food frogs and live frogs for
biological research is greater than supply and availability is seasonal,

making the possibility of commercial production appealing.
1) the wild
2) Florida
3) importing from Asia
b. Frog culture is a very complex operation because of the complicated

and demanding of the bullfrog.
1) facilities needed; sexual needs

2) water chemistry needs; metamoephosis
3) life cycle; feeding habits
c. The Japanese and Taiwanese practice open pond culture of bullfrogs

from eggs to adults, but their techniques , where presently there is
limited commercial operation.
1) have never been approved in the U.S.

2) are too expensive for production in the U.S.
3) have never been applied successfully in the U.S.
7:17
TEST'
Select factual statements about the commercial production of hobby and ornamental
fish. Write the correct numbers in the blanks.
o
a. Where are most of the domestically bred hobby and ornamental fish
cultured in the U.S?
1) Hawaii
2) Southern California
3) Florida
b. About how many species does a typical hobby fish farm propagate?
1) 20 to 30
2) One
3) 10
c. What is the major cost of raising hobby and ornamental fish?
1) Import fees
2) Container and aeration systems
3) Feed
d. What is the primary management concern of producers of hobby and

ornamental fish?
1) Water quality
2) Water temperature 01)
3) Transport to markets
e. Which of the following predators is the biggest threat to hobby and

ornamental fish?
1) Birds
2) Reptiles
3) Aquatic insects
f. Why must great care be taken when harvesting hobby fish?
1) They are very delicate and lose their scales easily

2) Those that die in the retail stores must be replaced by the
producer
3) Fish suffocate in the seines
738
AQ-777
TEST
g. How are hobby fish normally shipped?
1) Hauling truck
2) Interstate bus lines
3) Air express
(NOTE: Test questions 13 and 14 list the assignment sheets. They are an
important part of this test. If they have not been completed, see your instructor for
scheduling and evaluation procedures.)
13. Interview local hobby and ornamental fish retailers to determine area st:pply and
demand. (Assignment Sheet #1)
14. Visit a facility that cultures a species discussed in this unit, and report on the
operation. (Assignment Sheet #2)
7 3 ,9
AQ-779

UNIT XIII
ANSWERS TO TEGT
1. a. 7 g. 9
b. 3 h 12
C. 10 i 5
d. 8 j. 11
e. 1 k. 6
f. 4 I. 2
2. a. 2 e. 1
b. 1 f. 1
c. 2 g. 3
d. 3 h. 1
3. b, c, e
4. a. 2
b. 1
C. 3
d. 1
5. a. Recreational, farm
b. Hybridize
c. Green; bluegill, redear
d. Interbreed; monoculture
e. Largemouth
6. a. 1
b. 3
C. 1
d. 2
e. 3
7. a. CO f. CH
b. CH g. CO
C. CH h. CO
d. CO I. CH
e. CO j. CH
8. a, c, d, g, h
74 0
780
TEST
9. a They are attempting to increase populations in the Gulf of Mexico.

b. They are popular in Cajun cuisine.
c. If salinity is high
d. It is expensive, time consuming, and mortality can be high
e. At sea
f. 2 to 3 inches long
g. Glass eels
h. Not very feasible; there must be ethnic and bait markets nearby
i. There is great demand, they grow readily in freshwater, they have a high food
quality, and they are manageable.
j. Hawaii
k. They cannot survive water temperatures below 60°F
I. They are purchased from tropical growers.
m. 140 to 150 days
10. a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 2
e. 3
f. 1
11. a. 1
b. 3
c. 3
12. a. 3
b 1
c. 3
d. 2
e. 1
f. 2
g. 3
13. Evaluated to the satimuction of the instructor
to
.1
AQ-781
HARVESTING AND HAULING

UNIT XIV
UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completion of this unit, the student should be able to discuss harvesting and hauling
equipment, methods, and procedures. The student should also be able to grade fish,
calculate loading rates, package fish for transport, and check shipping water parameters.
These competencies will be demonstrated by properly completing the procedures in the
a.ssignment and job sheets and by scoring a minimum of 85 percent on the unit test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

1. Match terms related to harvesting and hauling with their correct definitions.
2. Distinguish between advantages of total and partial harvest.
3. Distinguish between limitations of harvesting strategies.
4. Select from a list guidelines for quality control.
5. Match harvesting equipment with their correct uses.
6. Match grading equipment with their correct uses.
7. Select pre-harvest guidelines from a list.
8. Complete statements about harvesting techniques and procedures.
9. Select from a list factual statements about pond-to-shed transport procedures.
10. Complete statements about holding practices.
11. Completes statements about grading practices.
12. Select factual statements about hauling equipment.
13. Solve problems regarding loading procedures and rates.
14. Select factual statements about hauling and water quality.
15. Match hauling chemicals with their correct descriptions/rates.
16. Complete statements about unloading procedures.

782
OBJECTIVE SHEET
4)
17. Select from a list guidelines for the care of nets.
18. Calculate loading rates. (Assignment Sheet #2)
19. Observe and report on a commercial harvest. (Assignment Sheet #2)
20. Survey your area and state for laws and regulations concerning interstate and
intrastate shipping. (Assignment Sheet #3)
a. Check water temperature and other shipping parameters. (Job She61

#1)
b. Grade fish. (Job Sheet #2)
c. Package fish'in a plastic bag. (Job Sheet #3)
d. Disinfect fish transport tanks and equipment. (Job Sheet #4)

4) UNIT XIV
A. Arrange for the class to visit a commercial fish farm so that they may complete
assignment and job sheets.
B Show students examples of graders, seines, dip nets, and other harvesting and
hauling equipment.
C. Gather equipment and materials needed for completion of job sheets.

D. Arrange for an experienced fish farmer to visit the class and talk about safety,
permits, and licenses necessary for harvesting and hauling.
E. Read unit and make your own notes.

F. Provide students with object sheet. Discuss unit and specific objectives.
G Provide students with information sheet. Discuss information sheet, supplementing
and localizing to meet students' needs.
H. Stress the importance of keeping routine and accurate records.
I Provide students with assignment and job sheets. Discuss and schedule assignment
410 sheets.
J. Schedule and demonstrate job sheet. Evaluate job sheet performance.

K. Give unit test.
REFERENCES USED IN DEVELOPING THIS UMT
A. Avery, Jimmy L. "Production Practices of Commercial Catfish Farming," in

Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, 1988.
Belusz, Larry. Fish Farming Techniques. Columbia, Missouri: The Instructional

C. Dupree, Harry K., and Jay V. Huner. "Transportation of Live Fish," in Third Report
to the Fish Farmers: The Status of Warmwater Fish Farming and Progress in Fish
D Guidice, John J., D. Leroy Gray, and J. Mayo Martin. Manual for Bait Fish Culture
in the South. Stuttgart, Arkansas: University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension
Service and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982.
7414
784
E. Huner, Jay V., Harry K. Dupree, and Donald C. Greenland. "Harvesting, Holding, and
Grading Fish," in Third Report to the Fish Farmers: The Status of Warmwater Fish
Farming and Progress in Fish Farming Research, Harry K. Dupree and Jay V.
Huner, eds. Washington, DC: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984.
F. Jensen, Gary, L. Commercial Production of Farm-Raised Catfish. Baton Rouge,

Louisiana: Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, Louisiana State University
Agricultural Center, 1988.
a Swift, Donald R. Aquaculture Training Manual. Surrey, England: Fishing News Books,
Ltd., 1985.
/
UNIT XIV
INFORMATION SHEET

A. Total harvest Harvesting strategy that involves one-time seining or trapping
and annual draining of pond
B. Multiple harvest (partial harvest) Harvesting strategy that requires

numerous yearly seinings or trappings and complete draining of pond each 6
to 8 years.
C. Seine Long piece of netting with a series of floats on the top and lead
weights on Zhe bottom; the sides may be supported with brails (wooden poles)
or equippea with haul fines
D. Trammel seine A seine with two course outer nets that support a fine-
mesh inner net which fish swim into and force through the course layers,
trapping themselves as the fine-mesh net is forced in around them
E. Toggle A pin or rod inserted through a loop of haul line to attach it to the
seine
F. Snatch block Pulley
G. Antibiotic Chemical that kills or controls the growth of bacteria and other
microorganisms
H. Bacteriostat Chemical that stops the growth or multiplication of bacteria

I. Anesthetizing compound Agent used to sedate fish and slow their
metabolic rate
J. Tempering Gradually acclimating (accustoming) fish to changes in water

chemistry and temperature
K. Understocking Stocking smaller sized fingerlings along with larger fish

L. Off flavor Musty, rr Ady taste of fish flesh generally caused by some blue-
green algae and bacteria
(NOTE: Off-flavor is mJst common in late summer when water temperatures

are high, large amounts of feed are used, and algal blooms are dense. It also
occurs in cool weather during spring and fall.)
M. Topping/understocking Periodically harvesting marketable fish from the

rearing unit and stocking smaller fish in their place
N. Drawdown process of lowering the water level in a pond, or completely

draining a pond
7d6
786
INFORMATION SHEET
H. Advantages of harvesting strategies
A. Total harvest
1. Allows the producer the security of contracting for the sale of an entire
crop at one time.
2. Allows for disease, weed, and predator treatment of pond bottom.
3. Requires only one labor-intensive harvesting period per season.
4. Allows for multiple use of land as crops may be grown on the pond
bottom during the period that the pond is empty.
5. Is the only method that allows for harvesting nearly 100 percent of the
crop.
B. Partial harvest
1. Allows the producer to periodically harvest whatever quantity and size

of fish desired.
2. Tends to increase total production because fish can be harvested near

the point where their growth rate falls off and rearing unit can be
understocked.
3. Can be used to harvest all types of rearing units, particularly ponds with
deep water and irregular bottoms and banks.
4. Allows producer to market fish when the market price is optimum.
5. Produces year-round supply of fish to market.
6. Increases cash flow but requires more capital.
HI. Limitations of harvesting strategies
A. Total harvest
1. Depends on even growth rate and the assumption that all fish will be
marketable size at harvest time.
2. Requires scraping out and treating of rearing unit or pond bottom, which
can be time consuming, especially if potholes and low areas exist in the
pond.
3. Restricts producer to the market price at the time of harvest.
4. Means lost feeding days and a fuel bill if pumping is required to refill
the rearing units.
74 7
AQ-787
INFORMATION SHEET
B. Partial harvest
1. Requires many labor-intensive harvesting periods.
2. Means harvesting during hot summer months when fish are more prone
to stress and disease.
3. If method is used too often, causes fish baited into the seines or traps
to become wary of trapping methods and difficult to catch.
4. Requires extra capital to replace stock.
IV. Guidelines for quality control

A. If fish are to be sold to a processing plant, contact the processor at least one
month before harvest because fish must be tested for off-flavor at least two
times.
B. Use a harvesting method that reduces the chances of muddying the water as
muddy waters can create off-flavor problems.
C. Harvest in the coolest weather possible, avoid harvesting after blue-green

algae bloom or after a stormy period that has muddied the water.
at D Before and during harvesting of food fish, sample for off-flavor by cooking and
testing a sample.
E. If off-flavor is detected, hold fish until off-flavor disappears.
(NOTE: Holding marketable-size fish while waiting for them to lose their musty
flavor is economically unsound and presents the risk of loss through disease
or water quality deterioration, but unfortunately it is the most acceptable
alternative at present. Using filter alum, lime, or potassium permanganate to
reduce clay or slit levels or to neutralize off-flavor compounds, or using
herbicides to kill blue-green algae are methods that have not been tested
adequately to be proven effective in eliminating off-flavor.)
788
INFORMATION SHEET
V. Harvesting equipment
A. Seines (Figures 1-6)
1. Lead-line seine Trapping seine with bottom line of leaded rope; used
for multiple harvest
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 1
1/2-inch 1/2-inch braided

Thimble nylon cork line
3-inch diameter floats
on 2-foot centers
Lead weights selected
#15 nylon twine; according to seine
1-inch bar mesh length and service
conditions
Toggle to
fasten haul
line to seine: 1/2-inch braided
3/16-inch nylon twine nylon bottom line
2. Mud-line seine Full-pond seine, usually 200 to 1,600 feet long and
8 feet deep; made of nylon netting with bottom line of multiple strands
of rope to prevent the digging effect of weighted lines.
(NOTE: When used for harvesting catfish, the netting on these seine%
is coated with tar or asphalt to prevent the fish's spines from becoming
entangled in the netting. The seine should be one-third deeper than the
deepost part of the pond and one-third longer than the widost part of
pond to be seined.)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 2
32 strands of sisal twine tied every 4-5

inches with #12 nylon twine
AQ-789
INFORM/010N SHEET
3. Lift seine Square or rectangular trapping seine on a metal frame;

suspwided in pond from a pipe resting on, an on-shore fulcrum that
raises the seine'after fish are baited over the 'top; used on ponds with
irregUlar bottoms and for baitfish and other scaled species.
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 3
_4. Cast net Round seine hand-thrown for partial harvests or periodic
sampling of surface-feeding fish
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 4
.fr...--_,:..2.1Z-F7F-,:,2_...-
..---- ,,,10.,-
,..r.e,r le,,,,
- Cr. Ili!, '
75,0:
790
INFORMATION SHEET
5. Live-car seine Seine that can be attached and detached from the
harvesting seine`bsing a loading frame and drawstrings; used widely for
harvesting and grading catfish, these seines are anchored with stakes
and supported with support rods so that-fish can be removed from them
for transport.
EXAMPLE: FI3URE-5
6. Walling bag .(bra Iler) Netting sack with metal-framed mouth used
to scoop fish from harvest seine and lift them to transport truck
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 6
From Third Report to the Fish Fanners, "Harvesting, Holding and Grading Fish," by Jay V.
Hunner et. al. With kerthission.
751
AQ-791
INFORMATION SHEET
B. Traps (Figure 7)
1. Panel trap usad in ponds with seining obstacles; this trap consists
of chicken-wire screened wooden panels that are installed gradually so
as not to interrupt fish feeding
2. Cylinder trap One foot in diameter and 2 feet long, these traps may
have one or two funnels and are primarily used to harvest bait fish
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 7
C. Miscellaneous harvesting equipment (Figures 8-13)
1. Dip net Used to dip fish from seines, holding tanks, and transport
tanks
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 8
75 2
792
INFORMATION SHEET
2. Seine stakes Used to, support sides of seine to prevent fish from
escaping
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 9
3. Hydraulic-ppwered seine reel Used to store, transport, and gather

in large harvesting seiries
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 10
753
AQ-793
INFORMATION SHEET
4; Tractor or truck vith boom winch Used, to lift fish from seine to
transport trUck
(NOTE: Many boom winches haVe in-line sqaleethat allows the weighing
of fish during the loading process, thus reducing the time and labor
required as-well as additional handling of the fish.)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 11
1/4
From Commercial Production of Farm Raised Catfish by Gary L Jensen. With_porrtoMn.
5. Seine assist -7- Used,to catchlhe top of the seine and pull it forward,
freeing the bottoin seine line 'from the mud
754
794
INFORMATION SHEET
6. Ash pump Used in trout raceways and large tanks to pipe fish and
water directly from seine to a grading bin above the hauling tank
(NOTE: Early fish pump.designs functioned,poorly, and often injured the

fish. Newer, more efficient designs have replaced the older models, but
it may still be difficult to meter the fish into the intake at a steady rate
without occasional dogging.)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 12
GATE (ALL MODELS): PERFORATED ALUMINUM SHOWN OPEN
Courtesy Neilsen Metal Industries, inc., Salem, Oregon
7. Fish basket Container for transfer of fish from hariest site to

transport truck or holding vats
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 13
Lye..
'
755
AQ495
INFORMATION- SKET
VI. Grading equipment (Rgures 14-16)
A. Sorting table Used in shed grading:Jo allow for the hand-grading of fish
and Wiling of deformed fish
EXAMPLE: .FIGURE 14
B. Net grader Generally used-tor in7pond gradiit within the harvesting seine
(NOTE: Fish Crowded into the harvesting seine may be put into net graders
such as live cars or socks for further grading or holding. Fish can also be
crowded-end graded using, a shorter cuthng seine of appropriate mesh size.
A cutting seine-is pulled inside the larger-hen/Wing seine.)
C. Grader box Container used to grade smell fish such as baitfish or

fingerlings in holding trough
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 15
756
796'
INFORMATION SHEET
D. Panel gracier Barred panel used in-holding tank to grade fingerlings and
baitfish
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 16
;7-
' 4 ,
Froni Manual for:Bait Fsh-in the South by John J. Guidice, eLat. With,permission.
VII. PreparatiOn 'for harvesting

A. dhoose a harvesting -method that fits your marketing strategy, your species,
and pond type.
B. Determine whether you will harvest your own crop or hire custom harvesters.
(NOt E: Harvesting-can- be expensive= and is- the most labOr intensive part cif
fish farming. Most producers harvest-their own fish, but many fish buyers will
handle-the harvestiogoperation and reduce theproducerslabbr needs. Often,
custom:harVest relieves the produCer of much of theliability incurred during
transport However, processing plants generally will -not ,send a truck out to
pick .up loads oflessihan 5,000-pounds.)
C. Do not fee(PfiSh at least one day before harvesting.
(NOE: When fish are handled or transported; they disgorge-recently- eaten

Jood, which addS to oxygen .problems-during hauling. Also, processing plants
may.deduct 3,percent ot the total weight if fish have 'foód in their stomachs.)
D. Before harvest, sample food fish for off-flavor; do notrisk having,a load of fish
refused`by the,processor or buyer.
75 7
AQ-797
INFORMATION SHEET
E. Make sure that all needed equipment is available, in good repair, and
disinfected before you begin harvesting, have all harvesting equipment ready
at the pond bank.
F. Take special care to ensure that aeration equipment and backup aeration is
available and functioning properly.
G. Keep complete and accurate records of fish numbers, sizes, weights, mortality,
disease and parasite problems, chemicals used, date and time of harvest, and
market price.
VIII. Harvesting techniques and procedures
POINT OF INTEREST: Harvesting is easiest for fish raised in cages or tanks

where dip nets are used to remove and transfer fish. Raceways are also easy
to harvest by crowding the fish to one end and using dip nets, a boom and
brailing bag, or a fish pump to harvest the crop. In ponds, fish can be harvested
by fishing, gill netting, trapping, and seining. When harvesting, the same daily
routines should be followed same trucks, same people, same sounds. The fish
become skittish at changes as minor as a different-sounding engine.
A. Seining
(NOTE: Multiple seining of a full pond is the most common harvesting

technique for levee-type catfish ponds.)
1. Sticks, branches, and other debris that might tear the seine are removed
from the pond.
2. The seine net is played out along the levee opposite the landing site
(usually the shallow end), and the haul lines are attached to seine brails
or toggles are lead through snatch blocks along the lateral pond banks
(to keep the net spread and close to shore) and then to a tractor
equipped with a line hauler or to a powered li.)e hauler.
3. As the net ends approach the snatch blocks, the haul lines are released
from the blocks and taken along the bank to the next set of snatch
blocks or to the landing site.
4. To avoid premature overcrowding of the fish, usually hauling is stopped

while the seine bag is still well out of the pond.
5. When the catch is exceptionally large, a cutting seine is used inside the
large seine.
6. Seined fish are scooped into a boom-mounted brailing bag, weighed on

an in-line scale, and lifted to the aerated hauling truck;"or they may be
pumped to the transport vehicle with a fish pump.
7. Short seines are pulled by hand.
75 8
798
INFORMATION SHEET
B. Corral seine trapping
(NOTE: This method works best when fish are actively feeding.)
1. The seine is arranged in a corner of the pond and the lead ropes are
drawn to shore where the seine is to be loaded.
2. Sinking feed is scattered between the seine and the shore.
3. Fish swim around the ends of the seine to feed, and after several days,
when the fish are accustomed to feeding within the area, the seine ends
are pulled to shore with the attached ropes, thus enclosing the fish.
4. The entire seine is pulled close to shore, and the fish are dip netted out
and loaded.
5. The corral seine technique of partial harvest cannot be used more than
once a week because fish become wary of the net.
6. Harvesting can be alternated among ponds and at different areas of

large ponds.
C. Drop-seine trapping
1. This technique works well in weed-choked ponds and ponds with small
cleared areas.
2. In this technique, a corral seine is set in a semicircle around a feeding

station and the ends of the seine are attached to the shore.
3. Portions of the net are lifted off the pond bottom and hung on triggers,
thus providing "doors" to the feeding site.
4. When the triggers are pulled, the net falls to the bottom, thus encircling
the fish that have come to feed.
5. The trapped fish are then generally netted with a shorter cutting seine.
6. Catfish do not usually feed in the trap for 1 or 2 weeks after the net has
been positioned, and require 3 to 7 days to become reacclimated after
each drop.
D. Lift net trapping
1. A square or rectangular lift net is lowered to the bottom of the pond,

and fish are baited over the top of the net.
2. When fish are accustomed to feeding within the net, it is raised by

mans of a fulcrum pole, and the trapped fish are lifted to the transport
talk.
3. The. mesh size may be adjusted to make this seine self grading.
759
AQ-799
INFORMATION SHEET
E. Simple traps
POINT OF INI,_REST: Traps are used exclusively for harvesting crayfish,

and are commonly used for harvesting baitfish, particularly fathead minnows
and goldfish. Cage traps may also be used to trap catfish since they
depend largely on their sense of smell to locate food. Other species, such
as bass and trout, are visual feeders so it is seldom possible to trap them
in any numbers.
1. Cylinder traps with funnel-type entrances are baited and placed in

shallow areas where fish frequently feed.
2. The locations of the traps are mart .ad with poles or buoys.
3. Traps are checked periodically, and when enough fish have become
trapped, the traps are emptied into buckets for transfer to holding tanks
or transport tanks.
F. Fish pump
(NOTE: This method is used primarily for harvesting trout from raceways.)
1. The amount of fish to be transported in a hauling tank is weighed,

counted, and separated, usually by partitioning off a portion of the
raceway.
2. The fish are then crowded toward the pump's submerged intake.
3. Fish are pumped up to water-filled hauling unit where fish and water are
separated: fish into the hauling tank and water back to the raceway or
rearing unit.
IX. Rearing-unit-shed transport
A. Transporting fish from the rearing unit to the shipping shed is an important
part of the harvesting process.
B. The hauling unit must be large enough to accommodate fish without crowding,
and should be fHled with clean, well-aerated water, even for the shortest
hauling distances.
C. Because they are held in small amounts of water, fish placed in tubs or
buckets can experience a rapid rise in water temperature and a corresponding
drop in DO.
D. Fish harvested in the winter can experience cold shock because of the
difference between rearing unit water temperature and air temperature, winter-
harvested fish must be immediately placed in transport containers with as little
exposure to the air as possible.
760
800
INFORMATION SHEET
E. Cooler water re:ices self-inflicted injuries and lowers stress and metabolism.
F. Channel catfish and golden shiners harvested in the summer may be put into
water 10 to 15 degrees cooler than the pond water, while the temperature
difference for most other species should not exceed 5 degrees.
G. In addition to lowering the water temperature, the farmer can add up to 1

percent table salt, antibiotics or bacteriostats, and an anesthetizing agent to
the shed transport water.
(NOTE: Anesthetics cannot legally be used on food fish.)

X. Holding practices (Job Sheet #1)
A. It is often necessary to hold channel catfish fingerlings, baitfish, and sport

fishes for several days after harvest.
B. Keeping fish in good condition during this holding period is very important.
covered facilities are best, especially during hot weather, and adequate
supplies of oxygenated watel must be available.
(NOTE: processing plants deduct the weight of dead fish from the total.)
C. Holding tanks may be concrete or fiberglass, and are either round or
rectangular; a tank 4 feet by 10 feet with 2 feet of water holds about 500
gallons of water and can carry 300 pounds of fish if sufficient aeration and
water exchange are provided.
(NOTE: Capacity will vary with seasonal changes in water temperature.)

D. While fish are in holding tanks, they can be treated for infectious diseases and
parasites, graded, and held for a sufficient length of time to recover from the
effects of the chemicals and drugs; they are also acclimated to handling and
transport.
E. Food fish, large sport fish, and even minnows are often held in the pond in
live-cars; plastic containers similar to fish cages are also used to hold fish in
ponds before transportation.
F. Fish should be counted or weighed before they are placed in holding tanks
or live-cars; live-cars must be properly staked to prevent fish from escaping.
XI. Grading practices (Job Sheet #2)
A. To ensure uniformity of size, some grading is usually required with fingerlings
as well as with food fish.
B. Sorting tables, net graders, panel graders, and grading boxes are used to sort
fish by size and to remove any foreign fish, plants, tadpoles, or other
undesired animals.
AQ-801
o C.
i
INFORMATION SHEET
Food-fish grading is often oone in the rearing unit with live-cars or other net
graders.
D. Fingerlings and baitfish are usually graded in the shipping shed at the time
of sale; they are graded in holding tanks with panel graders or grading boxes
so that they can be sorted without being handled with dip nets. (See Table 1)
E. To avoid undue stress, shipping-shed grading should not be attempted until

several hours after the fish have been removed from the rearing unit.
F. Small fish should be graded out of the population first, and the quantity oi fish
in the grader at any one time should not exceed 5 pounds per cubic foot of
grader capacity.
G. In trout culture, the need for grading is minimized by feeding techniques that
provide access to food by less aggressive fish.
POINT OF INTEREST: Studies have shown that segregation of smaller fish

does not induce faster growth. Some fish are genetically unable to grow
fast.
762
INFORMATION SHEET e
TABLE 1: Bar Grader Sizes for Minnows and Channel Catfish
and Mesh Sizes for Net Grader for Channel Catfish
Fish, and spacing between Length of fish held

grader bars, or mesh size (inches)a
of net (inches)
Minnows
Bar grader
11/64 1 1/2
12/64 1 3/4
13/64 2
14/64 2 1/4
15/64 2 1/2
16/64 2 3/4
Channel Catfish
Bar grader
27/64 3
32/64 4
40/64 5
48/64 6 so
56/64 7
64/64 8
96/64 11 (3/4 lb.)
Net grader
1/4 1-2
3/8 3-4
1/2 4-5
3/4 7-8
1 8-10 (1/2 lb)
1 3/8 3/4 lb.
1 5/8 1 1/2 lb.
1 3/4 2 lb.
3\A/eight where specified.
From Thi:1 Report to the Fish Farms, "Harvesting, Holding, and Grading Fish," by Jay V. Hunner, et.
al With permission.
763
'AQ-803'
INFORMATION SHEET
XII. ,Hauling equipment (Figure, 17)
EXAMPLE: FIGURE 17
A. Hauling truck Thick units, may'be of:many sips, and types;gIc,axteunits

of 1/2, .3/4, 1, and 1 112 Ions ,aie. corrirrionly .used;, Some produCers use
gooseneck trailers attachecrio a pickup truCk, and, sorne, ,haulers usa large
tandem units.
B. Hauling tank May Le aluminum,.fiberglass, or Marine,plywood; is generally

rectangular, and",may 'be brie unit. or divided into compartments to facilitate
hauling' several:species at the serne,tirrie and.rnakepoSsibiepartial.unloadings;
most-contain- quick release ,gates an& ten-loyal chOtes ,for rapid:unloading.
C. Life 'support equipment The- type, of. ectuipment uSed -depends,on the :type
of hauling,Aank, species hauled, haUling.distance,, and :other:partioUlars of lhe
situatiOn.
EXAMPLES: Spraying:devides,.baffles,-screeris,secirCulating,pumps,, aerators,

plectrical:agitators,,CompreSsed- and liquid.oxygeri,,chiflerS,4ilters,
'backuP:ganerators
D. NetS, tubs, and, a Scale, These are standard' for alkransport Units.
Wij. Loading procedures and rateS (AsSignMentSheets :#1-#4),
(NOTE: Loading, rates diffet -With ,species, site, -water 'lornperatUre and-quality',
duration, of transpOrt, and type of-shipping, unit used. 'GUidelines'-and rate tables are
given in Handout. #1 ;)
A. SimUlate 'the loading situation ,by running a: static lest
B. If- fish'cannot be ten IperedAn the, holding vats befOre. loading -for shipment:, the
water 'ternperature in, the shipping:: unit",MuStbe-adjusled,
G. Tempering :requires, 20 minutes 'per 10°F ,d,scr daSe in-waterlempératute, -and

is, accoMplished by mechapicanefrigeration or-with ,ice.
764
804
INFORMATION SHEET
D. One-half pound of ice reduces the water temperature of one gallon of water
by about 10°F.
(NOTE: Ice can be added directly to the holding water for most species, but
for fathead minnows and all fry, the ice must be placed in plastic bags and
packed around the holding container.)
E Loading rates can be raised 25 percent for each 10-degree decrease in water
temperature and should be lowered by 25 percent for each 10-degree increase
in water temperature.
F Loading rates can be increased by 25 percent when pure oxygen is added.
G. In general, fewer pounds of small fish than of large fish can be transported
per gallon of water.
EXAMPLE: One gallon of water will safely transport one pwnd o4. 4-inch
fingerlings, two pounds of 8-inch catfish, or four pounds of 16-
inch fish.
H. If transportation time exceeds twelve hours, the loading rate should be

decreased by 25 percent.
I. If transportation time exceeds sixteen hours, the loading rate should be

decreased by 50 percent or a complete in-transit water change should be
arranged.
J. During winter, hauling temperatures of 45°F to 50°F are preferred, while 60°F
to 65°F 1.) preferred in summer.
XIV. Hauling and water quality (Job Sheet #1)

A. Dissolved oxygen
1. Dissolved oxygen is the single most important factor in hauling.

2. Oxygen consumption increases during handling and loading.
3. Provide additional oxygen (above 7 ppm but below saturation) during
loading and for the first hour of transport.
4. After tht first hour, maintain the DO level at 6 to 7 ppm.
B. Water temperature
1. Water temperature greatly influences oxygen consumption.
2. For each 1°F rise in water temperature, the fish load should be reduced
by about 5.6 percent; conversely, for every 1°F decrease in water
temperature, the fish load may be increased by 5.6 percent.
,
765
A0-805
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Ammonia
1. Excretory products lower water quality.
2. Ammonia is the main metabolic product of fish and is excreted through

the gills.
3. Total ammonia can reach 10 ppm or higher without harming the fish,
depending ont he fish load and the duration of the haul.
4. Exposure to 0.13 to 0.14 ppm of un-ionized ammonia for 6 hours or

longer, however, can adversely affect trout and other species.
5. Temperature and time of last feeding are important factors in regulating

ammonia excretion.
a. Fish under 8 inches should be starved for a minimum of 48 hours;

fish over 8 inches should be starved for a minimum of 72 hours.
b. Water temperature should be kept as low as is tolerated by the

species being transported.
D. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
1. A product of respiration, CO2 acidifies transport water.
2. Acidity reduces the effects of un-ionized ammonia and also reduces the
oxygen-carrying capacity of fish blood.
3. Trout are distressed when CO2 levels approach 25 ppm.
4. Adequate ventilation, which reduces the buildup of CO2 is necessary for

transport units.
XV. Hauling chemicals
(NOTE: Some of the following chemicals may be added to the hauling water.)
A. Water-hardening chemicals 0.1 to 0.3 percent table salt and 50 ppm

calcium chloride added to hauling water low in calcium hardens the water
decreasing stress and delaying mortality.
B. Anesthetic chemicals Fish are often anesthetized or sedated to slow their

oxygen consumption and prevent injuries caused by hyperactivity. Ouinaldine
at 15 to 30 ppm appears to be the most practical for warmwater fishes, while
MS-222 (tricaine methanesulfonate) at 0.1 to 1.0 grams per gallon in water
buffered between 7 and 8 pH is the choice for trout.
C. Bacteriostatic chemicals Nitrofurazone at 10 ppm, acriflavine at 1 to 2 ppm,

Combiotic at 15 ppm, or oxytetracycline at 20 ppm are some of the common
bacteriostatic chemicals used to decrease mortality caused by bacterial
diseases.
766
INFORMATION SHEET
D. Buffering chemicals Chemicals added to buffer the water include "tris" buffer
(tris-hydroxymenthyl-amino-methane) at 5 to 10 grams per gallon, and sodium
bicarbonate at 1 ppt.
E Antifoam chemicals Because foam interferes with gas exchange and

observation of the fish, some haulers use a 10 percent solution of Dow
Corning AF (antifoam chemical) at the rate of 1 ounce (25 mL) per 100
gallons of water.
XVI. Unloading
A. At the stocking or receiving site, the fisn must be slowly tempered to the
temperature of the receiving water, the temperature difference should not
exceed 5°F.
(NOTE: A 12-volt submersible sump pump is used to pump pond or rearing

unit water to hauling tank to temper fish.)
B. In addition, some time may be required to adjust the fish to a different ion
concentration so that they do not go into ion shock, which is particularly
damaging when fish raised in hard water are stocked in soft water.
(NOTE: There is usually no problem when fish cultured in soft water are
stocked in hard receiving water.)
C. To reduce stress, fish should be unloaded and tempered as quickly as

possible and with minimum handling.
D. All transport tanks and equipment must be disinfected as soon after delivery
as possible to avoid the spread of infectious disease. (Job Sheet #4)
XVII. Guidelines for the care of nets

A. Clean nets of debris after each use.
B. Do not roll and store wet seines and nets.
C. To prevent rot and prolong the life of seines, spread them in the sun to dry
before storing.
D. Inspect seines frequently for holes, and repair small holes before they become
large.
(NOTE: It will pay the producer to learn net maker's knots and repair
techniques.)
E. Treat nylon nets with a commercial coating that protects agairst deterioration
from sunlight, aids in the resistance of dirt and fish slime, and reduces the
incidence of abrasion damage.
F. Polyethylene nets require no treatment.
76 7
AQ-807

UNIT XIV
HANDOUT #1 - LOADING RATE TABLES
TABLE 1: Estimated Pounds of Channel Catfish That Can Be Hauled

per Gallon of Water per Unit of Transportation Time at 65°F
Weight of fish Transit period (hours)

(number per pound) 8 12 I
1 6.30 5.55 4.80

2 5.90 4.80 3.45
4 5.00 4.10 2.95
50 3.45 2 50 2.05
125 2.95 2 20 1.80
250 2.20 1.75 1.50
500 1.75 1.65 1.25
1,000 1.25 1.00 0.70
10,000 0.20 0.20 0.20
TABLE 2: Poundis of Black Bass or Sunfishes That Can Be Transported

per Gallon of Water at Temperatures of 65°F to 85°F.
Total Approx.
Weight of fish length number Pounds
(number per pound) (inches) pe: gallon per gallon
25 4 25 1.00
100 .
fa
67 0.66
400 2 200 0.50
1,000 1 333 0.33
TABLE 3: Pounds per Gallon of Rainbow Trout That

Can Be Transported Up to 8 Hours
Total Pounds
length per gallon
Number/Pound (inches)
735 1.5 0.5-1.0

155 2.5 1.0-2.0
38-20 4-5 2.0-3.0
5-1.8 8-11 2.5-3.0
7 6T
808
HANDOUT #1
TABLE 4: Capacity (Norma/ Load in Pounds of Fish per Gallon of Water

for Transporta;m1 by the Tank Method (with Agitators or Blower
Systems) of Fish in Good Condition in Hard Water at 65°F.
Type of fish and Duration of transport (hours)

average length (inches) 1 6 12 24
Fingerling food fish

2 2 1 1/2 1 1
8 3 3 2 1 1/2
Adult fool fish
14 4 4 3 2
Baitfish
2 2 1 1/2 1 1
3 3 2 1 1
The loading rate can be increased by 25% when pure oxygen is added. For each 10°F
increase in water temperature, the loading should be decreased by 25%.
A0-809
HANDOUT #1
TABLE 5: Weight (Pounds) per 1,000 Fish of Different Species,

in Relation to Total Length
Families and species'
Catfishes Sunfishes
Ti..°
(in.) CC BL FC LB By RS GS BC WC
2 2.8 3.3 3.5 5.0 5.4 5.2 3.7 3.5

21/2 4.6 5.4 6.3 7.0 9.8 10.1 10.1 7.2 7.0
3 7.7 9.0 10.7 12.3 17.2 17.6 17.4 12.2 11.8
3Y2 12.3 14.3 16.7 19.8 28.6 27.8 27.7 19.3 19.8
4 18.3 21.0 24.6 29.7 41.4 41.1 41.3 28.6 29.6
41/2 26.0 29.9 34.6 42.9 59.5 58.2 59.9 40.6 42.4
5 35.2 40.7 46.9 59.0 82.4 79.5 81.9 55.7 58.4
51/2 46.9 53.7 61.9 78.8 110 106 109 73.9 78.2
6 60.5 69.8 79.3 103 144 136 141 95.6 102
61/2 76.4 88.1 100 132 185 173 179 121 130
7 95.2 110 139 165 234 215 223 151 163
71/2 117 134 152 204 286 264 273 186 200
8 141 162 183 248 352 320 331 228 245
WA 168 - 194 218 299 416 383 396 269 ',195
9 199 229 257 354 453 321 351
91/2 233 269 303 420 532 375 414
10 272 312 350 491 619 436 484
11 376 414 471 657 573 648
12 501 532 618 857 845
13 654 680 801 1,094 1,078
14 834 872 1,014 1,373 1,351
15 1,048 1,100 1,263 1,695 1,688
16 1,297 1,366 1,558 2,073 2,031
17 1,583 1,674 1,880 2,484
18 1,914 2,029 2,255 2,958
19 2,288 2,433 2,678 3,490
20 2,709 2,891 3,152 4,082
22 3,183 3,414 3,717 4,738
(NOTE: TABLE 5 continues on next page.)
770
810
HANDOUT #1
TABLE 5: Weight (Pounds) per 1,000 Fish of Different Species,

in Relation to Total Length
Families and species
Suckers Carps and Minnows Others
SB BB CC Gf GS FM RS RT TS WB
2 4.1 7.6 5.4 3.9 3.3 2.5 3.2 3.0

21/2 8.1 13.7 9.0 5.4 7.6 4.6 5.1 5.8 7.8
3 14.0 16.2 22.2 17.0 8.6 11.0 8.8 8.8 9.6 13.3
31/2 22.4 25.7 33.4 24.5 13.5 19.8 17.6 14.9 20.8
4 33.7 38.3 47.4 40.0 19.0 24.4 25.6 21.8 31.8
41/2 48.2 54.2 64.6 31.5 28.3 35.0 29.9 44.3
5 66.3 74.2 85.0 44.0 63.9 40.3 60.6
51/2 8.6 98.3 109 60.0 52.2 80.5
6 116 127 137 104 104
61/2 167 132
7 206 174 165
71/2 247 203
8 293 218 246
8'," 344 294
9 399 328 349
91/2 460 410
10 527 449 478
11 677 535 635
12 851 681 823
13 1,050 868 1,045
14 1,276 1,086 1,303
15 1,574 1,330 1,610
16 1.903 1,674 1,940
17 2,296 2,049 2,324
18 2,747 2,335
10 3,233 2,910
20 3,776 3,267
22 4,401 3,634
'Data from various sources, but pnmanly from W. &tingle and e. Shell. 191. Tables for Computing relative conditions
of some common freshwater fishes. Alabama Agncultural Expenmental Station Circular 183. Auburn, Alabama.
'Total length (inches).
Abbreviations follow in the order shown, left to right (see Table 1.1 for scientific names. C, Catfishes, CC, channel
catfish, BF, blue catfish. FC flathead catfish. Sunfishes. LB, largemouth bass, Bg, bluegill, RS, redear sunfish. GS,
green sunfish. BC, black crappie, WC, wnite crappie. Suckers. SB, smallmouth buffalo, BB, bigmouth buffalo. Carps
and minnows. CC, common carp, Gf, goldfish, GS, golden shiner, FM, fathead minnow, RS, red shiner. Others. RT,
rainbow trout; TS, treadfin shad; WB, white bass.
AQ-811
HANDOUT #1
TABLE 6: Carrying Capacity (in Pounds) of Fish in 18- x 32-Inch

Plastic Bags Containing 2 Gallons (about 15 lb) of Water at. 65°F
Stage or (for fingerlings) Duration of transport (hours)

total length in inches 1 12 24 48
Eggs 1.0- 3.0 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.0 0.5-1.0

Fry
Yolk-sac 2.0- 6.0 1.4-5.0 0.8-4.0 0.2-2.0
Swim-up 1.0- 4.0 0.9-3.2 0.8-2.5 0.4-1.3
Fingerlings
1/2 1.8- 6.0 1.5-5.0 1.2-4.0 0.6-2.0
1 2.0- 7.0 1.7-6.0 1.3-5.0 0.7-2.5
2 2.0- 8.0 1.8-7.0 1.5-6.0 0.7-3.0
Large fish 4.0-10.0 3.0-7.5 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.5
(NOTE: Before transporting fish, the shipper should package trial boxes of fish and subject
them to the extremes of temperature and anticipated time en route to the destination. An
experienced shipper provides a sizable safety factor in loading weight to allow for delays
en route and exposure to heat.)
772
AQ-813

UNIT XIV
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1 CALCULATE LOADING RATES
Loading rates are the number of pounds of fish or eggs that can be shipped per one
gallon of water. These rates are affected by species of fish, temperature of hauling water,
distance of transport, and aeration provided. Calculating loading rates requires reading rate
tables and using simple math. Use the tables in Handout #1 to help you calculate the
loading rates for the following problems.
1. A producer is shipping twenty 4-pound channel catfish broodfish in 17- by 17-inch

plastic bags containing about 2 gallons of 65°F water. The transport will last about
20 hours. How many broodfish can the producer ship per bag?
Answer:
2. You want to ship 50 pounds of catfish eggs to a destination 12 hours away. You will
ship in 17- by 17-inch plastic ba:Is each containing 2 gallons of 65°F water. How
many bags will you need (double bagging), and how many pounds of eggs can be
loaded in each?
Answer
3. A producer wants to ship 12,000 1-pound catfish to a destination 12 hours away.

What minimum hauling capacity (in gallons) must the hauling tank have if the water
is cooleJ to 60°F and pure oxygen is used?
Answer
4. A producer wants to transport 8-inch fingerlings to a destination 24 hours away and

has a hauling truck with a tank capacity of 1,2000 gallons. How many pounds of fish
can the producer transport?
Answer
5. A baitfish producer wants to ship 3-inch fish to a market 6 hours away. The
producer's haul truck has a 600 gallon tank capacity. How many pounds of fish can
the producer load at a water temperature of 65°F? About how many fish would this
be?
Answer
6. If in problem 5 the temperature of the shipping water was increased to 75°F, how
many fewer pounds must be loaded?
Answer:
7. A producer wants to load 24,000 adult channel catfish food-fish in hard water at 70°F
for a 12-hour transport. What is the loading rate (pounds of fish per gallon)? How
many gallons of transport water are needed?
Answer
el PIO
10
814
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1
8. What is the adjusted loading rate if the producer in problem 7 decreases the water
temperature by 10°F and uses pure oxygen?
Answer
774
AQ-815

UNIT XIV
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2 OBSERVE AND REPORT ON

A COMMERCIAL HARVEST
Your instuctor will arrange for you to observe a commercial fish harvest. Pay close
attention to the equipment anJ procedures used. Follow the guidelines below to ask
questions and take notes. After the harvest, write a report and present your findings to the
class.
Date of harvest
Place of harvest
Name of owner or operator
Weather conditions
Kind of fish harvested
Time harvest began Time harvest ended
Number of laborers
Type of seines used
Sizing and grading system
Water temperature in pond In transport vehicle
Approximate number of fish harvested
Approximate weight of fish harvested
Approximate value of fish harvested
Distance to processing facility
Mortality rate at pond site
Special equipment required
Chemicals required (pond and transport)
Items of special interest such as emergency equipment on standby, age of pond, success
or failure in previous harvests, plans for restocking and future harvests.
775
AQ-817

UNIT XIV
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3 SURVEY YOUR AREA AND STATE FOR LAWS

AND REGULATIONS CONCERNING INTERSTATE AND INTRASTATE SHIPPING
Who is responsible for fish that die shortly after deliverythe producer, the harvester/
hauler, or the buyer? Can you transport Mississippi catfish to Oklahoma? Can you
transport tilapia from eastern to western Oklahoma? What permits do you need to ship fish
by air? By rail? By truck? What species can be shipped?
In this assignment sheet, you will try to find the answers to these and other questions
regarding state and area shipping laws and regulations. Start yuur search for information
by contacting your Cooperative Extension Service and estab!ished fish farmers in your
area. Read as much literature on the subject as you can. After you have completed your
research, report your findings to the class.
Guidelines:
Telephone number of Cooperative Extension Service
Address
Agent or representative contacted
Other persons or agencies contacted
1,11agazines, bulletins, books, and other published information consulted
776
AQ-819

UNIT XIV
JOB SHEET #1 CHECK WATER TEMPERATURE AND OTHER SHIPPING

PARAMETERS FOR SHIPPING FISH
1. Fahrenheit thermometer
2. DO meter
3. Hach test kit
4. Ice
5. Four 3-mil 18-by-24-inch plastic shipping bags
6. Dip nets
7. Rubberbands
8. One pound of 1/2-inch fingerlings that have been feeding
9. One pound of 1/2-inch fingerlings that have not been fed in 24 hours
10. Two uninsulated cardboard boxes 12" x 12" x 24", or styrofoam box 24" x 23"
x 12" and uninsulated cardboard box large enough to hold the insulated one.
B. Procedure
1. Double the bags by slipping one inside the other, and use marker to label the
two doubled bags: "Bag #2/NF" (no feed), and "Bag #2/F".
2. Measure two gallons of shipping water into each of the plastic bags.
3. Take and record temperature of shipping water in each bag.
4. If water is above 65°F, add about one pound of ice, allow to dissolve, and
take temperature again.
(NOTE: One-half pound of ice reduces the temperature of one gallon of water
by about 10 degrees.)
5. Repeat step 3 until water temperature in each bag is between 60°F and 65°F;
record temperature.
Bag #1/NF, temperature = Bag #2/F, temperature =
6. Use meter to measure DO content of the shipping water in each bag; DO

content should be optimum for species being shipped.
Bag #1/NF, DO = Bag #2/F, DO =
777
820
JOB SHEET #1
7. Measurd levels of carbon dioxide in each sample, following directions with

Hach kit; water should be free of these compounds.
Bag #1/NF, CO2 = Bag #2/F, CO2 =

8. Measure ammonia (NH3) levels in each bag.
Bag #1/NF, ammonia = Bag #2/F, ammonia

9. Measure total alkalinity; it should be 90 ppm or above (as calcium bicar-
bonate).
Bag #1/NF, totaralkalinity Bag #2/F, total alkalinity

10. Measure pH, following directions with Hatch kit; pH should be near 7.5.
Bag #1/NF, pH Bag #2/F, pH

11. Dip-net sample unfed fish into Bag #1/NF and a sample of fed fish into Bag
#2/F.
12 Expel air from bags with hands, reinflate bags with compressed oxygen, twist
tops closed, bend tops over, and secure with a rubberband.
13 Place each bag in an uninsulated cardboard or styrofoam box in a cool area,
and wait 8 hours.
14. At the end of 8 hours, unseal bags, examine fish, and remeasure temperature,
DO, and CO2. Compare these measurements to your original measurements.
Bag #1/NF Bag #2/F

Condition of fish
Water temperature
Eight-hour DO
Eight-hour CO2
15. Use hatch kit to measure ammonia level in each bag and compare to your
original measurements.
Bag #1/NF, eight-hour NH3

,
Bag #2/F, eight-hour NH3
PI pay ri
o ( 45
.1101. IMMEII-
r
AQ-821
JOB SHEET #1
16. Repeat steps 1 through 15, but this time wait overnight.
Bag #1/NF Bag #2/F
Condition of fish
Water temperature
Overnight DO
Overnight CO2
Overnight NH3
17. Repeat steps 1 through 15, but this time instead of sealing bags as in step
12, leave bags open and unscaled; wait 8 hours.
Bag #1/NF Bag #2/F
Condition of fish
Water temperature
Eight-hour DO
Eight-hour CO2
Eight-houl NH3
18. What conclusions can you draw by comparing your readings?
(NOTE: Your instructor may ask you to add shipping chemicals to the original
shipping water and to then measure and compare chemistry of both shipping
water samples.)
19. Return equipment to proper storage.
779
AQ-823

UNIT XIV
JOB SHEET #2 GRADE FISH
1. Holding tank panel graders of decreasing bar widths selected for desired sizes
of species (See Table 1 in Information Sheet)
2. Box grader of selected bar spacing for desired size of species (See Table 1
in Information Sheet)
3. Crowder panel
4. Dip net
5. Holding tank containing various sizes of species to be graded
B. Procedure for grading with panel graders
1. Crowd fish a* the foot of holding tank by inserting crowder panel at the head
of the tank and moving it slowly toward the foot.
2. Insert selected grading panels in tank, arranging them so that the ba- space
gets progressively smaller toward the head of the tank.
3. Fish will grade themselves as they swim toward the incoming water.
4. Take care that fish do not become crowded in any compartment.
C. Procedure for grading with grader box
1. Place floating grader box in empty holding tank or in holding tank containing
smal!er fish of the size to be graded out.
2. Dip-net fish to be graded from adjacent tank or from bucket, and place in
grader box.
3. After smaller fish have swum from box, place fish retained in box in adjacent
tank.
(NOTE: Thump the water surface to speed grading procedure.)
4. Repeat this process until you have accumulated a load of a particular size fish.
78 0
AQ-825

UNIT XIV
JOB SHEET #3 PACKAGE FISH IN A PLASTIC BAG
1. Polyethylene bags, 18" x 32" , 3-mil for baitfish or hobby fish, 4-mil for large
sport fish, or 6-mil for channel catfish
2. Small plastic bags of ice or commercial "blue ice"
3. Uninsulated cardboard box 12" x 12" x 24", or styrofoam box 24" x 23" x 12"
and uninsulated cardboard box large enough to hold insulated one
4. Diabasic sodium phosphate, tris buffer, or sodium bicarbonate
5. Acriflavine, nitrofurazone, or oxytetracycline
6. Salt (and MS-222 if desired)
7. Measuring teaspoon and gallon measure
8. Compressed oxygen
9. Rubberbands
10. Shipping label and pan
11. Dip nets
B. Procedure
1. Add accurately measured transport chemicals to shipping water as necessary

and at recommended rates; read labels carefully.
2. Fill doubled plastic bag with about two gallons of 65c:: water.
3. Dip fish into bag at stocking rate recommended in Table 1.
4. Deflate bag by pressuring out the air with your hands.
5. Reinflate bag with compressed oxygen.
6. Twist top of bag, bend top down, and secure tightly by twisting a rubberband
around it.
7. . Place plastic bag in uninsulated cardboard or styrofoam shipping container.
781
826
JOB SHEET #3
8. Place small bags of ice around bag.
(NOTE: Sometimes shippers add ice directly to the shipping water. However,
direct application of ice cools the water too rapidly for some species of fish
such as fathead minnows, tropical fish, and fry of all species.)
9. Close cardboard container and label for shipment.
782
L-
AQ-827

UNIT XIV
JOB SHEET #4 DISINFECT FISH TRANSPORT TANKS AND EQUIPMENT
1. Fluid and dry weight measuring utensils
2. Water source and hose
3. Empty transport tanks, nets, buckets, rubber gloves and boots, and any other
piece of equipment, including transfer pipes, that came in contact with
transported fish or transport water
4. Calcium hypochlorite base, 65% available chlorine (HTH)
5. Glacial acetic acid
6. pH test kit
B. Procedure
1. Pill tank or other container with desired amourt of water.
2. Test for pH; if pH is above 6, add one fluid ounce of glacial acetic acid per
100 gallons of water.
3. Mix water and acetic acid well.
(CAUTION: NEVER ADD THE ACID TO THE DRY HTH. ADDING THE ACID
TO THE DRY POWDER MAY CAUSE AN EXPLOSION.)
4. Add Y2 ounce of HTH per twenty-five gallons of acidified water.
5. Submerge smaller objects to be disiofectednets, boots, gloves, etc. in

solution container.
6. Allow mixture to sit for 30 minutes in tank or container.
7. Flush tanks, transfer pipe, and pumps thoroughly.
8. Remove objects from container, empty container, and let disinfected equipment
ail dry.
(NOTE. Often compiote dryingparticularly in the sundisinfects equipment.)
9. Repeat disinfection procedure after each use. Use Table 1 to calculate

required concentration of HTH and glacial acetic acid for tanks of difference
capacities.
783
828
JOB SHEET #4
TABLE 1: Amounts of HTH and Glacial Acetic Acid for

Different Tank capacities
Tank Capacity (gallons) HTH (oz.) Glacial Acetic Acid (oz.)

150 3 1.5
600 12 6.0
1,200 24 12.0
2,500 50 25.0
Dupree and Huner, "Transportation of Live Fish," Third Report to the Fish Farmers, p. 175.
784
AQ-829
HARVESTING AND H.P4ULING

UNIT XIV
PRACTICAL TEST #1
JOB SHEET #1 CHECK WATER TEMPERATURE AND OTHER PARAMETERS
FOR SHIPPING FISH
Student's name Date
procedure Rnd complete this form. All items listed under "Process Evaluation" must
receive a -ies" for you to receive an overall performance evaluation.
PROCESS EVALUATION
The student: Yes No
1. Prepared and labeled bags properly. DI ID

2. Recorded temperature in bags properly. El 0
3. Made chemical and DO measurements properly. 0 0
4. Sealed bags. CI ED
5. Repeated tests after eight hours. 0 0

6. Compared and recorded results. CI ED
7. Repeated tests after an overnight wait. DI ID

8. Compared and recorded results. El 0
9. Repeated process with unsealed bags. DI ID
10. Returned equipment to proper storage. CI ED
785
830
PRODUCT EVALUATION
student materials should be reviewed and anothe- test procedure must be submitted for
evaluation.)
Criteria:
Equipment Good Acceptable Fair Poor
Selection 4 3 2 1
All Mostly Poorly Improperly

Procedure completed completed completed completed
4 3 2 1
Carefully Properly Poorly Improperly

Use of chemicals used used used used
4 3 2 1
Well Acceptably Poorly Improperly

Safety observed observed observed observed
4 3 2 1


criteria.)
78C
AQ-831

UNIT XIV
PRACTICAL TEST #2
JOB SHEET #2 GRADE FISH
Student's name Date
PROCESS EVALUATION
or nct the student has satisfactorily achieved each step in this procedure. If the student
is unable to achieve this competency, have the student review the materials and tru again.)
The student: Yes No
1. Prepared panel grading tank properly. 0 0

2. Used crowder panel to move fish. 0 0
3. Inserted grading panels in declining sequence and
permitted fish to grade themselves. 0 0
4. Prepared grader box properly. 0 0
5. Dip-netted fish to be graded with care. 0 0
6. Permitted smaller fish to swim from box. 0 0
7. Repeated procedure as needed to obtain quantity of one-
size fish.
8. Returned equipment to proper storage.
Evaluator's Comments.
787
832
PRODUCT EVALUATION
numbers. Each item must be rated at least a 113" for mastery to be demonstrated. (See
evaluation.)
Criteria:
Tank Good Acceptable Fair Poor

Preparation 4 3 2 1
Crowder Slow and

Panel Use proper Acceptable Too fast Unacceptable
4 3 2 1
Dip Net Use Good Fair Poor Unacceptable

4 3 2 1
Grader Box Use Good Fair Poor Unacceptable

4 3 2 1

1 Unskilled Is familiar with process, but is unablc o pot-form job.
[
(EVALUATOR'S NOTE: If an average score is needed to complete a competency profile,

criteria.)
768
o
AQ-833

UNIT XIV
PRACTICAL TEST #3
JOB SHEET #3 PACKAGE FISH IN A PLASTIC "IAG
Student's name Date
procedure and complete this form. All iter'c listed under "Process Evaluation" must
PROCESS EVALUATION
(EVALUATOR NOTE: Place a check mark in the "Yes" or 'No" blanks to indicate whether
The student: Yes No
1. Prepared plastic bag properly. 0 0

2. Added chemicals in proper quantity. El El
3. Filled bag with appropriate stocking rate. 0 0
4. Deflated bag and reinflated bag with compressed oxygen. 0 0
5. Placed bags properly in shipping containers. EJ 0
6. Closed shipping containers. 0 0 /
7. Returned equipment to proper storage. El 0 I
I
Evaluator's Comments'
789
834
PRODUCT EVALUATION
performance evaluation key odow.) If the student is unable to demonstrate mastery,
evaluation.)
Criteria:

Selection 4 3 2 1
All Mostly Poorly Improperly

4 3 2 1

4 3 9 1

4 3 2 1

4 Skilled Can perform job with no additional traini' .g.
2 -- Limited skill Has performed job during training program; additional
1 Unskilled Is familar with process, but ic unable to perform job.
(EVALUATORS NOTE. If an average score is needed to complete a competency profile,

criteria.)
7 90
AO-835

UNIT XIV
PRACTICAL TEST #4
JOB SHEET #4 DISINFECT FISH TRANSPORT TANKS AND EQUIPMENT
Student's Name Date
PROCESS EVALUATION
The student: Yes No
1. Prepared tank and checked for pH. 0 0

2. Added acetic acid. El Ej
3. dandled acid and HTH safely. El El
4. Disinfected all smaller equipment in tank. El El
5. Emptied tank and allowed it to air dry. 0 0
6. Reviewed tank capacities and chemical requirements. El ID
7. Returned equipment to proper storage. El El
791
836
PRODUCT EVALUATION
evaluation.)
Criteria:

Selection 4 3 2 1
Ali Mostly Poorly Improperly

4 3 2 1

4 3 2 1

4 3 2 1

traini. g is required to deve Dp skill.

total the designated points io "Product Evaluation" and divide by the total number of
criteria.)
AQ-837

UNIT XIV
TES)
NAME SCORE
1. Match terms related to harvesting and hauling with their definitions. Write the correct
a. Process of lowering the water level of 1. Total harvest

a pond, or completely draining a pond
2. Multiple harvest
b. Gradually acclimating (accustoming) fish
to changes in water chemistry or 3. Seine
temperature
4. Toggle
c. Harvesting strategy that involves one-
time seining or trapping and annual 5. Snatch block
drainiro of pond
6. Antibiotic
d. Chemical that stops growth of bacteria
and other micro-organisms 7. Bacteriostat
e. Long piece of netting with a series of 8. Anesthetizing

floats on the top and lead weights on compound
the bottom, the sides may be supported
with brails (wooden poles) or equipped 9. Tempering
with haul lines
10. Off flavor
Pulley
11. Understocking
Musty, muddy taste of fish flesh
generally caused by some blue-green 12. Trammel seine
algae and bacteria
13. Drawdown
Agent used to sedate fish and slow
their metabolic rate
A pin or rod inserted through a loop of

haul line to attach it to the seine
Harvesting strategy that requires

numerous yearly seinings or trappings
and complete draining of pond each 6
to 8 years
k. Stocking smaller sized fingerlings along

with larger fish
TEST
I. Chemical that kills or controls the

growth of bacteria and other
microorganisms
m. Periodically harvesting marketable fish

from the rearing unit and stocking
smaller fish
n. A seine with two course outer nets that

support a fine-mesh inner net which
fish swim into and force through the
course layers, trapping themselves as
the fine-mesh net is forced in around
them
2. r,nguish between advantages of total and partial harvest. Write "TH" before
advantages of total harvest and "PH" before advantages of partial harvest.
a. Allows the producer the security of contracting for the sale of an entire
crop at one time.
b. Can be used to harvest all types of rearing units, particularly those

ponds with deep water and irregular bottoms and banks.
c. Requires only one labor-intensive harvesting period per season.
d. Allows the producer to periodically harvest whatever quantity and size

fish d'isired.
.....e. Allows the producer to market fish when the market price is optimum.
f. Allows for disease, weed, and predator treatment of pond bottom.
g. Is the only method that allows for harvesting nearly 100 percent of the
crop.
h. Tends to increase total production because fish can be harvested near

the point where their growth rate falls off and the rearing unit can be
understocked.
i. Allows for multiple use of land as crops may be grown on the pond
bottom during the period that the pond is empty.
_____i. Produces year-round supply of fish to market.
k. Increases cash flow but requires more capital.
7 94
-marammaumimmarais
AQ-839
TEST
3. Distinguish between limitations of total and partial harvest. Write "TH" in the blanks
before limitations of total hardest and "PH" in the blanks before limitations of partial
harvest.
a. Requires many labor-intensive harvesting periods.
b. Means harvesting during hot summer months when fish are more prone
to stress and disease.
c. Depends on even growth rate and the assumption that all fish will be
marketable at harvest time.
d. Restricts the producer to the maiket price at time of harvest.
e. Means lost feeding days and a fuel bill if pumping is required to refill
the rearing units.
f. If method is used too often, causes fish baited into the seines or traps
to become wary of trapping methods and difficult to catch.
g. Requires scraping out and treating of rearing unit or pond bottom, which
can be time consuming, especially if potholes and low areas exist in the
pond.
h. Requires extra capital to replace stock.
4. Select from a list guidelines for quality control. Write an "X" in the blank before
a. If fish are to be sold to a processing plant, contact the processor at

least one week before harvest because fish must be tested for off-flavor
at least once before harvest.
b. Use a harvesting method that reduces the chances of muddying the

water, as muddy waters can create off-flavor problems.
c. Harvest in the warmest weather possible; avoid harvesting after blue-

green algae bloom or after a stormy period that has muddied the water.
d. Before and during harvesting of food fish, sample for off-flavor by

cooking and tasting a sample.
e. If off-flavor is detected, hold fish until off-flavor disappears.
795
840
TEST
5. Match harvesting equipment with their correct uses. Write the correct numbers in
the blanks.
a. Trapping seine used in deep ponds 1. Lead-line seine

with irregular shorelines
2. Mud-line seine
b. Round seine hand-thrown for partial
harvests or periodic sampling of 3. Corral seine
surface-feeding fish
4. Lift seine
c. This seine can be attached and
detached from the harvesting seine 5. Cast net
using c.: loading frame and drawstrings;
used widely for harvesting and grading 6. Live-car seine
catfish, these seines are anchored with
stakes and supported with support rods 7. Brailing bag
so that fish can be removed from them
for transport.
d. Netting sack with metal-framed mouth

used to scoop fish from the harvest
sine
e. Full-pond seine with bottom line of

multiple strands of rope to prevent the
digging effect of weighted lines
f. Trapping seine with bottom line of

leaded rope; used for multiple harvest
_g. Square or rectangular trapping seine on

a metal frame; used on ponds with
irregular bottoms and for baitfish and
other scaled species
Traps
a. Used in ponds with seining ,pbstacles, 1. Panel trap

this trap consists of chicken-wire
screened wooden panels that are 2. Cylinder trap
installed gradually so as not to interrupt
fish feeding
b. One foot in diameter and 2 feet long,

these traps may have one or two
funnels and are primarily used to
harvest fathead minnows.
79 6
AQ-841
TEST
Miscellaneous harvesting equipment
a. Used to store, transport, and gather in 1. Dip net

large harvesting seines
2. Hydraulic powered
b. Used to catch the top of the seine and seine reel
pull it forward, freeing the bottom line
from the mud 3. Tractor or truck with
boom wench
c. Used to lift fish from seine to transport
truck 4. Seine stakes
d. Used in trout raceways and large tanks 5. Seine assist

to pipe fish and water directly from
seine to grading bin above hauling tank 6. Fish pump
e. Container used to transfer fish from 7. Fish basket

harvest site to transport truck or holding
tanks; used to store, transport, and
gather in large harvesting
f. Used to dip fish from sines, holding

tanks, and transport tanks
____.9. Used to support sides of seine to

prevent fish from escaping
6. Match grading equipment with their correct uses. Write the correct numbers in the
blanks.
a. Used in shed grading to allow for hand- 1. Sorting tables

grading of fish and culling of deformed
fish 2. Net grader
_b. Barred panel used in holding tank to 3. Grader box

grade fingerlings and baitfish
4. Panel grader
c. Generally used for in-pond grading
within the harvesting seine
d. Container used to grade small fish such

as baitfish or fingerlings in holding
trough
797
842
TEST
7. Select pre-harvest guidelines from a list. Write an "X" in the blank before each
guideline.
a. Choose a harvesting method that fits your marketing strategy, your

species, and pond type.
b. Determine whether you will harvest your own crop or hire custom
harvesters.
c. Do not feed fish at least 1 hour before harvesting.
d. After harvest, sample food fish for off-flavor to ensure that fish will not
be refused by the processor or buyer.
e. Make sure that all needed equipment is available, in good repair, and
sterilized before you begin harvesting; have all harvesting equipment
ready at the grading shed.
t. Make sure that all needed equipment is available, in good repair, and
sterilized before you begin harvesting; have all harvesting equipment
ready at the grading shed.
_g. Take special care to ensure that aeration equipment and backup
aeration are available and functioning properly.
h. Keep complete and accurate records of fish numbers, sizes, weights,

mortality, disease and parasite problems, chemicals used, date and time
of harvest, and market price.
8 Complete statements about harvesting techniques and procedures. Write the correct
Seining
a. that might tear the seine are removed from the pond.
1) Large fish, turtles, and aquatic vegetation

2) Large rocks and submerged stumps
3) Sticks, branches, and other debris
b. The seine is played out _, and the haul lines are attached to seine
brails or toggles are lead through snatch blocks along and then to
a powered line hauler or to a tractor equipped with a line hauler.
1) along the levee opposite the landing site (usually the shallow end);
the lateral pond banks
2) along the levee at the landing site usually the shallow end); the
parallel pond banks
3) along the two shortest sides of the pond; the dam (usually the
deepest end)
o
798
1
AQ-843
c. As the net ends approach the snatch blocks, the haul lines are and
taken along the bank to the next set of snatch blocks or to the landing
site.
1) replaced
2) released
3) doubled
d. To avoid , usually hauling is stopped while the seine bag is still well
out in the pond.
1) snagging the seine

2) overcrowding the fish
3) overloading the seine hauler
e. When the catch is exceptionally large, seine is used inside the large
seine.
1) a lift
2) an umbrella
3) a cutting
f. Seined fish are scooped into a boom-mounted , weighed on an in-

line scale, and lifted to the aerated hauling truck; or they may be
pumped to !he transport vehicle with a fish pump.
1) brailing bag
2) lift seine
3) funnel trap
g. Short seines are pulled .
1) with a mechanical seine hauler

2) with a seine assist
3) by hand
Corral seine trapping
a. The seine is arranged and the lead ropes are drawn to shore where
the seine is to be loaded.
1) in a corner of the pond

2) as close to the center of the pond as possible
3) in deep water at the drain end of the pond
b. feed is scattered between the seine and the shore.
1) Sinking
2) Floating
3) High-protein
799
844
TEST
c. Fish swim to feed, and after several days, when the fish are
accustomed to feeding within the area, the seine ends are pulled to
shore with the attached ropes, thus enclosing the fish.
1) to the surface
2) through the seine netting
3) around the ends of the seine
d. The entire seine is , and the fish are dip-netted out and loaded.
1) lifted from the water on a fulcrum
2) pulled close to shore
3) boom lifted to the haul truck
e. The corral seine technique cannot be used more than because fish
become wary of the net.
1) once a day
2) once a week
3) once a month
f. Harvesting can be .
1) concentrated in different areas of the pond

2) alternated among ponds and at different areas of large ponds
3) accomplished on an alternate month basis
Drop-seine trapping
a. This technique works well in
1) week-choked ponds and ponds with small cleared areas

2) large levee ponds
3) deep ponds with irregular bottoms
b. In this technique, a seine is set in a semicircle around a feeding

station and the ends of the seine are attached to the shore
1) lift
2) submergible
3) corral
_c. Portions of the net are lifted off the pond bottom and hung on _,
providing "doors" to the feeding site
1) toggles
2) triggers
3) brailers
80 0
AQ-845
TEST
d. When these devices are pulled, .
1) the seine float line inflates raising it to the surface and trapping
the fish
2) the seine is raised by means of a fulcrum pole and the fish are
trapped
3) the seine net falls to the bottom, encircling the fish that have
come to feed
e. The trapped fish are then generally netted with .
1) a shorter cutting seine

2) dip nets
3) a live car seine
f. Catfish do not usually feed in the trap for weeks after the net has
been positioned, and require days to become reacclimated after
each drop.
1) 3 or 6; 1 to 2
2) 2 or 3; 8 to 10
3) 1 or 2; 3 to 7
Lift net trapping

a. A lift net is lowered to the bottom of the pond, and fish are baited
over the top of the net.
1) triangular
2) round or oblong
3) square or rectangular
b. When fish are accustomed to feeding within the net, it is raised , and
the trapped fish are lifted to the transport tank.
1) with a fulcrum pole

2) with a hydraulic boom
3) with a seine hauler
c. The mesh size may be adjusted to make this seine .
1) self-adjusting
2) self-grading
3) self-harvesting
801
846
TEST
Simple traps
a. Cylinder traps with entrances are baited and placed in shallow areas
where fish frequently feed.
1) funnel-type
2) panel
3) trigger-set
b. The location of the traps are marked with .
1) poles or buoys
2) sensors
3) brails
c. Traps are checked periodically and when enough Vsh have become
trapped, the traps are emptied into buckets for transfer to .
1) market
2) prow-out ponds
3) 'ioiding or transport tanks
Fish pump
a. The amount of fish to be transported in a hauling tank is weighed,

counted, and separated, usually by .
1) partitioning off a portion of the raceway

2) dip-netting to holding tanks
3) grading with panel graders
b. The fish are then crowded toward the pump's

1) overflow pipe
2) submerged intake
3) submerged outlet
c. Fish are pumped up to water-filled hauling unit where .
1) fish and water are separated

2) fish are weighed
3) fish are measured and water is weighed
8 02
AQ-847
TEST
9. Select from the list factual statements a out pond to shed transport procciures.
write an "X" in the blank before each cor ect statement.
_a. Transporting fish from the reading unit to the shipping shed is the least
important part of the harvesting prc.'ess.
b. The hauling unit must be large enough to accommodate fish without

crowding, and should be filled with clean, well-aerated water if the pond
is one-half or more miles from the shed.
c. Because they are held in small amounts of water, fish placed in tubs
or buckets can experience a rapid rise in water temperature and a
corresponding drop in DO.
d. Fish harvested in winter can experience cold shock because of the

difference between rearing unit water temperature and air temperature;
winter harvesting fish must be immediately placed in transport containers
with as little exposure to the air as possible.
e. Cooler water reduces self-inflicted injuries and lowers stress and

metabolism.
f. Channel catfish and golden shiners harvested in the summer may be

put into water 10 to 15 degrees cooler than the pond water, while water
temperature difference for most other species should not exceed 5
degrees.
.9. In addition to lowering the water temperature, the farmer can add up to
1 percent table salt, antibiotics or bacteristats, and anesthetizing agent
to the shed transport water.
10. Completed statements about holding practices. Write the correct numbers in the
blanks.
a. It is often necessary to hold , baitfish, and sport fishes for several

days after harvest.
1) channel catfish fingerlings

2) rainbow trout
3) hobby and ornamental fish
b. Keeping fish in good condition during this period is very important:

are best, especially during hot weather, and adequate supplies of
oxygenated water must be available.
1) shaded open ponds

2) recirculating outdoor ponds
3) covered facilities
8 03
-
848
TEST
c. Holding tanks may be concrete or fiberglass, and are either round or

rectangular; a tank 4 feet by 10 feet with 2 feet of water holds about
gallons of water and can carry pounds of fish if sufficient
aeration and water exchange are provided.
1) 200; 100
2) 400; 200
3) 500; 300
d. While fish are in lidding tanks, they call be treated for infectious
diseases and parasites, graded, and held for a sufficient length of time
to recover from the effects of the chemicals and drugs; they are also
1) inoculated against certain diseases

2) acclimated to handling and transport
3) fed intensively
e. Food fish, large sport fish, and even minnows are often held ; plastic
containers similar to fish cages are also used to hold fish in ponds
before transportation.
1) in brailing bags
2) in the pond in live-cars
3) in corral seines
f. Fish should be before they are placed in holding tanks or live-cars;

live cars must be properly staked to prevent fish imm escaping.
1) counted and weighed

2) anesthetized
3) inoculated
11. Complete statements about grading practices. Write the correct numbers in the
blanks.
a. To insure uniformity of size, some grading is usually required with

as well as with foe,' fish.
1) broodfish
2) fingerlings
3) fry
b. , net graders, panel graders and grading boxes are used to sort fish
by size and to remove any foreign fish, plants, tadpoles, or other
undesired animals.
1) Transport tanks
2) Hauling buckets
31 Sorting tables
804
AQ-849
TEST
c. Food fish grading is often done in the rearing unit with and other
net graders.
1) live-cars
2) dip nets
3) umbrella nets
d. Fingerlings and baitfish are usually graded in the shipping shed at the
time of sale; they are graded in holding tanks with panel graders or
grading boxes so that they can be sorted without .
1) being handled with dip nets

2) being anesthetized
3) being counted
e. To avoid undue stress, shipping shed grading should not be attempted

until several after the fish have been remov6d from the rearing unit.
1) weeks
2) days
3) hours
f. Small fish should be graded out of the population first, and the quantity
of fish in the grader at an one time should not exceed pounds per
cubic foot of capacity.
1) 4
2) 5
3) 6
In culture the need for grading is minimized by feeding techniques

that provide access to food by less aggressive fish.
1) catfish
2) hobby fish
3) trout
12. Select factual statements about hauling equipment. Write the correct numbers in the
blanks.
a. Which of the following are the most commonly used hauling truck sizes?
1) 11/2, 11/2, 2 ton

3/4,
2) 1/2, 1 and 11/2 ton
3) 2 ton
b. Which of the following statements is NOT true?
1) Some producers use gooseneck trailers attached to a pickup truck.

2) Some haulers use large tandem units.
3) Most commonly, haulers use fleets of mid-sized trucks for
convenience.
805
850
TEST
c. Which of the following materials may be used for hauling tank

construction?
1) Steel reinforced concrete

2) Plastic or styrofoam
3) aluminum, fiberglass, or marine plywood
d. Which of the following are reasons for dividing the hauling tank into
compartments?
1) Facilitating hauling several species at one time and making

possible partial unloadings
2) Preventing disease spread
3) Making unloading faster and easier
e. Which of the following is NOT a factor that dictates the types of life
support equipment used?
1) Size of hauling truck

2) Hauling distance
3) Type of hauling tank
f. Which of the following are standard equipment for all transport units?
1) Grading screens and grading boxes

2) nets, tubs, and a scale
3) Recirculating pumps and liquid oxygen chillers
13. Solve the following problems regarding loading procedures and rates. Write your
answers in the blanks.
a. You have 300 gallons of water at 78°F, and you want to temper it to 68°F with
ice. Approximately how many pounds of ice will yo need, and how long will
it take to reduce the water temperature?
Pounds of ice =
Time to temper to 68°F =
b. You have 500 gallons of water at 65°F. How many pounds of catfish can you
transport?
No. of pounds =
c. How many pounds of catfish could you transport in problem b if you used pure
oxygen?
.
No. of pounds =
80C
I
AQ-851
TEST
d. How many fewer pounds could you transport in pi oblem b if you raised the
water temperature 20 degrees?
No. of pounds =
e. How much would a loading rate of 1400 pounds be reduced for a 12-hour
transport? For a 16-hour transport?
12-hour transport rate =
16-hour transport rate =
14. Select from a iist factual statements about hauling and water quality. Write an "X"
a. Ammonia is the single most important factor in hauling.
b. Fish under 8 inches should be starved for a minimum of 43 hours.
c. Ammonia is the main metabolic product of fish and is excreted through

the gills.
d. Provide additional oxygen (above 10 ppm but below saturation) during

loading and for the first hour of transport.
e. For each 10°F rise in water temperature, the fish load should be reduced
by 6.5 percent.
f. For every 1°F decrease in water temperature, the fish load should be
increased by 5.6 percent.
g. Trout and othel species can be adversely affected by exposure to 0.13

to 0.14 ppm unionized ammonia.
h. Oxygen consumption decreases during handling and loading.
J. Total ammonia can reach 10 ppm or higher without harming the fish,
depending on the fish load and duration of haul.
__j. Trout are distressed when CO2 levels approach 25 ppm.
k. A product of respiration, CO2 neutralizes transport water.
80 7
852
TEST
15 Match hauling chemicals with their descriptions/rates. Write the correct numbers in
the blanks. Each number will be used twice.
a. 0.1 to 0.3 percent table salt and 50 1. Water hardening

ppm calcium chloride chemicals
b. 10 percent solution of Dow Corning AF 2. Anesthetic chemicals
at a rate of 1 ounce (25 mL) per 100
gallons of water 3. Bacteriostatic
chemicals
c. 10 ppm nitrofurazone, 1 to 2 ppm
acriflavine, 15 ppm Combiotic, or 20 4. Buffering chemicals
ppm oxytetracycline
5. Antifoam chemicals
d. Chemicals used to neutralize the water
e. Chemicals used to harden the water to

decrease stress and delay mortality
L Chemicals used to eliminate foam that

interferes with gas exchange and
observation of fish
15 to 30 ppm Quinaldine for warmwater

fishes; 0.1 to 1.0 grams per gallon MS-
222 (tricaine methanesulfonate) in water
buffered between 7 and 8 pH for trout
h. Tris-hydroxymenthyl-amino-methane at
5 to 10 grams per gallons and sodium
bicarbonate at 1 ppt
i. Chemicals used to lessen mortality

caused by bacterial diseases
I. Chemicals used to anesthetize or

sedate fish to slow their oxygen
consumption and prevent injuries
caused by hyperactivity
16 Complete statements about unloading procedures. Write the correct numbers in the
blanks.
a. At the stocking or receiving site, the fish must be slowly tempered to

the temperature of the receiving water; the temperature difference should
not exceed .
1) 15°F
2) 10°F
3) 5°F
808
AQ-853
TEST
b. In addition, some time may be required to adjust the fish to different

so that they do not go into shock, which is particularly damaging
when fish raised in hard water are stocked in soft water.
1) pH levels; acid
2) ion concentration; ion
3) mineral content; aqua
c. To reduce , fish should be unloaded and tempered as quickly as
possible and with minimum handling.
1) stress
2) shock
3) disease
d. All transport tanks and equipment must be as soon after delivery

as possible to avoid the spread of infectious disease.
1) disinfected
2) sterilized
3) hosed down
17. Select from a list guidelines for the care of nets. Write an "X" in the blank before
a. Clean nets at least once a week.
b. Do not roll and store wet seines and nets.
c. To prevent rot and prolong the life of seines, do not expose them to the
sun before storing.
d. Inspect seines frequently for holes, and repair small holes before they
become large.
e. Treat cotton nets with a commercial coating that protects against

deterioration from sunlight, aids in the resistance of dirt and fish slime,
and reduces the incidence of abrasion and damage.
f. Polyethylene nets require no treatment
(NOTE. Test questions 18 thriugh 21 list the assignment and job sheets. If they have
not been completed, check with your instructor for scheduling and evaluation procedures.)
18. Calculate loading rates. (Assignment Sheet #1)
19. Observe and report on a commercial harvest. (Assignment Sheet #2)
20. Survey your area and state for laws and regulations concerning interstate and
intrastate shipping. (Assignment Sheet #3)
80 9
854
TEST
a. Check water temperature and other shipping parameters. (Job Sheet #1)
b. Grade fish. (Job Sheet #2)
c. Package fish in a plastic bag. (Job Sheet #3)
d. Disinfect fish transport tanks and equipment. (Job Sheet #4)
81 0
AQ-855

UNIT XIV
ANSWERS TO TEST
1. a. 13 h. 8
b. 9 i. 4
C. 1 j. 2
d. 7 k. 11
e. 3 I. 6
f. 5 m. 12
g. 10
2. a. TH g. TH
b. PH h. PH
C. TH I. TH
d. PH j. PH
e. PH k. PH
f. TH
3. a. PH e. TH
b. PH f. PH
C. TH g. TH
d. TH
4. b, d, e
5. Seines
a. 3 e. 2
b. 6 f. 5
C. 7 g. 1
d. 8 h. 4
Traps
a. 1
b. 3
C. 2
Miscellaneous harvesting equipment

a. 2 e. 4
b. 5 f. 7
c. 3 g. 1
d. 6
6. a. 1
b. 4
C. 2
d. 3
811
856
ANSWERS TO TEST
7. a, b, d, e, h
8. Seining
a. 3 e. 3
b. 2 f. 1
c. 2 g. 3
d. 2
Corral seine trapping

a. 1 d. 2
b. 1 e. 2
c. 3 f. 2
Drop-seine trapping
a. 1 d. 3
b. 3 e. 2
C. 2 f. 3
Lift net trapping

a. 3
b. 1
C. 2
Simple traps
a. 1
b. 1
C. 3
Fish pump
a. 1
b. 2
C. 1
9. c, d, e, f
,1
10. a. 1 e. ,_
b. 3 f. 2
C. 3 g. 3
d. 2
11. a. 2 d. 1
b. 3 e. 3
C. 1 f. 2
12. a. 2 d. 1
b. 3 e. 1
3 f. 2
C.
81 2
AQ-857
ANSWERS TO TEST
13. a. 150 pounds

20 minutes
b. 2,000 pounds
C. 2,500 pounds
d. 1,000 pounds
e. 1,150 pounds
700 pounds
14. b, c, f, g, i, j
15. a. 1 f. 5
b. 5 g. 2
C. 3 h. 4
d. 4 i. 3
e. 1 j. 2
16. a. 3 c. 1
b. 2 d. 1
17. b, d

d. Evaluated according to criteria in Practical Test #4
813
AQ859
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
UNIT XV
UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completion of this unit, the student should be able to estimate operating costs add
projected returns for an aquacultural enterprise. The student should also be able to work
with a computer program to evaluate an aquacultural operation. These competencies will
be evidenced by correctly completing the procedures outlined in the assignment sheets and
by scoring a minimum of 85 percent on the unit test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Match terms related to aquacultural business management with their correct

definitions.
2. List reasons for keeping records.
3. Distinguish between basic kinds of 7ecords.
4. Distinguish between production credit and consumption credit.
5. Select from a list guidelines for building and maintaining a good credit standing.
6. L st the three C's of good credit.
7. Select from a list factors that a lender looks for in a borrwer.
8. Select from a list factors that a borrower looks for in a lender.
9. Select from a list indicators of good loan repayment ability.
10. Select from a list indicators of poor loan repayment ability.
11. Match with their correct descriptions major types of credit extended by businesses.
12. Select correct descriptions of types of loans issued by banks and other lending
institutions.
13. List sources of credit for aquacultural enterprises.

14. Match methods of computing interest with their correct definitions.
814
860
OBJECTIVE SHEET
to
15. Calculate true annual interest rates.
16. List the essential components of all budgets.
17. Select budgeting principles from a list.
18. Prepare an equipment cost comparison report. (Assignment Sheet #1)
19. Estimate fixed costs. (Assignment Sheet #2)
20. Develop an enterprise budget to determine actual costs and expected returns.
21. Develop a cash flow projection. (Assignment Sheet #4)
22. Use a computer to evaluate an aquacultural operation. (Assignment Sheet #5)
23. Interview a local lender and report on attitudes about aquaculture capital.
24. Complete a checklist to determine individual potential in the aquaculture industry.

815 so
AQ-861
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
UNIT XV
A. Obtain aquaculture business management computer programs from your

Cooperative Extens:on Service or a nearby university, or make available to the
students a computer program with which you are familiar.
B. Invite a loan officer from a local lending institution to speak to the class about the
institutio;fs lending requirements and policies in regard to extending aquacultural
credit.
D. Provide students with information sheet. Discuss information sheet. Use handouts
and many examples to reinforce materials in the information sheet.
E. Provide students with absignment sheets. Schedule and discuss assignment

sheets. Use handouts to provide additional information and forms needed for the
development of the various budgets. Demonstrate and provide assistancb to
students in completing the computer budget and evaluations required in Assignment
Sheet #5.
F. Give written test.
A. Beem, Marley, and Steven Anderson. "Catfish Farming," No. 9002.1 Stillwater,
Oklahoma. Oklahoma Cooperation Extension Service/Oklahoma State University,
n.d.
B. Cramer, LL wrence A. "Tax Tips for Aquaculture Investors and Producers," in

Proceeding of the Louisiana Aquaculture Conference, 1988, Robert C. Reigh, ed.
Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 1988.
C. Garrard, Anthony B., Marty J. Fuller, and Mark E. Keenum. Economic Analysis of
Small-scale Processing for Mississippi Farm-raised Catfish. Mississippi Agricultural
& Forestry Experiment Station, June 1988.
D. Huner, J.V., and Harry K. Dupree. "Methods and Economics of Channel Catfish
Production, and Techniques for the Culture of Flathead Catfish and Other
Catfishes," in Third Report to the Fish Farmers: The Status of Warmwater Fish
Farming and Progress in Fish Farming Research, ed. Harry K. Dupree and Jay
V. Huner. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984.
E. Jensen, Gary L. Commercial Production of Farm-Raised Catfish. Baton Rouge:

Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service and Louisiana Agricultural Experiment
Station, 1987.
816
862
F. Keenum, Mark E. and John E. Waldrop. Cash Flow Analysis of Farm-Raised

Catfish Production in Mississippi. Mississippi Agricultural & Forestry Experiment
Station, August 1988.
G. Killcreas, Dr. Wallace, et. al. A Records Program for Catfish and Shrimp
Production, Financial Data and Management Decisions for IBM PC and Compatible
Microcomputers. Mississippi Agricultural & Forestry Experiment Station, September
1985.
H. Killcreas, Dr. Wallace, et. al. GROWCATS Fish Growth Simulation Model for
Production Planning. Mississippi Agricultural & Forestry Experiment Station, January
1987.
Meigs, Frank E., Ill. "Financing Options for Aquaculture," in Proceedings of the
Louisiana Aquaculture Conference, 1988, Robert C. Reigh, ed. Baton Rouge,
Louisiana, 1988.
J. Sadler, Tom. "A Producer Looks at Catfish Farming," in Proceedings of the

Louisiana Aquaculture Conference, 1988. Robert C. Reigh, ed. Baton Rouge,
Louisiana, 1988.
K. Steward, Jim, and Dr. Raleigh Jobes. Farm & Ranch Business Management.
Moline, Illinois: Deere & Company, 1985.
L. White, David, et. al. WATERQ: A Microcomputer Program for Pond Water
Management. Mississippi Agricultural & Forestry Experiment Station, October 1988.
M. Williams, Kenneth. Economic Evaluation of Small Scale Catfish Production.

Langston, Oklahoma: Langston University/Kerr Center for Sustainable Agriculture,
1987.
817
AQ-863
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
UNIT XV I
INFORMATION SHEET
A. Budget A formal plan that projects the use of assets for a future time;
a schedule of expected returns or costs
B. Enterprise budget A look at the costs and risks involved with producing
one commodity or making one product
C. Cash flow summary A list or record of actual monthly cash levels for
a business
D. Cash flow projection An estimate of monthly cash inflows and outflows

over a period of time, usually one year
(NOTE: A two-year projection is generally used in fish farming because this

time period provides more accurate data )
E. Capital The amount of money that can be obtained through borrowh ..)
or selling of assets that is used to promote the production of other goods
F. Assets The property or resources owned and controlled by a business
G. Depreciation The decrease in value resulting from the wear and tear of
use, atzident, destructive weather, poor management, and the obsolescence
of equipment and processes
H. Fixed costs Costs that usually do not fluctuate with an increase or

decrease in production
EXAMPLES: Taxes, insurance, interest rates on investments
I. Variable costs Costs that increase or decrease in relation to an increase

or decrease in production
J. Enterprise A specific process or activity that requires a certain amount

of risk to make a profit
K. Return The money available after p. oduction expenses are subtracted

from total income
L. Net worth statement Financial condition of a business at a definite point

in time; it lists all assets, values of assets, and liabilities of a business; also
known as a balance sheet, financial statement, or statement of financial
condition
M. Income statement Financial record that reflects the profitability of the

business over a specified period of time, also known as a profit and loss
statement or an operating statement
81 8
I 864
INFORMATION SHEET
N. Break even The point where income is equal to the total of the fixed
costs and variable costs of doing business
I
0. Payback Number of years it takes to recover the initial investment
P. Profit The money that remains after all fixed and variable costs are
deducted from income
II. Reasons for keeping records

A. To comply with income tax reporting requirements
B. To let you compare past performance with present performance and future
goals
C. To provide the information that you need to prepare management tools such
as cash flow projections, whole farm budgets, risk management plans
D. To help you obtain credit
E. To provide the information needed to apply for government programs
F. To help you decide what to produce
HI. Kinds of records
A. Financial Show money received and expenses owed for the business
EXAMPLES: Cash flow summary, net worth statement, income statement,
whole farm or ranch and detailed enterprise analysis
B. Physical Show data pertaining to production of aquaculture crop
EXAMPLES: Stocking rates, water quality management data, water acres
farmed, births, deaths, family labor, numbers or pounds
harvested, fish heaith data
IV. Types of credit
A. Production credit Credit that usually returns its original cost plus an
amount for interest profit
(NOTE: Production credit is usually treated as part of the cost of doing

business, the same as any other production input.)
B. Consumption credit Credit for personal use rather than for a use that
will generate future income
(NOTE: Consumption credit allows people to satisfy their present wants

without first accumulating the necessary money.)
819
AQ-865
INFORMATION SHEET
V. Guidelines for building and maintaining a good credit standing
A. Establish a credit rating.
B. Shop around for the best type of loan and interest rate.
C. Get your credit from specialists.
(NOTE: Lenders who make farm loans regularlyand particularly loans

to aquaculturistsusually understand the farmer's problems and are
sympathetic to the farmer's needs. However, few lending agencies have
experience with aquaculture business. Consequently, aquaculture loans
are difficult to obtain.)
EXAMPLES: Commercial banks, Federal Land Bank, Production Credit

Association
D. Use the right type of credit.
EXAMPLES. Short-term for seasonal operating expenses; intermediate-

term for large equipment purchases; long-term for financing
land or for capital improvements
E. Plan ahead for credit needs by using cash flow projections.
F. Borrow only to make or save money.
(NOTE: The first rule of farm-business borrowing should be: Borrow only
when the borrowed funds will make you more than the cost of borrowing
them.)
G. Plan the use of loan funds with your lender.
H. Work out a repayment plan for every loan.
I. Meet your payments when due.
J. Avoid accumulating debts in several places as this is a sign to lenders that

you are not planning your credit needs.
K. Take an annual inventory.
(NOTE: An inventory will provide information for financial statements and

will allow you to take a look at your financial position.)
820
866
INFORMATION SHEET
VI. The three C's of good credit
(NOTE: The three C's of good credit must be met before credit will be extended.)
A. Character
(NOTE: Character is determined by integrity in money matters, honesty,

reliability, willingness to pay, and a record of financial responsibility.)
B. Capital
(NOTE: Capital is measured by financial resources such as equity in a

house, household goods, automobile or other vehicle, life insurance, and
savings account.)
C. Cash-flow
(NOTE: Cash-fbw is judged by present and future income and by present

commitments.)
VII. Factors that a lender looks for in a borrower

A. Good character
B. Managerial ability
C. Stable financial position
D. Ability to repay
E. Sound purpose for loan
F. Adequate security for loan
VIII. Factors that a borrower looks for in a lender

A. Good reputation
B. Equitable policies
C. Permanence and dependability
D. Knowledge of aquaculture
E. Fair and competitive cost of credit
IX. Indicators of good loan repayment ability

A. Good managerial ability
B. Complete and accurate records and budgets
821
AQ-867
INFORMATION SHEET
C. Sufficient repayment capacity
D. Product price rise
E. Increase in size of operation
F. Additional income
Li. Reliable cost and income estimates
H. Loan money used only for intended purpose
X. Indicators of poor loan repayment ability
A. Low production per unit
EXAMPLES: Poor crop yields, small fingerling crop; small returns from
stocker sales
B. Low price per unit sold
EXAMPLES: Poor market, poor marketing strategy, poor quality product,

low prices for product
C. High cash production costs
EXAMPLES: High feed costs, high labor costs, high replacement costs
D. High cash overhead costs
EXAMPLES: Heavy debt load, high interest rates, heavy taxes, high
maintenance cost for buildings and machinery
E. High cash living costs
EXAMPLES: Sickness, education of children, extravagance
F. Borrowing above the ability to repay
EXAMPLES: Cash flow projection not realistic enough; repossessed

equipment or machinery
G. Overestimating the amount of the loan that can be repaid each year
822
868
INFORMATION SHEET
Xi. Major types of credit extended by bus!nesses

A. Open account credit
(NOTE: This type of credit is often extended by services such as utility

companies and doctors.)
1. The customer may buy in person, by mail, or by telephone.

2. No down payment or interest is charged.
3. A statement is sent monthly.
4. The customer has a stated period in which to reply with no interest

charge.
B. Revolving charge account
1. A maximum amount is usually established.
2. Payments are made monthly, depending on the terms of the

business.
3. Interest is charged.
4. New purchases can be added, up to an established maximum

amount.
EXAMPLE: The customer has a $400 credit limit and pays $50
per month plus 18% interest if the full amount of
credit is used.
C. Optional revolving credit
(NOTE: This is a combination of the open and revolving credit accounts.)
1. The business sends monthly bills.
2. The entire bill can be paid within an agreed number of days after
billing without interest.
3. If the entire bill is not paid, the customer makes a monthly payment
and the unpaid balance is subject to a service charge and/or interest.
82 3
AQ-869
INFORMATION SHEET
L Installment credit
1. Payments are made over a long period of time.
2. Interest is charged.
3. A service charge is sometimes added.
4. The consumer has the option of repaying the entire amount at any
time.
5. If the consumer does not maintain payments, the merchandise may

be repossessed by the lender.
XII. Types of loans issued by banks and other lending institutions
A. Collateral loan Loan in which legal title to item purchased is held as

security or collateral by lending institution
(NOTE: This type of loan is often used for expensive items such as hauling
trucks, boom trucks, and large aerators.)
B. Life insurance loan Loan based on cash value of a person's permanent

insurance policy
C. Secured personal loan Loan made with collateral such as blue chip
. stock that is safe and will not lose value
D. Unsecured personal loan (signature loan) Loan given to a customer

with a good credit rating based simply on the customer's promise to repay
E. Demand loan Short-term loan (for less than one year) that is repaid in
installments or in full at tho end of a specified time
F. Passbook loan Arrangement that allows a person to borrow the amount

in his or her savings account without having to withdraw the savings
G. Education loan Loan to finance a post-secondary (after high school)

education, with repayment usually deferred until after graduation
H. Consolidated loan Money borrowed to pay all debts
(NOTE: The money borrowed is repaid in smaller payments and over a

longcr period than it would take to pay off the debts separately.)
824
870
INFORMATION SHEET
Credit card loan Using a bank credit card such as VISA or

Mastercharge to finance purchases or to borrow money
(NOTE: The borrower usually has three ye-ats to pay. While credit cards
are convenient because there is no need to carry large amounts of cash
and because the borrower can make one easy payment a month, it is
important to remember that almost all types of credit include a substantial
interest charge. For the privilege of not having to pay the full amount at
the time of purchase or loan, the borrower pays about $25 for every $16
or $17 worth of merchandise or cash borrowed.)
J. Check credit loan A bank loan automatically extended through the
borrower's checking account
(NOTE: There is usually a higher monthly service charge for this option.)
EXAMPLE: The borrower writes a check for $50 more than he or she
has in a checking account and the bank automatically makes
a loan to that person for $50.
K. Home improvement loan Special loan for the purpose of increasing the
value of a home by adding a room, putting on a new roof, and so on
L. Mortgage loan Loan made on real estate, with the property pledged as
security for the loan
EXAMPLES: FHA loan, VA loan, FmHA loan

XIII. Sources of credit for aquacultural enterprises
A. Commercial banks
B. Individuals
C. Merchants or dealers
EXAMPLE: Feed companies
D. Finance companies
E. Insurance companies
F. Federal Land Bank Associations
G. Production Credit Associations
H. Farmer's Home Administration (FHA)
I. State Commissioners of the Land Office
825
AQ-871
INFORMATION SHEET
XIV. Definitions o! 'nethods of computing interest
A. Simple interest Amount paid for borrowing money that is repaid in a

single lump sum
B. Remaining balance Interest calculated by multiplying outstanding

principal by contractual rate for period in question
C. Add-on Interest placed on the original loan for the entire period of the
loan; the sum of the total interest and principal is divided by the number of
payments to obtain the amount of each installment
D. Discount Interest calculated on the original amount of the loan for the
full period of the loan; this amount, plus any other loan costs, is subtracted
from the amount of the loan at the beginning, with the borrower receiving
the difference
XV. Formula for calculating the true annual interest rate
Total
Finance Number of
Charges Payments 1 True Annual
x x =
1/2 Original Number of Number of Pay- Interest Rate
Loan Years ments, plus 1
EXAMPLE: Ray Smith purchased an aerator for $4500. He made a down

payment of $500, and financed the remaining $4000 over 2 years
at 14 percent interest. Using the add-on method for computing
interest, Ray's monthly payments were $213.33. His total finance
charges were $1120.
$1120 x 24 x 1 = .2688 x 100 = 26.88% True Annual

$2000 2 25 Interest Rate
826
a
872
INFORMATION SHEET
XVI. Four essential components of all budgets

A. Capital
B. Labor
C. Land
D. Management
XVII. Budgeting principles

(NOTE: All budgeting involves one or more of four fundamental economic
principles that should be learned before you try to budget your resources.)
A. Invest more if returns increase.
EXAMPLE: Joe Piccolo will continue to feed additional rations to his

catfish as long as he gets an additional weight increase
(yield) worth more than the cost of the feed.
B. Invest as little as possible in costs (inputs).
EXAMPLE: Joe will substitute a lower cost feed for a high-cost feed as
long as he gets a good FCR.
C. Invest in a different product if the return (output) is greater.
EXAMPLE: Which will mean greater profits fish farming or crop

farming? Baitfish production or food-fish production? Catfish
for food or catfish fingerlings for grow-out?
P. Invest money where it will earn the largest returns.
EXAMPLES: Joe invests in gravel for the top of his levees because not
doing so will cost him feed days. Joe buys a bulk feed
storage tank rather than buying by the bag.
82 7
AQ-873
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
UNIT XV
HANDOUT #1 F1VE-YEAR SAMPLE ENTERPRISE BUDGET
1st Year Estimated Costs & Returns 1 acre/5500 lbs.

40 acres land 35 acres water
Direct Costs:
Feed (1.5:1 conversion) 8250 lbs. @ $.15 lb. (300: ton) $1238.
Fingerlings 4500/acre @ $.15 ea. 675.
Electricity 86.
Fuel 76.
Chemicals 31.
Repairs & Maintenance 85.
Management & Labor ($17,500) 500.
Harvest & Haul @ $.03 lb. 165.
Liability Insurance 15.
$2871.
Interest-Operating Capital (14% for 9 mo.) 301.
Total Direct Costs $3172.
Fixed Costs:
Depreciation on Pond & Equip. (100% over 10 yrs.

on $85,000. = $8500. yearly) $243.
Interest on Investment Capital (10% on $85,000.
= $8500. yearly) 243.
Principal on Investment capital (7 yrs. on $85,000.
= $12,150. yearly) 347.
Taxes & Insurance ($15/acre taxes $15/acre
insurance) 30.
Total Fixed Costs 863.
Total Costs ($141,225.) $4035.
Income:
5500 lbs. @ $.80 lb. = $4400.

Total Costs = -4035.
$ 365. profit/acre
35 acres x 365. per acre = $12,775. profit
Figures from actual budgets used by Jim Paul, Edmond, Oklahoma.
828
874
HANDOUT #1
2nd Year Estimated Costs & Returns 1 acre/5500 lbs.

Direct Costs:
Fingerlings 4500/acre © $.15 ea. 675.
Electricity 86.
Fuel 76.
Chemicals 31.
$2871.
InterestOperating Capital (14% for 9 mo.) 301.
Fixed Costs:
Depreciation on Pond & Equip. ($8500. + $1500 = $10,000. yr.) $213.

= $8500. yearly) 181.
= $12,150. yearly) 259.
insurance) 30.
Total Costs ($181,185.) $3855.
Income:
5500 lbs. © $.80 lb. = $4400.

Total Costs = 3855.
$ 545. profit/acre
47 acres x $545. acre = $25,615. profit
829
AQ-875
HANDOUT #1
3rd Year Estimated Costs & Returns 1 acre/5500 lbs.

Direct Costs:
Feed (1.5:1 conversion) 8250 lbs. © $.15 lb. (300: ton) $1238.
Electricity . 86.
Fuel 76.
Chemicals 31.
Harvest & Haul @ $.03 lb. 165.--
$2871.
Fixed Costs:
Depreciation on Pond & Equip. ($11,500. yearly) $198.

= $8500. yearly) 147:
= $12,150. yearly) 210.
insurance) 30.
Total Costs ($217,906.) $3757.
Income:
5500 lbs. @ $.80 lb. = $4400.

$ 643. profit/acre
58 acres x $643. acre = $37,294. profit
830
876
HANDOUT #1
4th Year Estimated Costs & Returns 1 acre/5500 lbs.

Direct Costs:
Electricity 86
Fuel 76.
Chemicals 31.
Liability Insurance
$2871.1-
Told: Direct Costs $3172.
Fixed Costs:

= $8500. yearly) 122.
Principal on Investment Capital (7 yrs. on $85,o00.
= $12,120. yeat) 174.
insurance) 30.
Total Costs ($257,880.) $3684.
Income:
5500 lbs. @ $.80 lb. = $4400.

$ 716. profit/acre
70 acres x $716. per acre = $50,120. profit
S31
AQ-877
HANDOUT #1
5th Year Estimated Costs & Returns 1 acre/5500 lbs.

Direct Costs:
Electricity 86.
Fuel 76.
Chemicals 31.
$2871.
Fixed Costs:

= $8500. yearly) 103.
Principal on Investment Capital (7 yrs. on $85,000.
= $12,150. yearly) 147.
insurance) 30.
Total Fixed Costc 455.
Total Costs ($301,041.) $3627.
Income:
5500 lbs. @ $.80 lb. = $4400.

$ 773. profit/acre
83 acres x $773. per acre = $64,159. profit
832
878
HANDOUT #1
Investment Capital Based on 40 acres land

35 acres water
Pond Construction 3 13 1/3 acre ponds

24,500 cu. yds. levee (6.2 cu. yd./ft.) @ $1.00 per cu. ft. = $25,000.
Water Supply 1000 gpm total (25 gpm/acre req'd) = 10 000.
Feeding Equipment = 5 000.
Miscellaneous Equipment = 45 000.

Tractor (1-50 H.P. used) $15,000.
Aeration Equipment 18,000.
Boat, Mc'or & Trailer 2,000.
Mower 2,000.
Oxygen Meter & Test Equip. 1,000.
Harvest Equipment 2,000.
Other 5,000.
Total Investment Costs $85,000.
8'33
AQ-879
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
UNIT XV
HANDOUT #2 VARIOUS BUDGETS

FOR SMALL-SCALE CATFISH PRODUCTION
Enteeprise Budget for One Cage Containing 300 Channel Catfish
Variable Costs
Fingerlings, 6-8 in., 315, (+5% for mortality)
@ $.24 ea. $ 75.60
Feed, 600 lb. @ $.14/ lb. 84.00
Aquatic culture license 10.00
Misc. (fuel, transportation) 20.00
Interest of 11% on operating capital for 7 months 12.17
Total Variable Costs $ 201.77
Fixed Costs
Cage construction materials
$50.00/cage amortized over 10 yr. life span $ 5.00
Misc. materials (dip net maintenance) 10.00
Total Fixed Costs $ 15.00
Total Stump Costs $ 216.77
Yearly Fixed + Variable Costs $ 216.77
Break-even price (per lb) to cover variable costs $ 0.67

to cover total yr. costs $ 0.72
NOTE. All budgets in Handout #2 are for exis,..ig ponds so they do not include anyl
construction costs. Land costs are not included, and except for harvesting labor, no ,
labor costs are included. The exclusion of those items accounts for the low break-even ;
cost reflected at the end of each budget. Take into account these items when using ;
these budgets for guidelines.
I
All budgets on the following pages from Kenneth Williams

Fisheries Research/Extension SpecialisL Langston University. Oklahoma.
83 4
880
HANDOUT #2
Enterprise Budget for Cage Culture in a 1 Acre Pond
Production = 900 lb/ac.

3 cages, 1 cu. yd. ea.
300 fish/cage + 5% loss = 945 fish
Variable Costs
Fingerlings, 6-8 in., 945 @ $0.24 ea. $ 226.80
Feed, 1800 lb. @ $.141 lb. 252.00
Misc. (fuel, transportation) 20.00
Interest of 11% on operating capital for 7 months 32.65
Total Variable Costs $ 541.45
Fixed Costs
Cage construction materials
$50.00/cage x 3 cages = $150.00
amortized over 10 yr. lifespan $ 15.00
Misc. materials (dip net, maintenance) 15.00

Yearly Fixed + Variable Costs $ 571.45
Tota! Start-up Costs $ 706A5
Break-even price (per lb) to cover variable costs $ 0.6U
to cover total yr. costs $ 0.64
835
AQ-881
HANDOUT #2
Enterprise Budget for Commercial Cage Culture

in a 40-Acre Lake
Production = 40.000 Its.

13 cages, 8' x 8' x 4' = 256 cu. ft/cage (-1- 2 spare cages).
3,000 fish/cage.
Variable Costs
Fingerlings, 6 in. @ $0.12 ea. $ 4,800.00
Feed, 72,000 lb. @ $0.14/ lb. 10,080.00
Fuel, for boat 50 gal. @ $1.00/gaL 50.00
Interest on operating capital
of 12% for 1 yr. $ 1,791.60
Total Variable Cost $16,721.60
Fixed Costs
Cage Construction Materials
$252.64/cage x 15 cages = $3,789.60
amortized over 10 yr. $ 378.93
Boat, motor, etc. $950
amortized 10 years 95.00
Oxygen meter $175.00 Amt. 5 yr. 35.00
Feed bin, $1200. Amt. 10 yr. 120.00
Storage shed $4500 amt. 10 yr. 450.00
WGrk dock $2,500 amt. 10 yr. 250.00
Chain hoist, $500 amt. 10 yr. 50.00
Misc, dip nets, scales etc./yr. 75.00
Interest for 1 yr. @ 12% 1,643.95
Total Yearly Fixed Costs $ 3,107.91
Total Yearly Fixed & Variable Costs 19,829.51
Total Start-Up Cost 30,421.20
Labor cost: 4 hr/day 28 hr/wk

@ $5.00/hr. = 140.00/wk x 52 wk $ 7,280.00
Labor for cage construction

@ $7.00/hr. 8 hr./cage
15 cages $ 840.00
Break-even price/lb.
to cover variable costs $ 0.42/lb.
to cover fixed & variable costs $ 0.49/lb.
Wholesale Gross Return @ $0.72/lb. $28,800.00
Net Return above Total Costs $ 8,970.49
83 6
882
HANDOUT #2
Ceffish Enterprise Budget for a 1-Acre Existing Pond
Stocking Rate: 2500 fish per acre
Gross Returns ($1.50/lb.) $3,750.00
Variable Costs (1 acre @ 2500/fish)
Fingerlings, $0.14 ea. 2500 + 5% loss $ 367.50

Feed (FCR. 1.8) 4500 lbs. @ $0.14/lb. $ 630.00
Transportation?
Interest on Op. cap. @ 12%, 7 mo. $ 69.83

Total Variable Cost $1,067.33
Brea Even Price on Var. Cost $ 0.43/lb
Income above Var. Cost (Retail) $2,682.67
Fixed Costs (1 ac @ 2500/ac)
300 ft seine $760.80 amortized 7 yrs $ 108.69
Live car $199.03 amortized 7 yrs $ 28.43
Misc. equip. $350.00 amortized 5 yrs $ 70.00
Aquaculture license 10.00
Total Yearly Fixed Costs $ 217.12

Total Var. & Fixed Costs $1,284.45
Total Start-up Cost $2,387.16
Break-Even Price on Total Cost $0.51/lb
Income above Total Cost $2,465.52
Payback Investment 1 yr + Return of $1,362.84

AQ-883
HANDOUT #2
Catfish Enterprise Budget for a 1-Acre Existing Pond

,
Gross Returns ($0.73/1b) $1825.00
Variable Costs (1 ac @ 2500/fish)
Feed (FCR.1.8) 4500 lbs @ $0.14/1b $ 630.00
Interest on operating cap. @ 12%, 7 mo. $ 69.83
Custom harvest @ $0.03/1b $ 75.00
Total Variable Costs $1142.33
Income above Var. Cost (Wholesale) $ 682.67
Fixed Costs (1 ac @ 2500/ac)
Aquaculture license $ 10.00
Misc. equip. $ 30.00
Interest @ 12% $ 4.80
Total Fixed & Var. Costs $1187.13
Net Returns $ 637.87
Break-even Price (per lb.) $ 0.47
838
884
HANDOUT #2
Catfish Enterprise Budget for a 1-Acre Existing Pond
Gross Returns ($0.73/lb) $3285.00

Variable Costs (1 ac @ 4500 fish)

Feed (FCR.1.8) 8100 lbs @ $0.14/lb $1134.00
Transportation?
Interest on op. cap. @ 12%, 7 mo. $ 125.69

Custom harvest @ $0.03/lb $ 135.00
Income above Var. Cost $1228.81
Fixed Costs
Aquaculture license $ 10.00

,
Aerator, $1300 amortized 10 yrs. $ 130.00
Oxygen test kit $ 40.00
Misc. equip. $ 30.00
Interest on fixed cost @ 12% $ 25.20
Total Fixed Costs $ 23520
Total Fixed & i .ar. Costs $2291.39
Net Return to Management $ 993.61
Break-even Price (per lb) $ 0.51
C39
AQ-885
HANDOUT #2
Catfish Enterprise Budget for 1-Acre Existing Pond

Stocking Rate: 4500 fish
$6750.00
Gross Returns ($1.50/lb)
Variable Costs (1 ac 4500 fish retail sales)
Feed (FCR.1.8) 8100 lbs @ $0.14/lb $1134.00
Transportation?
Interest on op. cap. @ 12%, 7 mo. $ 125.69
$1921.19
Total Variable Costs
$4828.81
Income above Variable Cost
Fixed Costs
Aerator, $1300 amortized 10 yrs. $ 130.00
Misc. equip. license $ 360.00
300 ft seine $760.80 amortized 7 yrs. $ 108.69
Live car, $199.03 amortized 7 yrs. $ 28.43
Interest on fixed cost @ 12% 1 yr. $ 80.05

$747.17
Total Yearly Fixed Costs
$2668.36
Total Fixed & Var. Costs
Break-even Price per lb. $ 0.59
Income above Total Cost $4081.64
$4669.07
Total Start-up Cost
Pay-back Investment in the 2nd yr.
840
886
HANDOUT #2
Catfish Enterprise Budget for 10 Acres of Existing Ponds

e
Stocking Rate: 2500 fish/per acre
Gross returns ($0.73/1b)

$18250.00
Variable Costs (10 ac @ 2500 fish/ac)
Fingerlings, $0.08 ea. + 5% loss

$2100.00
Feed, (FCR 1.8) 45000 lb @ $0.14/1b
$6300.00
Transportation
Tractor/fuel etc. 200 hr @ $1.50

$ 300.00
Labor @ 5.00/hr, 40 hr (harvest) $ 200.00
Interest on op. cap. @ 12% 7 mo. $ 623.00
Custom Harvest @ $0.03/1b
$ 750.00
Total Variable Costs
$10273.00
Income above Variable Costs
$ 7977.00
Fixed Costs
Feed Wagon, $4700 amortized 20 yrs $ 235.00

Oxygen test kit
$ 40.00
Boat, elec. motor, battery $750 amortized 10 yrs
$ 75.00
Feed & equip. storage shed @ $4000, amortized 20 yrs $ 200.00
Misc. equip. (seines, dip nets, license etc.) $1400 amortized 7 yrs.
$ 200.00
Interest on fixed cost © 12%/yr
$ 90.00
Total Fixed Costs
$ 840.00
Total Fixed & Var. Costs
$11113.00
Break-even Price per lb
$ 0.45/lb
Net Return to Management
f; 7137.00
Total Start-up Costs
$21253.00
Payback on Investment in 2nd yr.
Labor Inputlow/moderate
Management Risklow/moderate
&41
AQ-887
HANDOUT #2
Catfish Enterprise Budget for 10 Acres of Existing Ponds

Gross returns ($0.73/lb) $32850.00
Variable Costs (10 ac @ 4500 fish/ac)
Fingerlings, $0.08 ea. + 5% loss $3780.00
Feed, (FCR 1.8) 81000 lb @ $0.14/lb $11340.00
Transportation?
Tractor/fuel etc. 250 hr @ $1.50 $ 375.00
Labor @ 5.00/hr, 60 hr (harvest) $ 300.00
Interest on op. cap. @ 12% 7 mo. $ 1203.65
Custom Harvest @ $0.03/lb $ 1350.00
Income above Variable Costs $ 13101.35
Fixed Costs
Feed Wagon, $4700 amortized 20 yrs $ 235.00

Boat, elec. motor, battery $750 amortized 10 yrs $ 75.00
Feed & equip, storage shed @ $4000, amortized 20 yrs $ 200.00
Misc. equip. (seines, dip nets, license etc.) $1400 amortized 7 yrs. $ 200.00
Aerator $1300 amortized 10 yrs. $ i 30.00
Tractor (40 hp) used $6500 $ 650.00
Interest on fixed cost @ 12%/yr $ 183.60
Total Fixed & Var. Costs $21462.25
Break-even Price per lb $ 0.48/lb
Net Return to Management $11387.75
Total Start-Up Costs $38622.25
Payback on investment in 2nd yr.
842
AQ-889
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
UNIT XV
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1 PREPARE AN EQUIPMENT

COST COMPARISON REPORT
Before you can estimate construction, equipment, and operating costs, you must complete
an equipment cost comparison report. Such a report requires that you assess your
equipment needs, determine how much equipment is already owned, and decide whether
you will purchase, build or contract needed equipment. You must survey the equipment
dealers in your area and compare costs of both equipment, if you are buying, and
materials, if you are building.
Evaluate needed equipment not only on its cost but also on its quality, durability, your
investment desires, and your specific enterprise needs. Ask yourself such questions as
"Should I buy a water quality test kit, single-purpose kits, or a battery-operated meter?"
The following list will provide you with some idea of the equipment needed, but you must
personalize the list to serve your specific enterprise and farm needs.
Owned Purchase $ Purchase $ Construction

Item Yes No No. Used New Materials $
PRODUCTION
EQUIPMENT
Well pump &
engine
Hatching troughs
Holding tanks &
vats
Spawning pens
Floating cages
Tractor
Feeder
Feeder bin &
pad units
Truck
Aluminum boat
Boat motor
Boat trailer
Transport
tank & equip.
Fixed electric
aerator
Portable
aerator
84 3
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1

Itme Yes No No. Used New Materials $
Storage bldg.
Side-mount
mower
Oxygen meter
& accessories
Dip nets
Other
MISC. FARM
SHOP
Waders
Water quality
test kit
Battery &
charger
Scales
Basic tool
kit
Low-lift
pump
Gloves
Paddles
Side mower
Other
HARVESTING
EQUIPMENT
Boom truck
or backhoe
Seine
Cutting seine
Live car
Loading frame
Loading scales
Loading basket
Seine reel
Seine support
rods
Water pump
Boat bracket
Fish baskets
Other
644
to
AQ-891
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1

Yes No No. Used New Materials $
Item
PROCESSING
Sinks
Pliers
Skinners
Band saw
Scales
Knives
Smoker
Freezer lockers
Packaging
materials
& labels
Stunning
,quipment
Tubs & holding
vats
Cleaning tables
Electric lights
Other
FEE-FISH
EQUIPMENT
Concession
stands
Rods & reels for
rental
Bait
Picnic tables
Drinking water
fountains
Fish cleaning
tables
Freezer lockers
Roadside signs
Site safety signs
Fishing piers
& platforms
Lifesaving
equipment
Other
8d5
AQ-893
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
UNIT XV
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2 ESTIMATE FIXED COSTS
The investment requirements for an aquacultural enterprise vary depending on location,

size of operation, type of enterprise, production level, whether the land is owned or
purchased, and whether there are existing ponds and facilities. Other factors include how
much equipment is already owned and whether needed equipment is purchased used or
new or is home-built. Some producers build their ponds, cages, or raceways to reduce
costs, others use family rather than hired Iabor. Harvesting equipment is another cost that
may be excluded because of available custom harvesting and transportation, but it may be
essential for others.
Many costs are determined by site-specific factors such as topography, depth to

groundwater, fuel costs, and size of ponds or wells. Also land prices can differ from one
area tc another. The cost of building ponds is determined by dirt-moving costs that vary
with location and size of pond. Investment costs per acre generally decrease as farm size
increases.
Because of the wide range of enterprises and investment requirements, use the following
sample of a fixed costs estimate and the estimation work sheet and reference key on the
following pages as guidelines only. You Nill have to research and compare costs in your
locality, and you will have to create a fixed cost work sheet tailored to fit your individual
situation.
First determine a dollar amount for each line item that is appropriate for your farm plan.
For a more detailed explanation, refer to the referenze key that corresponds by number
to each line item. Put a zero for total cost if an item is not appropriate or required. Add
line items that are required by your specific enterprise. Use the information learned in
Assignment Sheet #1 to fill in current costs of equipment and supplies.
This assignment sheet has been adapted from Commercial Pro Ot.o..tion of Farm-Raised Catfish by Gary L. Jensen. With
permission.
816
AQ-895
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
ESTIMATION WORK SHEET AND REFERENCE KEY
Reference
Number Item: Land Cost
1. Land, total acres x cost/acre
Land Total Cost.
1. Marginal land that drains poorly, or produces low crop yields, is often used for
catfish farming. Figure about 85% to 90% of the land area will be water depending
on size of ponds and levees; the rest will be levees, building or drainage.
Reference
Number Item: Pond Construction Cost
2. Land clearing, acres x cost/acre

3. Dirt moving, cubic yards x cost/cubic yard
4. Drain structure, units x cost/unit
5. Water supply line/valve, units x cost/unit
6. Ground cover, acres x cost/acre
7. Gravel or shellrock, cubic yards x cost/cubic yard
8. Drainage ditch, cubic yards x cost/cubic yard
9. Water well and casing, units x cost/unit
10. Pump and engine, units x cost/unit
Pond Construction Total Cost'
2. Land with trees or other obstacles needs to be cleared before ponds are
constructed.
3. Dirt moving costs vary with location and condition of soil at the construction site.
In flatland areas with large levees, about 6.2 cubic yards of dirt are moved per
linear foot of levee. The actual amount depends on the dimensions of the levee.
4. Each pond should have a drain structure that permits pond draining ir 4everal days.
Drains should be designed to prevent entry of wild fish and can be located either
inside or outside of the pond. Various designs are suitable. The structure should
be screened and fitted with a valve as needed.
5. Water supply lines should be large enough to carry the desired flow and be as
straight as possible. The discharge water should be aerated before it enters the
pond.
t'). Unprotected areas of the levees should be covered with vegetation to minimize
erosion and stabilize the soil. The vegetation should be suited for your area and
may require lime and fertilizer.
848
AQ-897
I Reference
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
Number Item: Production Equipment Cost
12. Tractors, units x cost/unit

13. Feeder, units x cost/unit
14. Feed bin with pad, units x cost/unit
15. Trucks, units x cost/unit
16. Aluminum boat
17. Boat motor
18. Boat trailer
19. Transport tank and equipmnnt
20. Fixed electric aerators, units x cost/unit
21. Portable aerators, units x cost/unit
22. Storage and service building
23. Side-mount mower
24. Oxygen meter and accessories, units x cost/unit
25. Miscellaneous farm shop equipment
26. Waders, units x cost/unit
27. Scales
28. Low lift pump, units x cost/unit
29. Dip nets, units x cost/unit
30. Water quality test kit
31. Battery and charger
Production Equipment Total Cost*
12. Tractors can power aeration devices, pull seines, run relift pumps, operate a feeder
and mow levees. The number and horsepower of tractors vary with the farm plan
and situation.
13. On farms with many large ponds, a mechanical blower distributes feed to fish in
ponds. The feeder can be truck-mounted or tractor-pulled. The capacity of the
feed hopper varies form less than one ton to three tons. Match it to the feeding
requirements of the farm.
14. Feed should be stored in a cool, dry location to prevent spoilage and loss of
vitamin activity. A bulk storage feed bin with gravity flow is recommended. Sizes
usually range from 10 to 25 ton capacity. Check with area feed mills to detenr.ne
the minimum or normal bulk loads that can be delivered. Make sure that the
capacity of the bin is adequate to store the expanded floating feed. The density
of 32% floating feed is usually about 21 to 23 pounds per cubic foot. Small farms
may need to purchase bagged feed because of low daily requirements.
15. Trucks are used to transport light equipment and supplies, check ponds, and
transport fish both on and off the farm. The number, type and size of trucks will
depend on the situation.
16. A 14-foot aluminum boat is used to dispense chemicals or aquatic weed treatments,
check ponds for developing weed problems and harvest fish. A boat equipped with
a chemical well is useful.
AQ-899
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #2
29. Dip nets are needed for collecting fish from ponds for disease diagnosis, routine
handling and sampling, and harvesting. The mesh size should be suitable for
different sizes of fish. Use 1/4" for fingerling fish and 1" for food fish. Two to four
should be adequate.
30. A portable water quality test kit is required to check various water quality conditions
that can affect the well-being of fish and help with management decision-making.
31. An extra battery and charger will keep all battery-started equipment in operating
conditicn.
Reference
Number Item: Harvesting Equipment Cost
32. Boom truck or i.lackhoe

33. Seine, units x cost/unit
34. Cutting seine, units x cost/unit
35. Live car, units x cost/unit
36. Loading frame
37. Loading scales
38. Loading basket
39. Seine reel
40. Seine support rods, units x cost/unit
41. Water pump
42. Boat bracket
43. Fish baskets
Harvesting Equipment Total Cost.
32. A careful evaluation determines the best option for harvesting fish. The size and
location of the farm operation are key factors to consider. For small farms, where
hundreds of pounds of fish are harvested rather than thousands of pounds, fish can
be moved in metal tubs or plastic fish baskets. For larger operations, a boom is
needed to move thousands of pounds of fish quickly from the pond to a transpurt
truck. A boom is required to service live fish haulers unless fish are loaded from
a tank. A boom bar can be rigged on the scoop of a backhoe in place of a boom
truck.
33. Seines are used to trap, sample, crowd and harvest fish. Mesh and twine sizes
vary, depending on the minimum size of fish desired. Seines should be at least
3 feet deep and long for each 2 feet of water depth and pond width to Ix: seined.
Mariy-ends nylon mud lines are popular, nylon seines should be net-coated. Seines
made of polyethylene do not e equire treatment.
34. Cutting seines are usually about 50 to 100 feet long and are used to crowd fish
inside a larger h.vesting seine. They are also used to take fish samples to check
growth and health of the fish. Mesh size varies, depending on the size of fish
desired to harvest.
852
_
AQ-901
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
UNIT XV
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3 DEVELOP AN ENTERPRISE BUDGET

TO DETERMINE ACTUAL COSTS AND EXPECTED RETURNS
In this assignment sheet you will prepare a budget that estimates your yearly operating
costs. Values in your budget should be specific to your proposed farm and site. This is
important because costs vary depending on differences in land, equipment, labor, size of
operation, money borrowed, and site-specific factors.
Use realistic values in your budget. Find out the mortality factor for the species you will
farm, and include it in your budget. (The mortality factor for catfish is usually between 5
and 10 percent but can be higher.) Find out also the feed conversion rate as this effects
operating costs. Show all fixed costs corrputed on an annual basis as well as annual
operating expenses. If additional 'rucks, equipment, or facilities are needed, include these
costs also.
Estimate the break-even cost to detei 9 the efficiency of your operation and how
competitive the cost will be in your selecteu market. This analysis is Jseful in determining
whether money should be invested. This analysis is useful in determining whether money
should be Invested. Estimate the payback period or amount of time required to recover
the fixed investment costs. This is important in evaluating the long term financial status
of the business.
Use the 5 year sample enterprise budget in Handout #1 and the budget table en the
following page for a catfish production operation as guides for preparing your own
enterprise budget. You will need to personalize the budget to fit your specific enterprise
needs. Refer to your line-items in Assignment Sheet #2 for fixed cost investment items.
Refer to Table 2 at the end of this assignment sheet :or the expected life of various items
to determine their depreciation values.
This assignment sheet is adapted horn Comtherciai Production of Farm Raised Catfish by Gary L. Jensen With
permission
854
AQ-903
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #3
*
Value or
ltbm
Price or Cost Per
Unit Your
Cost/Ulit Quantity Pound Cost
4. INTEREST ON
INVESTMENT:
Loan No. Purpose
1
( )
2 ( )
3 ( )
4 ( )
SUBTOTAL:
5. TAXES:
Property
FICA
State
Federal
SUBTOTAL:
6. INSURANCE:
Equipment
Liability
Life
SUBTOTAL:
TOTAL COSTS:
From your values, determine the following:
1. Income above Operating Expenses'

Total Value Item 1 - Subtotal Item 2
2. Net Return to Land, Management and Risk.
Total Value Item 1 - Subtotals Items 2 + 3
+4+5+6
3. Break-even Cash Price'
Per Pound Value Item 1
- Per Pound Sub-total Item 2
4. Total Break-even Price:
Per Pound Subtotals for Items 2
3+4+5 +6
0 856
AQ-905
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
UNIT XV
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #4 DEVELOP A CASH FLOW PROJECTION
A cash flow projection enables you to compare projected dollar flows with those that
actually happened the previous year. When the two cash flow statements (summary of
actual and projected) do not agree, you must analyze the differences and change your
course of action.
The cash flow projection forces you to make detailed production plans. You must ask
yourself some realistic questions such as those below. The answers to these questions
will help you make important management decisions for your aquaculture enterpnse.
What enterprises will I undertake next year?
How much of each enterprise will I produce?
What production techniques will I use for each enterprise?
What are the likcly prices that I will receive for the stock produced by my enterpriseog
When will 1 market my stock?
How much money must I get approval for from my lender to meet my capital
requirements? How much and when must I borrow money for production expenses?
When will I need to borrow for new capital investments? When will I be able to repay
the loan?
Am I living within my family budget?
The components of a cash flow projection include all cash inflows and outflows. Cash
inflows are:
All sales from enterprise activities

Government payments
Other farm income
Sale of capital items (stock, equipment, etc.)
Withdrawals from savings
Off-farm earnings
Other investments
Cash outflows are:
All cash expenses for input purchases (chemicals, pesticides, algicides,

medications, feed, supplies)
Personal,income and real estate taxes
Other expense items (insurance, utilities, rentr, leases, harvesting and
hauling service)
Capital purchases (breedings and seed stock, equipment, land)
Principal payments on loans
Interest payments on loans
Investments
858
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #4
Cash Flow Projection For 19 .
Name: . Date Completed:
PErboo AUG- SEP OCT Nov D.C. 0' P.N FEB MAR APR MAY 3ern; Zur_ TOTALS
OPERATING K-CEIPTS
I LNetsioca Sales a Foal
2 h Cove
3 Sales et Lhesloc* Pt:Clasen, kr Resale 39465 I ;AA
4 Ctoo SA.1 a 43400 4 1 Soo
0
6 Government Parenere3
r (hrow Fyn Income I.
9 Total Cash CaPolahoti FlocohX8 .1=.11=MINI=M . A -- --- 14 00

8
9
...
SE
COITAL SALES MN
10 Efeeedog Lttestoch 11/1
11 mactleary Ecuxx eh( laM1=1.1
12 Bo.10n5s L..50
OTHER INFLOWS LEI NIMBI=
=
13 Wages am Swes tit00 12.00 00 taw) oo oo V' lac° aoo 1a00 1200 ,1 I 2oo
44 kwerszmees
15 15
16 TOW Cass. Inflow (9 10 Mx 16) iaoo t aoo 1.2.00 1.2.00 Soo TEll 4.1 0 aoo INEM raoo /9560 El 71025
OPERATING EXPENSES
7 Heed Labot 70 100 IiiirMio
In
IMENIIMMMEEI 320
is Reqin Ltametery and E0(wo,,eog 5E1
19 64......,..;$ aria Prxes /0 El
20 Fee, 5' 5-Toi-IMMI sRS- El 1,23.
21
22
23
Seeds Plasm
Fernezer L,ne Chem.:A.5
A.1.7.1,-,* Hre
. 01
aq 30
_ ....._ ____ 0 NM 1.1/FEEMIIIMEI 312*
21
22 10
24
25
Sooples
,. et Vec.t 'le Bleed ô Fees
-- -.-,-35---- 325
Eal
.o
26 Foe< 01 LaS..c..hAis
ii,:ye Warenousey
Qs o 300 El a/4
27 Da
78 Tates (Real EsLaN anO-PrsoNat Prooto, 11152131 11M1111 El 500
KI
29
30
31
Ihs...tance (Prot:eta( la}-1, 1,,c,p7
1.,,MHS
Beets keases
-
MEM
Ell
Mstek.'reoos 4o
- _9-0
rg-
11:31.Matill
33 ____
_ __ _ .270, _
37_
3; aC1 o oo
-
t. Hrl',44 H.,8414e0 1_1 14P,1114
3-6- Totetaah Opeeat; Emr.e;X:s
CAPITAL EXPEHSES
- -* 3/..ii ,2ci-d 95 --336 / im .kleXiel -0- ZI4,S 9 7 E31
.111
37 Theetang t.r.estaca SRI
Is Ma.m.wy Eo....o.ne., ____
39 B.,,INS Fe,,es 4.4,-.
13,114 H CUD LOY,.
- .
01111111
40 44 ,. 1,4,1,9 00 -700 itarb 10n 00 '700 00 OMEM111=0:121 00 700 700 ka3o
4-1 ,,,..81e 744 and bt,* Crory...nem 41
42
43
,-,4,5184,13. ("ebb, k SOfet 4 41TryCK 37 r..3=r 4.3--"i 11=1:fill 4-5-7 JINN EMIIWArl.1111EEEM .2 o --gb A- 47 3(-4---
_
b c ,X.N.4el OeN, Pae-e-,5
44 ^'NeS'
45
45 Lvg %.81 ,15 er e$ 1
441
47
48
114"C NI+
Totaa Cash Oalhoes (36 . 3? i .
CASN FLOW SUMMARY
41105
iia a: 33522 ..3k. 2032 II1 i'T7?1 a 551 Ifrl 4-6A 4041 / 9c/
49 BegehAo Cash Bale,t.e /2200 Ai a oo oo oo ITN 500 _ 23 00 5oo. 49 i .Q2 oo
50 Ihhoes What's 116 48( :* a la 07321 07 <85:5} IC <,.. 41 lliECia .38 5/ 1 .A cis__ lr, 3 V7 17 be 1 so
off ECM
1/4,1
51 Cairo-jos ton (43 501 . Is (so iqi <saa) 33 -clarq atym .31 1-2 1 24 4141 ' I in
32
53
Nese Etwoeeng CeNeat.g
New Bomeng Pomo:hate se.3 Lono Tem( _ .30 ow WM 8 5a 11111r0611 6(i'7 i XII
.
.:3 b 52 397k
54 Imam! PaenenIS On Oostahno Lao., CI 55o c,7 .53, _54 .203
55 P441C+0441PayMents On Operabng Loan 00111 i Et 3-55 I -55- 13
58 End(og Cash BANN. 5'0 fr IIIMMIN 00 oo NIMMIIMAEll 500 500 -74-857 / 51
M"
56
DEBT OUTSTANDING
57
58
Operate.;
Intemellote
Poet
P.m
Int 10q a40; 35/ 40 / :8 BB b ELME : ..3S5 i -0- si
.
59 Long Tann Pro 59
Adapted from Cooperative Extension Service, Division o Agricultu e. Oklahoma State University, With Permission.
860 A
860
AQ-909
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
UNIT XV
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #5 USE A COMPUTER TO EVALUATE

AN AQUACULTURAL OPERATION
There are many softwa,e prog.ams available for aquaculture record keeping and budgeting.
Your instructor will help you select a software program suitable for your enterprise and the
hardware available.
Work with the program literature and your instructor to evaluate your operation from both
a financial and physical viewpoint. If you have a catfish operation, you might want to try
FISHY, a program put out by the Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station,
for the financial evaluation of your enterpric.e. Another good program for financial analysis
is AQUACOST, available through Texas A & M. For the physical evaluation, you might
want to use a program called GROWCATS, put out by Mississippi State University.
GROWCATS estimates the impact of the following:
1. Size and number of fi lerlings stocked,

2. Fish harvest weight,
3. Feed conversior. atios, and
4. Amount of feed (percentage of body weight)
fed per day and per feeding season
on:
1. The length of the production period and associated harvest weights and dates,
2. Pounds of distribution (over time) of feed needed to grow the fish,
3. Pounds and number of fish produced,
4. Fish losses over the production period.
Another versatile computer program is "Channel Catfish Aquaculture Marketing Systems

Analysis" developed by the Agricultural Research and Extension Department at Langston
University, Langston, Oklahoma. The program is MS-DOS compatible with screen prompts
that provide quick answers and price variables. It is a versatile program suitable for
analyzing almost all non-levee pond operations, including cage culture, hill ponds, and
multi-use ponds used for fee-fishing and irrigation. The present cost of the
disk/documentation package is $10.00. The program is available from:
Langston University Agricultural

Research and Extension Department
P.O. Box 730
Langston, OK 73050
861
AQ-9i 1
e BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
UNIT XV
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #6 INTERVIEW A LOCAL LENDER

AND REPORT ON ATTITUDES ABOUT AQUACULTURE CAPITAL
Review Section XIII in the Information Sheet, and then talk with your instructor and use
your phone directory to locate a local lender who is knowledguable about aquaculture
loans.
Set up an appointment to interview the lender. During the interview, write down the
answers to questions about interest rates, payment schedules and period, application
procedures, paperwork and budgets necessary, collateral, etc.
After the interview, analyze the information you have obtained and report to the class the
attitudes of the lender. Compare your lender to lenders ; iterviewed by other class
members.
862
AQ-913
BUSINESS Mt NAGEMENT
UNIT XV
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #7 COMPLETE A CHECKLIST TO DETERMINE

INDWIDUAL POTENTIAL IN THE AQUACULTURE INDUSTRY
Under the right circumstances, fish farmingincluding bait production and fee fishing
enterprises can be very profitable. But, like other forms of farming, fish production may
involve substantial investment and risk. The following checklist of factors to consider before
entering into fish farming should be helpful in determining your potential in ar. aquaculturn
enterprise. It doesn't cover all the possibilities, and answering "yes" to all the questions is
no guarantee of success, but then answering "no" to a number of questions doesn't mean
automatic failure, either.
Yes No Sources of Information
O 0 Have you made the following personal contacts?
1. Federal and state agencies?
2. Universities, colleges, vocational-technical schools?
3. State and national fish farming associations?
4. Professional consultants, fish farmers, feed distributors,

merchandisers?
O 0 Have you read everything you can get your hands on concern-
ing fish farming in general and the species and enterprise you
plan to operate in particular?
Economic factors
O 0 Is fish farming the best 91ternative use for your land?
O 0 Have you chosen a marketable species and enterprise?
O 0 Do you have or can you get necessary financial backing?
O 0 Is fish farming the best use of existing capital?
O 0 Is the profit potential adequate for the risk involved?
O 0 Can you afford losses?
O 0 Are there established markets for your product?
8 63
914
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #7
Yes No Economic factors (continued)
1=1 [11 Do you have alternative marketing strategies?
El El Are you prepared to market your fish directly? (Or will you depend
on processors and wholesalers?)
Physical factors
0 0 Do you already have suitable ponds?
El [=I Do you have suitable pond sites?
0 0 Will the soil hold water?
El 0 Is your water quality high and free of contaminants?
0 0 Do you have an auxiliary water supply capable of compensating

for evaporation losses, seepage, and flushing if necessary?
0 0 Can you drain your ponds?
0 0 Do you have equipment and machinery that can be put to multiple

use?
Production factors
El 0 Is the necessary seed stock available at reasonable cost?
0 0 Are the necessaey feeds available at reasonable cost?
El 0 Do you have a source of chemicals and drugs needed for water

management and fish health?
0 0 Do you know of available professional help in the event of disease

outbreaks or water problems?
0 0 Do you understand water chemistry and oxygen dynamics in fish

ponds?
If your responses to these questions are mostly positive, you may feel comfortable about
engaging in an aquaculture emerprise.
864
AQ-915
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
UNIT XV
TEST
NAME SCORE
1. Match to their correct definitions terms associated with business management.

a. A list or record of actual monthly cash 1 Budget

levels for a business
2. Enterprise budget
b. The amount of money that can be
obtained through borrowing or selling of 3 Cash flow summary
assets that is used to promote the
production of other goods 4 Cash flow projection
c. The point where income is equal to 5. Capital

the total of the fixed costs of doing
business 6 Assets
d. Costs that usually do not fluctuate with 7 Depreciation

an increase or decrease in production
8 Fixed costs
e. A formal plan that projects the use of
assets for a future time; a schedule of 9. Variable costs
expected returns or costs
10. Enterprise
f. Costs that increase or decrease in
relation to an increase or decrease in 11. Return
production
12. Net worth statement
_A- Financial record that reflects the
profitability of the business over a 13. Income statement
specified period o time; also knows as
a profit and loss statement or an 14. Break even
operating statement
15. Payback
h. A look at the costs and risks involved
with producing one commodity or 16. Profit
making one product
i. Number of years it takes to recover

the initial investment
Financial condition of a business at a

definite point in time; it lists all assets,
values of assets, liabilities of a
business; also known as a balance
sheet, financial statement, or statement
of financial condition ,
865
916
TEST
k. An estimate of monthly cash inflows

and outflows over a period of time,
usually one year
I. The property or resources owned and

controlled by a business
m. The money available after production

expenses are subtracted from total
income
n. A specific process or activity that

requires a certain amount of risk to
make a profit
o. The decrease in value that occurs

regardlss of repair and maintenance
_____13. The money that remains after all fixed

and variable costs are deducted from
income
2. List four reasons for keeping records.
a.
b.
C.
d.
3. Distinguish between basic kinds of records. Write an "F" in the blank before the
description of financial records, and "P" in the blank before the description of
physical records,
a. Show money received and expenses owed for the business
b. Show data pertaining to production of aquaculture crop
866
AQ-917
TEST
4. Distinguish between production credit and consumption credit. Write "PC" before
the description of production credit, and "CC" before consumption credit.
a. Credit that usually returns its original cost plus an amount for interest
profit
b. Credit for personal use rather than for a use that will generate future
income
5. Select from the following list guidelines for building and maintaining a good credit
standing. Write an "X" before each correct guideline.
a. Establish a credit rating.
b. Shop around for the best type of loan and interest rate.
C. Get your credit from savings and loan associations.
d. Use the right type of credit.
e. Plan ahead for credit needs by using enterprise budgets.
f. Borrow whenever you do not have immediate available capital.
g. Work out a repayment plan for every loan.
h. Plan the use of loan funds with your family.
i. Meet your payments when due.
Plan your credit needs to spread your debts over several areas.
k. Take an annual inventory.
6. List the three C's for good credit.
a.
b.
C.
7. Select from a list factors that a lender looks for in a borrower. Write an "X" before
each correct factor.
a. Good reputation
b. Managerial ability
c. Stable financial position
d. Permanence and dependability
8 67
918
TEST
e. Ability to repay
f. Sound purpose for loan
g. §table family life
h. Adequate security for loan
8. Select from a list factors a borrower looks for in a lender. Write an "X" before
each correct factor.
a. Good character
b. Managerial ability
c. Equitable policies
d. Permanence and dependability
e. Knowledge of :quaculture
f. Fair and cormetitive cost of credit
9. Select from a list indicators of good loan repayment ability. Write an "X" in the
blank before each correct indicator.
a. Good reputation and character
b. Complete and accurate records and budgets
c. Sufficient security for loan
d. Product price rise
e. Increase in size of operation
f. Marginal income
q. Reliable cost and income estimates
h. Loan money used only for intended purpose

10 Select from a list indicators of poor loan repayment ability. Write an "X" before
each correct indicator.
a. High production per unit
_b. Low price per unit sold
c. Low cash production costs
d. High cash overhead costs
868
AQ-919
TEST
High cash living costs
Borrowing above the ability to repay
Underestimating the amount of the loan that can be repaid each year
11. Match major types of credit extended by businesses with their correct descriptions
a. Payments are made over a long period 1. Open account credit

of time; interest is charged; a service
charge is sometimes added; the 2. Revolving charge
customer has the option of repaying the credit
entire amount at any time; if the
customer does not maintain payments, 3. Optional revolving
merchandise may be repossessed by credit
the lender
4. Installment credit
b. The customer may buy in person, by

mail or by telephone; no down payment
or interest is charged; a statement is
sent monthly; the customer has a
stated period in which to repay with no
interest charge
c. The business sends monthly bills; the

entire bill can be paid within an agreed
number of days after billing without
interest; if the entire bill is not paid, the
customer makes a monthly payment
and the unpaid balance is subject to a
service charge and/or interest
d. A maximum amount is usually

established; payments are made
monthly, depending on the terms of the
business; interest is charged; new
purchases can be added, up to an
established maximum amount.
969
920
TEST
12 Select correct descriptions of types of loans issued by banks and other lending
institutions.
a. Collateral loan
1) Short-term loan for less than one year that is repaid in

installments
2) Loan in which legal title to item purchased is held as security or
collateral by lending institution
3) Money borrowed to pay all debts
b. Life insurance loan
1) Loan based on the premiums paid for life insurance

2) Loan based on the insured value of a person's life insurance
policy
3) Loan based on the cash value of a person's pemmnent life
insurance policy
c. Secured personal loan
1) Loan in which legal fide to item purchased is held security or

collateral by lending institution
2) Loan made on real estate, with the property pledged as security
for the loan
3) Loan made with collateral such as blue chip stock that is
safe and will not lose value
d. Unsecured personal loan (signature loan)
1) Loan given to a customer with a good credit ratiAg based simply

on the customer's promise to repay
2) A bank loan automatically extended througn the borrower's
checking account
3) Short-term loan (for less than one year) that is repaid in
installments or in full at the end of a specified time
e. Demand loan
1) Short-term loan (for less than one year) that is repaid in

installments or in full at the end of a specified time
2) Using a bank credit card such as VISA or Mastercharge to finance
purchases or to borrow money
8 70
AQ-921
TEST
f. Passbook loan
1) A bank loan automatically extended through the borrower's

chocking account
2) Arrangement that allows a person to borrow the amount in his or
her savings account without having to withdraw the savings
3) Loan from an automatic teller prompted by a password
_9 - Education toan
1) Van to finance a scholarly project, usually with matching funds

from a grantee
2) Loan to finance a post-secondary (after high school) education,
with repayment usually deferred until after graduation
3} Loan to finance a graduate education (after 4 years of coltege
period uf
or university) with repayment waived after a required
community service
h. Consolidated loan

2) Using bank credit cards to pay all debts
3) Loan in which legal title to item purchased is held as security by
lending institution
i. Credit card loan
1) Using a bank passbook to finance purchases or borrow money

2) Using an automatic bank teller card to finance purchases or
borrow money
3) using a bank card such as VISA or Mastercharge to finance
purchases or borrow money
Check credit loan
1) A bank loan automatically extended through the borrower's savings

acccunt
2) A tank loan automatically extended through the borrower's
chezking account
3) A bans toan automatically extended through the borrower's
mortgage principal
8 71
922
TEST
k. Home improvement loan

1) Special loan for the purpose of increasing the value of a home
by adding a room, putting on a new roof, and so on
2) Special home owner's loan based on the amount of equity the
borrower has built through mortgaae payments against the
borrower's mortgage
3) Special loan based on the amount of principal in the home
owner's house insurance policy
I. Mortgage loan
1) Loan made on real estate, with the owner's vehicle(s) held as

security
2) Loan made on real estate, with retirement funds pledged as
security
3) Loan made on real estate, with the property pledged as security
13. List five sources of credit for aquacultural enterprises.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
14. Match methods of computing interest with their correct definitions.

numbers in the blanks. Write the correct
a. Interest placed on the original loan for 1. Simple interest

the entire period of the loan; the sum
of the total interest and principal is 2. Remaining balance
divided by the number of payments to
obtain the amount of each installment 3. Add-on
b. Amount paid for borrowing money that 4. Discount
is repaid in a single lump sum
c. Interest calculated on the original
amount of the loan for the full period of
the loan; this amount, plus any other
loan costs, is subtracted from the
amount of the loan at the beginning,
with the borrower receiving the
difference
872
AQ-923
d. Interest calculated by multiplying

outstanding principal by contractual rate
for period in questcm
15. Calculate true annual interest rates for the following problems. Write your answers
in the blanks. Show your work.
a. You have purchased a boat, motor, and trailer for $3,775. You
made a down payment of $400, and financed the remaining
amount over 3 years at 12 percent interest. Your total finance
charges were $985.
b. You replaced your old tractor for one with more horsepower.
The new tractor cost $12,000, hut you traded in your old one for
$4,500. You are financing the remaining $7,500 over 3 years at
11.75 percent interest. Your total finance charges were $2,185.
16. List the four essential components of all budgets.
a.
b.
c.
d.
924
TEST
17. Select budgeting principles from a list. Write an "X" in the blank before each correct
principle.
a. Invest less if returns increase.
b. Invest more if returns increase.
c. Invest as little as possible in costs (inputs).

d. Invest as much as possible in costs (inputs).
e. Invest in a different product if the return (output) is less.
f. Invest in a different product if the return (output) is greater.
g. Invest money where it will earn the largest returns.
(NOTE: Test questions 18 through 24 list the assignment sheets. They are an important
part of this test. It they have not been completed, check with your instructor for scheduling
and evaluating procedures.)
18. Prepare an equipment cost comparison report. (Assignment Sheet #1)

19. Estimate fixed costs. (Assignment Sheet #2)
20. Develop an enterprise budget to determine actual costs and expected returns.
21. Develop a cash flow projection. (Assignment Sheet #4)
22. Use a computer to evaluate an aquacultural operation. (Assignment Sheet #5)

23. Interview a local lender and report on attitudes about aquaculture capital.
24 Complete a checklist to determine individual potential in the aquaculture industry.

874
AQ-925
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
UNIT XV
ANSWERS TO TEST
1. a. 3 i. 15
b. 5 j. 12
C. 14 k. 4
d. 8 I. 6
e. 1 m. 11
f. 9 n. 10
g. 13 o. 7
h. 2 p. 16
2. Answer should contain any four of the following:
a. To comply with income tax reporting requirements

b. To let you compare past performance with present performance and future
goals.
c. To provide the information you need to prepare management tools such as
cash flow projections, whole farm budgets, risk management plans
d. To help you obtain credit
e. To provide the information needed to apply for government programs
f. To help you decide what to produce
3. a. F
b. P
4. a. PC
b. CC
5. a, b, d, g, i, k
6. a. Character
b. Capital
c. Cash-Flow
7. b, c, e, f, h
8. c, d, e, f
9. b, d, e, g, h
10. b, d, e, f, g
8 75
ANSWERS TO TEST
11. a. 4
b. 1
C. 3
d. 2
12. a. 2 g. 2
b. 3 h. 1
c. 3 I. 3
d. 1 j. 2
e. 1 k. 1
f. 2 I. 3
13. Answer should contain any five of the following:

a. Commercial banks
b. Merchants and dealers
c. Individuals
d. Finance companies
e. Insurance companies
f. Federal Land Bank Associations
g. Production Credit Associations
h. Farmer's Home Administration (FHA)
i. State commissioners of the Land Office
14. a. 3
b. 1
C. 4
d. 2
15. a. 18.72 percent

b. 13.10 percent
16. a. Capital
b. Labor
c. Land
d. Management
17. b, c, f, g
18-24. Evaluated to the satisfaction of the instructor.
8 76
U.S. Dept. of Education
Office of Educational
Research and Improvement (OERI)
I
Date Filmed
July 22, 1991

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DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 327 657 CE 056 667

AUTHOR Walker, Susan S.

EDRS PRICE MF06 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.

Ann Masters, Nebraska, Chairman

Jim Steward, Executive Director

©1990 by the Mid-America Vocational Curriculum Consortium, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in

Printed in the United States of American by the

Mid-America Vocational Curriculum Consortium, Inc.

Unit I: Introduction to Aquaculture

Unit II: The Aquatic Environment

As is typical with MAVCC's competency-based format, Aquaculture is chock full of hands-

Ann Masters, Chairman Jim Steward

Glen Gebhart, Langston University Agricultui al Research and Extension Department,

D. Leroy Gray, Extension Fisheries Specialist, University of Arkansas Co-op Extension

Dr. Gary Jensen, Aquaculture Specialist, Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service,

Jim Kahrs, Owner/Operator, Osage Catfishery, Osage Beach, Missouri.

Catfish AqLiaculture: A Decision-Making Guidebook was published by the Louisiana

Crawfish in the Classroom is only a five-page brochure, but we thank J. V. Huner of

NEBRASKALand Magazine for their well-illustrated publication, The Fish Book.

Development of Aquaculture has been an adventure. We at MAVCC hope it serves well

INSTRUCTIONAL / TASK ANALYSIS

JOB TRAINING: What the RELATED INFORMATION:

UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO AQUACULTURE

1. Terms and definitions

2. Facts about aquaculture

3. The historical background of

4. Types of aquaculture environ-

5. Types of aquaculture enterprises

6. Species of economic importance

7. Factors to consider before starting

8. Limiting factors in joint agriculture/

9. Physical and fiscal risks

10. Advantages of aquaculture

11. Sources of information about

13. Visit a support facility and interview

14. Survey local market outlets for types

15. Interview a local producer.

UNIT II: THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT

2. Important variables affecting the

3. Links in the aquatic food chain

4. The oxygen cycle in pond ecology

5. Factors affecting oxygen

6. The effects of seasonal

7. The positive roles of plankton and

8. ';he negative roles of plankton

9. Problems concerning carbon

10. Problems concerning water acidity

11. Water alkalinity and hardness

12. Ammonia and ammonia

13. Hydrogen sulfide in the aquatic

14. Aquatic plants

15. Sources of water pollution

Collect pond plankton and examine

Seine a pond; examine findings and

19. Collect a pond bottom

20. Prepare a list of food sources a

UNIT III: FUNDAMENTAL FISH BIOLOGY