WIRELESS GESTURE CONTROLLED ROBOT WITH VOICE AND VIDEO

CAMERA

CHAPTER 1

ABSTRACT

To design and construct gestures controlled device switching system and also a robot
control wirelessly with a video camera on it for physically challenged. The user can wear this
device to any movable part and with the simple gestures he can request the basic needs like
water, food or medicine through robot operated wirelessly using MEMS (Micro Electro-
Mechanical Systems) technology. User can also control the electrical devices like light; fan etc
with the help of gestures. MEMS is a Micro Electro Mechanical Sensor which is a highly
sensitive sensor and capable of detecting the tilt. This sensor finds the tilt and operates the
electrical devices and announces the basic needs depending on tilt. For example, if the tilt is to
the forward then the device will be “ON” for the first time then next time it will be “OFF”.

In the same way, if the tilt is to the left side then another device is going to be controlled.
The tilt is in left side or right side direction the related need will be announced. This device is
very helpful for paralysis and physically challenged persons. This device is portable, and this
system operation is entirely driven by wireless technology. User can wear it to any movable
part and can operate it by tilting the MEMS sensor.
 CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION

Embedded system:

An embedded system is a controller programmed and controlled by a real-time

operating system (RTOS) with a dedicated function within a larger mechanical or electrical
system, often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device
often including hardware and mechanical parts. Embedded systems control many devices in
common use today. Ninety-eight percent of all microprocessors are manufactured to serve as
embedded system component.

Examples of properties of typical embedded computers when compared with general-

purpose counterparts are low power consumption, small size, rugged operating ranges, and low
per-unit cost.

An embedded system is a computer system with a dedicated function within a larger

mechanical or electrical system, often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as
part of a complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a
general-purpose computer, such as a personal computer (PC), is designed to be flexible and to
meet a wide range of end-user needs. Embedded systems control many devices in common use
today. Embedded systems contain processing cores that are either microcontrollers, or digital
signal processors (DSP).

Microprocessors are commonly referred to as general purpose processors as they simply

accept the inputs, process it and give the output. In contrast, a microcontroller not only accepts
the data as inputs but also manipulates it, interfaces the data with various devices, controls the
data and thus finally gives the result. As everyone in this competitive world prefers to make
the things easy and simple to handle, this project sets an example to some extent.

Gesture-based interfaces for users to interact with the computer commands and provide
an intuitive way to specify. Existing gesture recognition systems can be classified into three
types: motion-based, touch based, and vision-based systems. For motion-based systems, a user
must hold a mobile device or an external controller to make gestures. Touch-based systems can
accurately map the finger/pen positions and moving directions on the touch-screen to different
commands.
 However, 3D gestures are not supported because all possible gestures are confined
within the 2D screen surface. Vision-based systems using camera and computer vision
techniques allow users to make intuitive gestures without touching the device. The main aim
of this project was to develop a computerized Indian Sign Language (ISL) recognition system.
The system allows a user to interact with mobile devices using intuitive gestures, without
touching the screen or wearing/holding any additional device. Evaluation results show that the
system is low-power, and able to recognize 3D gestures with over 98% precision in real time.

8051 MICROCONTROLLER:

A microcontroller is a general-purpose device, but that is meant to read data, perform

limited calculations on that data and control its environment based on those calculations. The
prime use of a microcontroller is to control the operation of a machine using a fixed program
that is stored in ROM and that does not change over the lifetime of the system.

The microcontroller design uses a much more limited set of single-byte and double-
byte instructions that are used to move data and code from internal memory to the ALU. The
microcontroller is concerned with getting data from and to its own pins; the architecture and
instruction set are optimized to handle data in bit and byte size.

The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 4k

bytes of Flash Programmable and erasable read only memory (EROM). The device is
manufactured using Atmel’s high-density non-volatile memory technology and is functionally
compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 microcontroller instruction set and pin out. By
combining versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel’s AT89c51 is a
powerful microcomputer, which provides a high flexible and cost- effective solution to many
embedded control applications.

FEATURES OF AT89C51:

 80C51 based architecture

 4-Kbytes of on-chip Reprogrammable Flash Memory
 128 x 8 RAM
 Two 16-bit Timer/Counters
 Full duplex serial channel
 Boolean processor
 Four 8-bit I/O ports, 32 I/O lines
  Memory addressing capability
o 64K ROM and 64K RAM
 Power save modes:
o Idle and power-down
 Six interrupt sources
 Most instructions execute in 0.3 us
 CMOS and TTL compatible
 Maximum speed: 40 MHz @ Vcc = 5V
 Industrial temperature available
 Packages available:
– 40-pin DIP
– 44-pin PLCC
– 44-pin PQFP

Pin configuration of AT89c51 Microcontroller

AT89C51 Block Diagram:
 PIN DESCRIPTION:

 VCC : Supply voltage

 GND : Ground
 Port 0

Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight
TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high impedance inputs.

Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data bus during
access to external program and data memory. In this mode, P 0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0
also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during
program verification. External pull-ups are required during program verification.

 Port 1

Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The port 1output buffers
can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 1 pins, they are pulled high by
the internal pull-ups can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being
pulled low will source current (1) because of the internal pull-ups.

 Port 2

Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The port 2 output buffers
can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 2 pins, they are pulled high by
the internal pull-ups can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being
pulled low will source current because of the internal pull-ups.

Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory
and during access to DPTR. In this application Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when
emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit data address (MOVX@R1),
Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-
order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification.

 Port 3

Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The port 3 output buffers
can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 3 pins, they are pulled high by
 the internal pull-ups can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being
pulled low will source current because of the internal pull-ups.

Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash Programming and verification.

Port pin Alternate Functions

P3.0 RXD(serial input port)

P3.1 TXD(serial input port)

P3.2 INT0(external interrupt 0)

P3.3 INT1(external interrupt 1)

P3.4 T0(timer 0 external input)

P3.5 T1(timer 1 external input)

P3.6 WR (external data memory write strobe)

P3.7 RD (external data memory read strobe)

 RST

Rest input A on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets
the device.

 ALE/PROG:

Address Latch Enable is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during
access to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash
programming.

In normal operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/16 the oscillator frequency
and may be used for external timing or clocking purpose. Note, however, that one ALE pulse
is skipped during each access to external Data memory.

 PSEN

Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory when the
AT89c51 is executing code from external program memory PSEN is activated twice each
 machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external
data memory.

 EA /VPP

External Access Enable (EA) must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to
fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000h up to FFFFH. Note,
however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be
strapped to Vcc for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt
programming enable voltage (Vpp) during Flash programming when 12-volt programming is
selected.

 XTAL1

Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.

 XTAL 2

Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

OPERATING DESCRIPTION

The detail description of the AT89C51 included in this description is:

I. Memory Map and Registers

II. Timer/Counters
III. Interrupt System

MEMORY MAP AND REGISTERS

Memory

The AT89C51 has separate address spaces for program and data memory. The program
and data memory can be up to 64K bytes long. The lower 4K program memory can reside on-
chip. The AT89C51 has 128 bytes of on-chip RAM.

The lower 128 bytes can be accessed either by direct addressing or by indirect
addressing. The lower 128 bytes of RAM can be divided into 3 segments as listed below
 1. Register Banks 0-3:
Locations 00H through 1FH (32 bytes). The device after reset defaults to register bank
0. To use the other register banks, the user must select them in software. Each register
bank contains eight 1-byte registers R0-R7. Reset initializes the stack point to location
07H, and is incremented once to start from 08H, which is the first register of the second
register bank.
2. Bit Addressable Area:
16 bytes have been assigned for this segment 20H-2FH. Each one of the 128 bits of
this segment can be directly addressed (0-7FH). Each of the 16 bytes in this segment
can also be addressed as a byte.
3. Scratch Pad Area:
30H-7FH are available to the user as data RAM. However, if the data pointer has been
initialized to this area, enough bytes should be left aside to prevent SP data destruction.

SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS

The Special Function Registers (SFR's) are located in upper 128 Bytes direct addressing
area. The SFR Memory Map in shows that.
 Not all of the addresses are occupied. Unoccupied addresses are not implemented on
the chip. Read accesses to these addresses in general return random data, and write accesses
have no effect. User software should not write 1s to these unimplemented locations, since they
may be used in future microcontrollers to invoke new features. In that case, the reset or inactive
values of the new bits will always be 0, and their active values will be 1.

The functions of the SFR’s are outlined in the following sections.

Accumulator (ACC)

ACC is the Accumulator register. The mnemonics for Accumulator-specific

instructions, however, refer to the Accumulator simply as A.

B Register (B)

The B register is used during multiply and divide operations. For other
instructions it can be treated as another scratch pad register.

Program Status Word (PSW)

The PSW register contains program status information.

Stack Pointer (SP)

The Stack Pointer Register is eight bits wide. It is incremented before data is stored
during PUSH and CALL executions. While the stack may reside anywhere in on chip RAM,
the Stack Pointer is initialized to 07H after a reset. This causes the stack to begin at location
08H.

Data Pointer (DPTR)

The Data Pointer consists of a high byte (DPH) and a low byte (DPL). Its function is to
hold a 16-bit address. It may be manipulated as a 16-bit register or as two independent 8-bit
registers.

Serial Data Buffer (SBUF)

The Serial Data Buffer is actually two separate registers, a transmit buffer and a receive
buffer register. When data is moved to SBUF, it goes to the transmit buffer, where it is held for
serial transmission. (Moving a byte to SBUF initiates the transmission.) When data is moved
from SBUF, it comes from the receive buffer.
Timer Registers

Register pairs (TH0, TL0) and (TH1, TL1) are the 16-bit Counter registers for
Timer/Counters 0 and 1, respectively.

Control Registers

Special Function Registers IP, IE, TMOD, TCON, SCON, and PCON contain control
and status bits for the interrupt system, the Timer/Counters, and the serial port.

TIMER/COUNTERS

The IS89C51 has two 16-bit Timer/Counter registers: Timer 0 and Timer 1. All two
can be configured to operate either as Timers or event counters. As a Timer, the register is
incremented every machine cycle. Thus, the register counts machine cycles. Since a machine
cycle consists of 12 oscillator periods, the count rate is 1/12 of the oscillator frequency.

As a Counter, the register is incremented in response to a 1-to-0 transition at its

corresponding external input pin, T0 and T1. The external input is sampled during S5P2 of
every machine cycle. When the samples show a high in one cycle and a low in the next cycle,
the count is incremented. The new count value appears in the register during S3P1 of the cycle
following the one in which the transition was detected.

Since two machine cycles (24 oscillator periods) are required to recognize a 1-to-0
transition, the maximum count rate is 1/24 of the oscillator frequency. There are no restrictions
on the duty cycle of the external input signal, but it should be held for at least one full machine
cycle to ensure that a given level is sampled at least once before it changes.

In addition to the Timer or Counter functions, Timer 0 and Timer 1 have four operating
modes: 13-bit timer, 16-bit timer, 8-bit auto-reload, split timer.

TIMERS:

OSCILLATOR
FREQUENCY 12D

TLX THX TFX

TR
SFR’S USED IN TIMERS

The special function registers used in timers are,

 TMOD Register
 TCON Register
 Timer(T0) & timer(T1) Registers

(i) TMOD Register:

TMOD is dedicated solely to the two timers (T0 & T1).

 The timer mode SFR is used to configure the mode of operation of each of the two
timers. Using this SFR your program may configure each timer to be a 16-bit timer, or
13 bit timer, 8-bit auto reload timer, or two separate timers. Additionally you may
configure the timers to only count when an external pin is activated or to count “events”
that are indicated on an external pin.
 It can consider as two duplicate 4-bit registers, each of which controls the action of one
of the timers.

(ii) TCON Register:

 The timer control SFR is used to configure and modify the way in which the 8051’s
two timers operate. This SFR controls whether each of the two timers is running or
stopped and contains a flag to indicate that each timer has overflowed. Additionally,
some non-timer related bits are located in TCON SFR.
 These bits are used to configure the way in which the external interrupt flags are
activated, which are set when an external interrupt occurs.

(iii) TIMER 0 (T0):

 TO (Timer 0 low/high, address 8A/8C h)

  These two SFR’s taken together represent timer 0. Their exact behavior depends on
how the timer is configured in the TMOD SFR; however, these timers always count up.
What is configurable is how and when they increment in value.

TH0 TL0

(iv) TIMER 1 (T1):

 T1 (Timer 1 Low/High, address 8B/ 8D h)

These two SFR’s, taken together, represent timer 1. Their exact behavior depends on
how the timer is configured in the TMOD SFR; however, these timers always count up. What
is Configurable is how and when they increment in value.

TH1 TL1

The Timer or Counter function is selected by control bits C/T in the Special Function
Register TMOD. These two Timer/Counters have four operating modes, which are selected by
bit pairs (M1, M0) in TMOD. Modes 0, 1, and 2 are the same for both Timer/Counters, but
Mode 3 is different.

The four modes are described in the following sections.

Mode 0:

Both Timers in Mode 0 are 8-bit Counters with a divide-by-32 pre-scalar. Figure 8
shows the Mode 0 operation as it applies to Timer 1. In this mode, the Timer register is
configured as a 13-bit register. As the count rolls over from all 1s to all 0s, it sets the Timer
interrupt flag TF1. The counted input is enabled to the Timer when TR1 = 1 and either GATE
= 0 or INT1 = 1. Setting GATE = 1 allows the Timer to be controlled by external input INT1,
to facilitate pulse width measurements. TR1 is a control bit in the Special Function Register
TCON. Gate is in TMOD.
 The 13-bit register consists of all eight bits of TH1 and the lower five bits of TL1. The
upper three bits of TL1 are indeterminate and should be ignored. Setting the run flag (TR1)
does not clear the registers.

Mode 0 operation is the same for Timer 0 as for Timer 1, except that TR0, TF0 and
INT0 replace the corresponding Timer 1 signals. There are two different GATE bits, one for
Timer 1 (TMOD.7) and one for Timer 0 (TMOD.3).

Mode 1

Mode 1 is the same as Mode 0, except that the Timer register is run with all 16 bits.
The clock is applied to the combined high and low timer registers (TL1/TH1). As clock pulses
are received, the timer counts up: 0000H, 0001H, 0002H, etc. An overflow occurs on the
FFFFH-to-0000H overflow flag. The timer continues to count. The overflow flag is the TF1
bit in TCON that is read or written by software

Mode 2

Mode 2 configures the Timer register as an 8-bit Counter (TL1) with automatic reload,
as shown in Figure 10. Overflow from TL1 not only sets TF1, but also reloads TL1 with the
contents of TH1, which is preset by software. The reload leaves the TH1 unchanged. Mode 2
operation is the same for Timer/Counter 0.

Mode 3

Timer 1 in Mode 3 simply holds its count. The effect is the same as setting TR1 = 0.
Timer 0 in Mode 3 establishes TL0and TH0 as two separate counters. The logic for Mode 3 on
Timer 0 is shown in Figure 11. TL0 uses the Timer 0 control bits: C/T, GATE, TR0, INT0, and
TF0. TH0 is locked into a timer function (counting machine cycles) and over the use of TR1
and TF1 from Timer 1. Thus, TH0 now controls the Timer 1 interrupt.

Mode 3 is for applications requiring an extra 8-bit timer or counter. With Timer 0 in
Mode 3, the AT89C51 can appear to have three Timer/Counters. When Timer 0 is in Mode 3,
Timer 1 can be turned on and off by switching it out of and into its own Mode 3. In this case,
Timer 1 can still be used by the serial port as a baud rate generator or in any application not
requiring an interrupt.
INTERRUPT SYSTEM

An interrupt is an external or internal event that suspends the operation of micro

controller to inform it that a device needs its service. In interrupt method, whenever any device
needs its service, the device notifies the micro controller by sending it an interrupt signal. Upon
receiving an interrupt signal, the micro controller interrupts whatever it is doing and serves the
device. The program associated with interrupt is called as interrupt service subroutine (ISR).
Main advantage with interrupts is that the micro controller can serve many devices.

Baud Rate

The baud rate in Mode 0 is fixed as shown in the following equation. Mode 0 Baud
Rate = Oscillator Frequency /12 the baud rate in Mode 2 depends on the value of the SMOD
bit in Special Function Register PCON. If SMOD = 0 the baud rate is 1/64 of the oscillator
frequency. If SMOD = 1, the baud rate is 1/32 of the oscillator frequency.

Mode 2 Baud Rate = 2SMODx (Oscillator Frequency)/64.

In the IS89C51, the Timer 1 overflow rate determines the baud rates in Modes 1 and 3.

NUMBER OF INTERRUPTS IN 89C51:

There are basically five interrupts available to the user. Reset is also considered as an
interrupt. There are two interrupts for timer, two interrupts for external hardware interrupt and
one interrupt for serial communication.

Memory location Interrupt name

0000H Reset

0003H External interrupt 0

000BH Timer interrupt 0

0013H External interrupt 1

001BH Timer interrupt 1

0023H Serial COM interrupt

 Lower the vector, higher the priority. The External Interrupts INT0 and INT1 can each
be either level-activated or transition-activated, depending on bits IT0 and IT1 in Register
TCON. The flags that actually generate these interrupts are the IE0 and IE1 bits in TCON.
When the service routine is vectored, hardware clears the flag that generated an external
interrupt only if the interrupt was transition-activated. If the interrupt was level-activated, then
the external requesting source (rather than the on-chip hardware) controls the request flag.

The Timer 0 and Timer 1 Interrupts are generated by TF0and TF1, which are set by a
rollover in their respective Timer/Counter registers (except for Timer 0 in Mode 3).When a
timer interrupt is generated, the on-chip hardware clears the flag that is generated.

The Serial Port Interrupt is generated by the logical OR of RI and TI. The service
routine normally must determine whether RI or TI generated the interrupt, and the bit must be
cleared in software.

All of the bits that generate interrupts can be set or cleared by software, with the same
result as though they had been set or cleared by hardware. That is, interrupts can be generated
and pending interrupts can be cancelled in software.

Each of these interrupt sources can be individually enabled or disabled by setting or

clearing a bit in Special Function Register IE (interrupt enable) at address 0A8H. There is a
global enable/disable bit that is cleared to disable all interrupts or to set the interrupts.

IE (Interrupt enable register):

Steps in enabling an interrupt:

Bit D7 of the IE register must be set to high to allow the rest of register to take effect.
If EA=1, interrupts are enabled and will be responded to if their corresponding bits in IE are
high. If EA=0, no interrupt will be responded to even if the associated bit in the IE register is
high.

Description of each bit in IE register:

D7 bit: Disables all interrupts. If EA =0, no interrupt is acknowledged, if EA=1 each

interrupt source is individually enabled or disabled by setting or clearing its enable bit.
D6 bit: Reserved.

D5 bit: Enables or disables timer 2 over flow interrupt (in 8052).

D4 bit: Enables or disables serial port interrupt.

D3 bit: Enables or disables timer 1 over flow interrupt.

D2 bit: Enables or disables external interrupt 1.

D1 bit: Enables or disables timer 0 over flow interrupt.

D0 bit: Enables or disables external interrupt 0.

Interrupt priority in 89C51:

There is one more SRF to assign priority to the interrupts which is named as interrupt
priority (IP). User has given the provision to assign priority to one interrupt. Writing one to
that particular bit in the IP register fulfils the task of assigning the priority.

Description of each bit in IP register:

D7 bit: Reserved.

D6 bit: Reserved.

D5 bit: Timer 2 interrupt priority bit (in 8052).

D4 bit: Serial port interrupt priority bit.

D3 bit: Timer 1 interrupt priority bit.

D2 bit: External interrupt 1 priority bit.

D1 bit: Timer 0 interrupt priority bit.

D0 bit: External interrupt 0 priority bit.

MEMS
Introduction :
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) is the technology of the very small, and
merges at the nano-scale into nanoelectromechanical systems. MEMS are also referred to as
micromachines (in Japan), or Micro Systems Technology - MST (in Europe).MEMS is an
emerging technology which uses the tools and techniques that were developed for the
Integrated Circuit industry to build microscopic machines. These machines are built on
standard silicon wafers. The real power of this technology is that many machines can be built
at the same time across the surface of the wafer, with no assembly required. Since it is a
photographic-like process, it is just as easy to build a million machines on the wafer as it would
be to build just one.

MEMS is the integration of mechanical elements, sensors, actuators, and electronics on

a common silicon substrate through microfabrication technology. While the electronics are
fabricated using integrated circuit (IC) process sequences (e.g., CMOS, Bipolar, or BICMOS
processes), the micromechanical components are fabricated using compatible
"micromachining" processes that selectively etch away parts of the silicon wafer or add new
structural layers to form the mechanical and electromechanical devices.

Imagine a machine so small that it is imperceptible to the human eye. Imagine working
machines no bigger than a grain of pollen. Imagine thousands of these machines batch
fabricated on a single piece of silicon, for just a few pennies each. Imagine a world where
gravity and inertia are no longer important, but atomic forces and surface science dominate.
Imagine a silicon chip with thousands of microscopic mirrors working in unison, enabling the
all optical network and removing the bottlenecks from the global telecommunications
infrastructure. You are now entering the microdomain, a world occupied by an explosive
technology known as MEMS. A world of challenge and opportunity, where traditional
engineering concepts are turned upside down, and the realm of the "possible" is totally
redefined.
 MEMS are quietly changing the way you live, in ways that you might never
imagine. The device that senses your car has been in an accident, and fires the airbag is a
MEMS device. Most new cars have over a dozen MEMS devices, making your car safer, more
energy efficient, and more environmentally friendly. MEMS are finding their way into a variety
of medical devices, and everyday consumer products.
MEMS are quietly changing the way you live, in ways that you might never
imagine. The device that senses your car has been in an accident, and fires the airbag is a
MEMS device. Most new cars have over a dozen MEMS devices, making your car safer, more
energy efficient, and more environmentally friendly. MEMS are finding their way into a variety
of medical devices, and everyday consumer products.

MEMS promises to revolutionize nearly every product category by bringing together

silicon-based microelectronics with micromachining technology, making possible the
realization of complete systems-on-a-chip. MEMS is an enabling technology allowing the
development of smart products, augmenting the computational ability of microelectronics with
the perception and control capabilities of microsensors and microactuators and expanding the
space of possible designs and applications.

Microelectronic integrated circuits can be thought of as the "brains" of a system and

MEMS augments this decision-making capability with "eyes" and "arms", to allow
microsystems to sense and control the environment. Sensors gather information from the
environment through measuring mechanical, thermal, biological, chemical, optical, and
magnetic phenomena. The electronics then process the information derived from the sensors
and through some decision making capability direct the actuators to respond by moving,
positioning, regulating, pumping, and filtering, thereby controlling the environment for some
desired outcome or purpose. Because MEMS devices are manufactured using batch fabrication
techniques similar to those used for integrated circuits, unprecedented levels of functionality,
reliability, and sophistication can be placed on a small silicon chip at a relatively low cost.

Manufacturability:

Another significant challenge is in the area of MEMS packaging. Many devices that
work properly at the wafer level can not be effectively packaged for use in real applications.

There has been significant strides in overcoming stiction issues, and achieving manufacturable
MEMS devices. The stiction problem has been addressed at both an engineering and a physics
level. Engineering wise, stiction can be minimized by careful consideration during
design. Devices can be designed to minimize stiction by creating devices that a stiff, and have
a minimum area of potential contact. Stiff devices have a larger restoring force to battle against
stiction, and designing devices with dimples to limit contact area reduces the stiction force. On
the Physics front treating the surfaces with Self Assembles Monloyars (SAMs) can lower the
surface energy of the devices and reduce the stiction forces. Combinations of the Engineering
and Physics approaches has led devices with manufacturability approaching that of Integrated
Circuits.

The chart below shows the product yield during the development of a complex MEMS-
based mirror chip. It can be seen that sustained yields in the high 90% were obtained. This
chart represents over 25,000 devices manufactured. For this product, the stiction problem was
overcome through the use of sophisticated design techniques, and development of a proprietary
back-end-of-line release capability. This combination of design and processing results in
stiction free devices suitable for use in real products.

Reliability
The types of MEMS devices that are the most reliable, and the easiest to qualify are devices
that can be packaged in such a way as to protect them from the environment. An excellent
example of this is the case of optical MEMS devices. These devices can be packaged in a
traditional ceramic package, with a glass lid. The glass lid, hermetically attached to the ceramic
package creates a "safe" environment for the sensitive MEMS chip, while still allowing photons
to interact with the MEMS device.

ADXL103/203
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The ADXL103/ADXL203 are high precision, low power, complete single- and dual-axis
accelerometers with signal conditioned voltage outputs, all on a single, monolithic IC. The
ADXL103/ADXL203 measure acceleration with a full-scale range of ±1.7 g. The
ADXL103/ADXL203 can measure both dynamic acceleration (for example, vibration) and
static acceleration (for example, gravity).

THEORY OF OPERATION

The ADXL103/ADXL203 are complete acceleration measure-ment systems on a single,

monolithic IC. The ADXL103 is a single-axis accelerometer, and the ADXL203 is a dual-axis
accelerometer. Both parts contain a polysilicon surface-micromachined sensor and signal
conditioning circuitry to implement an open-loop acceleration measurement architecture. The
output signals are analog voltages proportional to acceleration. The ADXL103/ADXL203 are
capable of measuring both positive and negative accelerations to at least ±1.7 g. The
accelerometer can measure static acceleration forces such as gravity, allowing it to be used as
a tilt sensor.

The sensor is a surface-micromachined polysilicon structure built on top of the silicon wafer.
Polysilicon springs suspend the structure over the surface of the wafer and provide a resistance
against acceleration forces. Deflection of the structure is measured using a differential capacitor
that consists of independent fixed plates and plates attached to the moving mass. The fixed
plates are driven by 180° out-of-phase square waves. Acceleration deflects the beam and
unbalances the differential capacitor, resulting in an output square wave whose amplitude is
proportional to acceleration. Phase-sensitive demodulation techniques are then used to rectify
the signal and determine the direction of the acceleration. The output of the demodulator is
amplified and brought off-chip through a 32 kΩ resistor. At this point, the user can set the
signal bandwidth of the device by adding a capacitor. This filtering improves measurement
resolution and helps prevent aliasing.

Pin configuration and function description

 CHAPTER 3

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Objectives:

 Simple head movement based operation.

 Voice announcement of needs.
 Wireless data transmission.
 Robot with obstacle detection.
 Forms the surveillance system for combing areas.

 Monitors large spaces in industrial environment.

 Wireless transmission over RF.

Technology is the word coined for the practical application of scientific knowledge in
the industry. The advancement in technology cannot be justified unless it is used for leveraging
the user’s purpose. Technology, is today, imbibed for accomplishment of several tasks of
varied complexity, in almost all walks of life. The society as a whole is exquisitely dependent
on science and technology. Technology has played a very significant role in improving the
quality of life. One way through which this is done is by automating several tasks using
complex logic to simplify the work.
The main aim of this project is video coverage at required places with the help of digital
camera and high power LED. Robot is controlled by depending upon the tilt directions and its
wireless communication. The video will be transmitted to the receiver using AV transmitter.
At receiver end, these can be seen on TV. It is a very low cost survey line system used to
monitor a larger area. We are using RF communication to send commands to robot. RF
Communication ranges in between 30 KHz to 300 GHz. RF communication works by creating
electromagnetic waves at a source and being able to pick up those electromagnetic waves at a
particular destination. These electromagnetic waves travel through the air at near the speed of
light. The wavelength of an electromagnetic signal is inversely proportional to the frequency;
the higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength.
MEMS is a Micro Electro Mechanical Sensor which is a highly sensitive sensor and
capable of detecting the tilt. The project consists of two micro controller based motherboards.
One motherboard consists of a controller interfaced with MEMS Accelerometer sensor
technology to control the direction of the robot, a RF transmitter to send commands to robot
and it will provide a channel for wireless communication, a LED indicator. This entire board
acts as a remote to control the movement of the robot as well as receive the information from
the robot. The other board is present with the Robot itself. It is interfaced with some DC motors
for moving the robot, a RF receiver for receiving the instructions from the transmitter.
The innovative feature in the system is it automatically detects the light intensity and
switches ON the light source if intensity of light is low which helps in better vision of
surroundings. The Microcontroller is programmed using Embedded C language. This project
finds its major applications while we are monitoring larger areas like political canvassing,
cricket stadiums, international conferences, worship places, banking etc. This project assures
us with more reliable and highly secured system. The microcontroller will act as the mediator
between the input module and output module.
 CHAPTER 4

COMPONENTS

The major components which are required for this project are:

 8051 microcontroller
 Power supply
 MEMS Accelerometer
 ADC
 TRIAC
 TRIAC Driver
 Relay
 Relay Driver
 Crystal Oscillator
 Encoder
 Voice Module
 LED
 RF Transmitter

1. AT89S52 MICROCONTROLLER
A microcontroller is a general-purpose device, but that is meant to read data, perform limited
calculations on that data and control its environment based on those calculations. The prime
use of a microcontroller is to control the operation of a machine using a fixed program that is
stored in ROM and that does not change over the lifetime of the system.

The microcontroller design uses a much more limited set of single- and double-byte
instructions that are used to move data and code from internal memory to the ALU. The
microcontroller is concerned with getting data from and to its own pins; the architecture and
instruction set are optimized to handle data in bit and byte size.

The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 4k

bytes of Flash Programmable and erasable read only memory (EROM). The device is
manufactured using Atmel’s high-density non-volatile memory technology and is functionally
compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 microcontroller instruction set and pin out. By
combining versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel’s AT89c51 is a
powerful microcomputer, which provides a high flexible and cost- effective solution to many
embedded control applications.

Features:

 80C51 based architecture

 4-Kbytes of on-chip Reprogrammable Flash Memory
 128 x 8 RAM
 Two 16-bit Timer/Counters
 Full duplex serial channel
 Boolean processor
 Four 8-bit I/O ports, 32 I/O lines
 Memory addressing capability
o 64K ROM and 64K RAM
 Power save modes:
o Idle and power-down
 Six interrupt sources
 Most instructions execute in 0.3 us
 CMOS and TTL compatible
 Maximum speed: 40 MHz @ Vcc = 5V
 Industrial temperature available
 Packages available:
 40-pin DIP
 44-pin PLCC
 44-pin PQFP

2. REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

Transformer:

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying current in the first
or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying
magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual
induction.

Figure: Transformer Symbol

(or)

Transformer is a device that converts the one form energy to another form of energy
like a transducer.

Figure: Transformer

Basic Principle:

A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties of an iron
core to efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It of course cannot increase power so that if the
voltage is raised, the current is proportionally lowered and vice versa.
 Figure: Basic Principle

Transformer Working:

A transformer consists of two coils (often called 'windings') linked by an iron core, as
shown in figure below. There is no electrical connection between the coils, instead they are
linked by a magnetic field created in the core.
 Figure: Basic Transformer

Transformers are used to convert electricity from one voltage to another with minimal
loss of power. They only work with AC (alternating current) because they require a changing
magnetic field to be created in their core. Transformers can increase voltage (step-up) as well
as reduce voltage (step-down).

Alternating current flowing in the primary (input) coil creates a continually changing
magnetic field in the iron core. This field also passes through the secondary (output) coil and
the changing strength of the magnetic field induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil.
If the secondary coil is connected to a load the induced voltage will make an induced current
flow. The correct term for the induced voltage is 'induced electromotive force' which is usually
abbreviated to induced e.m.f.

The iron core is laminated to prevent 'eddy currents' flowing in the core. These
are currents produced by the alternating magnetic field inducing a small voltage in the core,
just like that induced in the secondary coil. Eddy currents waste power by needlessly heating
up the core but they are reduced to a negligible amount by laminating the iron because this
increases the electrical resistance of the core without affecting its magnetic properties.

Transformers have two great advantages over other methods of changing voltage:

1. They provide total electrical isolation between the input and output, so they can be
safely used to reduce the high voltage of the mains supply.
 2. Almost no power is wasted in a transformer. They have a high efficiency (power out /
power in) of 95% or more.

Classification of Transformer:

 Step-Up Transformer
 Step-Down Transformer

Step-Down Transformer:

Step down transformers are designed to reduce electrical voltage. Their primary voltage
is greater than their secondary voltage. This kind of transformer "steps down" the voltage
applied to it. For instance, a step down transformer is needed to use a 110v product in a country
with a 220v supply.

Step down transformers convert electrical voltage from one level or phase configuration
usually down to a lower level. They can include features for electrical isolation, power
distribution, and control and instrumentation applications. Step down transformers typically
rely on the principle of magnetic induction between coils to convert voltage and/or current
levels.

Step down transformers are made from two or more coils of insulated wire wound
around a core made of iron. When voltage is applied to one coil (frequently called the primary
or input) it magnetizes the iron core, which induces a voltage in the other coil, (frequently
called the secondary or output). The turn’s ratio of the two sets of windings determines the
amount of voltage transformation.
 Figure: Step-Down Transformer

An example of this would be: 100 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary,
a ratio of 2 to 1.

Step down transformers can be considered nothing more than a voltage ratio device.

With step down transformers the voltage ratio between primary and secondary will
mirror the "turn’s ratio" (except for single phase smaller than 1 kva which have compensated
secondary). A practical application of this 2 to 1 turn’s ratio would be a 480 to 240 voltage step
down. Note that if the input were 440 volts then the output would be 220 volts. The ratio
between input and output voltage will stay constant. Transformers should not be operated at
voltages higher than the nameplate rating but may be operated at lower voltages than rated.

Because of this it is possible to do some non-standard applications using standard

transformers.

Single-phase step-down transformers 1 kva and larger may also be reverse connected
to step-down or step-up voltages. (Note: single phase step up or step down transformers sized
less than 1 KVA should not be reverse connected because the secondary windings have
additional turns to overcome a voltage drop when the load is applied. If reverse connected, the
output voltage will be less than desired.)

Step-Up Transformer:
 A step-up transformer has more turns of wire on the secondary coil, which makes a
larger induced voltage in the secondary coil. It is called a step-up transformer because the
voltage output is larger than the voltage input.

Step-up transformer 110v 220v design is one whose secondary voltage is greater than
its primary voltage. This kind of transformer "steps up" the voltage applied to it. For instance,
a step up transformer is needed to use a 220v product in a country with a 110v supply.

A step up transformer 110v 220v converts alternating current (AC) from one voltage to
another voltage. It has no moving parts and works on a magnetic induction principle; it can be
designed to "step-up" or "step-down" voltage. So, a step-up transformer increases the voltage
and a step down transformer decreases the voltage.

The primary components for voltage transformation are the step up transformer core
and coil. The insulation is placed between the turns of wire to prevent shorting to one another
or to ground.

This is typically comprised of Mylar, Nomex, Kraft paper, varnish, or other materials.
As a transformer has no moving parts, it will typically have a life expectancy between 20 and
25 years.

Figure: Step-Up Transformer

Applications

Generally, these Step-Up Transformers are used in industries applications only.

Turns Ratio and Voltage

The ratio of the number of turns on the primary and secondary coils determines the ratio of the
voltages...

...where Vp is the primary (input) voltage, Vs is the secondary (output) voltage, Np is the number
of turns on the primary coil, and Ns is the number of turns on the secondary coil.

Diodes:

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows
the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and
early diodes were actually called valves.

Figure: Diode Symbol

A diode is a device which only allows current to flow through it in one direction. In
this direction, the diode is said to be 'forward-biased' and the only effect on the signal is that
there will be a voltage loss of around 0.7V. In the opposite direction, the diode is said to be
'reverse-biased' and no current will flow through it.

Rectifier

The purpose of a rectifier is to convert an AC waveform into a DC waveform (OR)

Rectifier converts AC current or voltages into DC current or voltage. There are two different
rectification circuits, known as 'half-wave' and 'full-wave' rectifiers. Both use components
called diodes to convert AC into DC.

The Half-wave Rectifier

The half-wave rectifier is the simplest type of rectifier since it only uses one diode, as
shown in figure.
 Figure: Half Wave Rectifier

Figure 2 shows the AC input waveform to this circuit and the resulting output. As you
can see, when the AC input is positive, the diode is forward-biased and lets the current
through. When the AC input is negative, the diode is reverse-biased and the diode does not let
any current through, meaning the output is 0V. Because there is a 0.7V voltage loss across the
diode, the peak output voltage will be 0.7V less than Vs.

While the output of the half-wave rectifier is DC (it is all positive), it would not be
suitable as a power supply for a circuit. Firstly, the output voltage continually varies between
0V and Vs-0.7V, and secondly, for half the time there is no output at all.
The Full-wave Rectifier

The circuit in figure 3 addresses the second of these problems since at no time is the
output voltage 0V. This time four diodes are arranged so that both the positive and negative
parts of the AC waveform are converted to DC. The resulting waveform is shown in figure 4.

Figure: Full-Wave Rectifier

Figure: Full-Wave Rectification

 When the AC input is positive, diodes A and B are forward-biased, while diodes C and
D are reverse-biased. When the AC input is negative, the opposite is true - diodes C and D are
forward-biased, while diodes A and B are reverse-biased.

While the full-wave rectifier is an improvement on the half-wave rectifier, its output
still isn't suitable as a power supply for most circuits since the output voltage still varies
between 0V and Vs-1.4V. So, if you put 12V AC in, you will 10.6V DC out.

Capacitor Filter

The capacitor-input filter, also called "Pi" filter due to its shape that looks like the
Greek letter pi, is a type of electronic filter. Filter circuits are used to remove unwanted or
undesired frequencies from a signal.

Figure: Capacitor Filter

A typical capacitor input filter consists of a filter capacitor C1, connected across the
rectifier output, an inductor L, in series and another filter capacitor connected across the load.

1. The capacitor C1 offers low reactance to the AC component of the rectifier output while
it offers infinite reactance to the DC component. As a result the capacitor shunts an
appreciable amount of the AC component while the DC component continues its
journey to the inductor L
2. The inductor L offers high reactance to the AC component but it offers almost zero
reactance to the DC component. As a result the DC component flows through the
inductor while the AC component is blocked.
3. The capacitor C2 bypasses the AC component which the inductor had failed to block.
As a result only the DC component appears across the load RL.
 Figure: Centered Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier with a Capacitor Filter

Voltage Regulator:

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a

constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active
electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC
or DC voltages. There are two types of regulator are they.

 Positive Voltage Series (78xx) and

 Negative Voltage Series (79xx)

78xx:’78’ indicate the positive series and ‘xx’indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7805
produces the maximum 5V.’05’indicates the regulator output is 5V.

79xx:’78’ indicate the negative series and ‘xx’indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7905
produces the maximum -5V.’05’indicates the regulator output is -5V.

These regulators consists the three pins there are

Pin1: It is used for input pin.

Pin2: This is ground pin for regulator

Pin3: It is used for output pin. Through this pin we get the output.
 Figure: Regulator

3. MEMS ACCELEROMETER:

An accelerometer is an electromechanical device that is used to measure

acceleration and the force producing it. Many types of accelerometers are available in the
market today. They can be divided according to the force (static or dynamic) that is to be
measured. Even today, one of the most commonly used one is the piezoelectric accelerometer.
But, since they are bulky and cannot be used for all operations, a smaller and highly functional
device like the MEMS accelerometer was developed. Though the first of its kind was developed
25 years ago, it was not accepted until lately, when there was need for large volume industrial
applications. Due to its small size and robust sensing feature, they are further developed to
obtain multi-axis sensing.

Working:
One of the most commonly used MEMS accelerometer is the capacitive type. The
capacitive MEMS accelerometer is famous for its high sensitivity and its accuracy at high
temperatures. The device does not change values depending on the base materials used and
depends only on the capacitive value that occurs due to the change in distance between the
plates.

If two plates are kept parallel to each other and are separated by a distance ‘d’, and if ‘E’ is the
permittivity of the separating material, then capacitance produced can be written as

C0 = E0.E A/d = EA/d

EA = E0EA
A – Area of the electrodes
 A change in the values of E, A or d will help in finding the change in capacitance and
thus helps in the working of the MEMS transducer. Accelerometer values mainly depend on
the change of values of d or A.

A typical MEMS accelerometer is shown in the figure below. It can also be called a
simple one-axis accelerometer. If more sets of capacitors are kept in 90 degrees to each other
you can design 2 or 3-axis accelerometer. A simple MEMS transducer mainly consists of a
movable microstructure or a proof mass that is connected to a mechanical suspension system
and thus on to a reference frame.

The movable plates and the fixed outer plates act as the capacitor plates. When
acceleration is applied, the proof mass moves accordingly. This produces a capacitance
between the movable and the fixed outer plates.
 When acceleration is applied, the distance between the two plates displace as X1 and
X2, and they turn out to be a function of the capacitance produced.

From the image above it is clear that all sensors have multiple capacitor sets. All upper
capacitors are wired parallel to produce an overall capacitance C1 and the lower ones produce
an overall capacitance of C2.

If Vx is the output voltage of the proof mass, and V0 is the output voltage produced
between the plates, then
(Vx +V0) C1 + (Vx -V0) C2 = 0
We can also write

Vx =V0 [(C2-C1)/(C2+C1)] = (x/d) V0

The figure below shows the circuit that is used to calculate the acceleration, through
change in distance between capacitor plates. The output obtained for different values of
acceleration is also shown graphically.
 When no acceleration is given (a=0), the output voltage will also be zero.

When acceleration is given, such as (a>0), the value of value of V x changes in

proportion to the value of V0.
When a deceleration is given, such as (a<0), the signals Vx and Vy become negative.
He demodulator produces an output equal to the sign of the acceleration, as it multiplies both
the values of Vy and V0 to produce VOUT, which has the correct acceleration sign and correct
amplitude.
The length of the distance, d and the proof mass weigh is surprisingly very small. The
proof mass weighs no more than 0.1 microgram and the output capacitance is approximately
20 aF and the plate distance is no more than 1.3 micrometres.

We must select the device in reference to its noise characteristics. If the acceleration value at
low gravity condition is to be found out, the noise characteristics could easily affect its
accuracy. An MEMS accelerometer is said to have three noise producing parameters – from
the signal conditioning circuit, from the vibrations produced by the springs, and from the output
measuring system.

MEMS Accelerometers – Applications

1. MEMS sensors are being used in latest mobile phones and gaming joysticks as step
counters, user interface control, and also for switching between different modes.

2. Used in mobile cameras as a tilt sensor so as to tag the orientation of photos taken.

3. To provide stability of images in camcorders and also to rotate the image to and fro
when you turn the mobile.

4. A 3D accelerometer is used in Nokia 5500 so as to provide easier tap and change feature
by which you can change mp3’s by tapping on the phone when it is lying inside the pocket.

5. Used to protect hard disk drives in laptops from getting damaged when the PC falls to
the ground. The device senses the free fall and automatically switches off the hard disk.

6. Used in car crash airbag sensors, where it senses the sudden negative acceleration and
determines the correct time to open the airbag.
7. Used in real-time applications like military monitoring, missile launching, projectiles,
and so on.

4. ADC:

ADC is short for Analog Digital Converter, Sometimes called a A-D or A to D

Converter. An ADC is a device that converts a continuous analog signal to a multi-level digital
signal without altering its content. The signals that are monitored are sounds, movement, and
temperature into binary code for the PC.

(or)

Analog to digital (A/D, ADC) converters are electrical circuit devices that convert continuous
signals, such as voltages or currents, from the analog domain to the digital domain where the
signals are represented by numbers

Most processing equipment today are digital in nature, and they work with signals
which are binary valued. In a digital or binary representation, a signal is represented by a word,
which is composed of a finite number of bits. The processing of signals is preferably carried
out in the digital domain because digital processing is fast, accurate and reliable. Analog to
digital converters are widely used for converting analog signals to corresponding digital signals
for many electronic circuits. Analog to digital converters allow the use of sophisticated digital
signal processing systems to process analog signals, which are common in the real world. Many
modern electronic systems require conversion of signals from analog to digital or from digital
to analog form. Circuits for performing these functions are now required in numerous common
consumer devices such as digital cameras, cellular telephones, wireless data network
equipment, audio devices such as MP3 players, and video equipment such as digital video disk
(DVD) players, high definition digital television (HDTV), and numerous other products.
Analog to digital converters (ADC's) form an essential link in the signal processing pathway
at the interface between the analog and digital domains. Advances in ADC technology have
increased the speed, lowered the cost, and reduced the power requirements of analog to digital
converters, and resulted in a proliferation of ADC applications.
 Conversion involves quantizing and encoding. Quantizing means partitioning the
analog signal range into a number of discrete quanta and determining to which quantum the
input signal belongs. Encoding means assigning a unique digital code to each quantum and
determining the code that corresponds to the input signal. The most common system is binary,
in which there are 2n quanta (where n is some whole number), numbered consecutively; the
code is a set of n physical two-valued levels or bits (1 or 0) corresponding to the binary number
associated with the signal quantum.

The illustration shows a typical three-bit binary representation of a range of input signals,
partitioned into eight quanta. For example, a signal in the vicinity of 3/8; full scale (between
5/16 and 7/16) will be coded 011 (binary 3).

A three-bit binary representation of a range of input signals.

There are four commonly used ADC’s:

 Parallel converter
 Successive approximation ADC
 Voltage-to-Frequency ADC
 Integrating ADC

Applications of ADC:

 Digital camera or scanner uses A/D converters to transform the variable charges in CCD
and CMOS chips into the binary data that represent pixels.
 Cell phone and digital desk phone has an ADC converter that converts the pressure of
sound waves into PCM code Etc.

IN OUR PROJECT WE ARE USING ADC0808:

This is 8-Bit µP Compatible A/D Converters with 8-Channel Multiplexer.

The ADC0808 data acquisition component is a monolithic CMOS device with an 8-bit analog-
to-digital converter,8-channel multiplexer and microprocessor compatible

Control logic. The 8-bit A/D converter uses successive approximation as the conversion
technique. The converter features a high impedance chopper stabilized comparator, a

256R voltage divider with analog switch tree and a successive approximation register. The 8-
channel multiplexer can directly access any of 8-single-ended analog signals.

The device eliminates the need for external zero and full-scale adjustments. Easy interfacing
to microprocessors is provided by the latched and decoded multiplexer address inputs and
latched TTL TRI-STATE outputs.

Features

 Easy interface to all microprocessors

 Operates ratio metrically or with 5 VDC or analog span adjusted voltage reference
 No zero or full-scale adjust required
 8-channel multiplexer with address logic
 0V to 5V input range with single 5V power supply
 Outputs meet TTL voltage level specifications
 ADC0808 equivalent to MM74C949
 ADC0809 equivalent to MM74C949-1

Key Specifications

 Resolution 8 Bits ( Resolution = Vref/2n)

 Total Unadjusted Error ±1⁄2 LSB and ±1 LSB
 Single Supply 5 VDC
 Low Power 15 Mw
FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION:

The ADC0808 shown in figure can be functionally divided into 2 basic sub circuits.
These two sub circuits are an analog multiplexer and an A/D converter. The multiplexer uses
8 standard CMOS analog switches to provide to up to 8 analog inputs. The switches are
selectively turned on, depending on the data latched into a 3-bit multiplexer address register.
 The second functional block, the successive approximation A/D converter, transforms
the analog output of the multiplexer to an 8-bit digital word. The output of the multiplexer goes
to one of two comparator inputs. The other input is derived from a 256R resistor ladder, which
is tapped by a MOSFET transistor switch tree. The converter control logic controls the switch
tree, funneling a particular tap voltage to comparator. Based on the result of this comparison,
the control logic and the successive approximation register (SAR) will decide whether the next
tap to be selected should be higher or lower than the present tap on the resistor ladder. This
algorithm is executed 8 times per conversion, once every 8-clock period, yielding a total
conversion time of clock periods.

When the conversion cycle is complete the resulting data is loaded into the TRI-STATE

output latch. The data in the output latch can be then be read by the host system any time before

the end of the next conversion. The TRI-STATE capability of the latch allows easy interfaces

to bus oriented systems.

The operation on these converters by a microprocessor or some control logic is very

simple. The controlling device first selects the desired input channel. To do this, a 3-bit channel

address is placed on the A, B, C in and out pins; and the ALE input is pulsed positively,

clocking the address into the multiplexer address register. To begin the conversion, the START

pin is pulsed. On the rising edge of this pulse the internal registers are cleared and on the falling

edge the start conversion is initiated.

As mentioned earlier, there are 8 clock periods per approximation. Even though there

is no conversion in progress the ADC0808 is still internally cycling through these 8 clock

periods. A start pulse can occur any time during this cycle but the conversion will not actually

begin until the converter internally cycles to the beginning of the next 8 clock period sequence.

As long as the start pin is held high no conversion begins, but when the start pin is taken low

the conversion will start within 8 clock periods. The EOC output is triggered on the rising edge

of the start pulse. It, too, is controlled by the 8 clock period cycle, so it will go low within 8
clock periods of the rising edge of the start pulse. One can see that it is entirely possible for

EOC to go low before the conversion starts internally, but this is not important, since the

positive transition of EOC, which occurs at the end of a conversion, is what the control logic

is looking for.

Once EOC does go high this signals the interface logic that the data resulting from the

conversion is ready to be read. The output enable(OE) is then raised high. This enables the

TRI-STATE outputs, allowing the data to be read. Figure shows the timing diagram.

CONTROL

MUX CONTROL LOGIC

address
register

SAR
8x1 TRI-
analog STATE
MUX Output
Latch

CONNECTION DIAGRAM:
 SC
IN0 ALE
IN1
EOC
IN2 CHA

IN3 CHB EMBEDDED

IN4 ADC CONTROLLER
CHC
IN5

IN6

IN7

Data(D0-D7)

SC (Chip Selection): By using this selection Bit you can select the Chip. After selecting this bit the
chip is ready to do operation. By using HIGH(1) you can select the this pin as a active high.

ALE (Address Latch Enable):

ALE is to enable address latch of ADC, so that the selected channel is activated. In normal
operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency, and can be used for
external timing or clocking. Note that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data
memory. This pin is also the Program Pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming.

EOC (End of Conversion): After End of ADC Conversion EOC bit is set to high.

CHANNEL SELECTION:
FLOW CHART:
 START

CONFIGURE PINS

SELECT ADC CHANNEL

(CHA, CHB, CHC)

SET & CLEAR SC BIT

TO INITIATE THE CHIP

SET & CLEAR ALE BIT

TO ENABLE THE ALE

IS
COPY THE ADC PORT
EOC=1
DATA INTO MEMORY

STOP

5. TRIAC:

TRIACS are widely used in AC power control applications. They are able to switch
high voltages and high levels of current, and over both parts of an AC waveform. This makes
triac circuits ideal for use in a variety of applications where power switching is needed.

One particular use of triac circuits is in light dimmers for domestic lighting, and they
are also used in many other power control situations including motor control.
Triac basics

The triac is a development of the thyristor. While the thyristor can only control current
over one half of the cycle, the triac controls it over two halves of an AC waveform.

As such the triac can be considered as a pair of parallel but opposite thyristors with the
two gates connected together and the anode of one device connected to the cathode of the other,
etc..

The fact that the triac switching action occurs on both halves of an AC waveform means
that for AC power applications, the complete cycle can be used. For basic thyristor circuits,
only half the waveform is used and this means that basic circuits using thyristors will not utilise
both halves of the cycle. Two devices are required to utilise both halves. However the triac
only requires one device to control both halves of the AC waveform.
Triac symbol

The basic triac symbol used on circuit diagram indicates its bi-directional properties.
The triac symbol can be seen to be a couple of thyristor symbols in opposite senses merged
together.

Like a thyristor, a triac has three terminals. However, the names of these are a little
more difficult to assign, because the main current carrying terminals are connected to what is
effectively a cathode of one thyristor, and the anode of another within the overall device. There
is a gate which acts as a trigger to turn the device on. In addition to this the other terminals are
both called Anodes, or Main Terminals These are usually designated Anode 1 and Anode 2 or
Main Terminal 1 and Main Terminal 2 (MT1 and MT2). When using triacs it is both MT1 and
MT2 have very similar properties.

How does a triac work?

Before looking at how a triac works, it helps to have an understanding of how a thyristor
works. In this way the basic concepts can be grasped for the simpler device and then applied
to a triac which is more complicated. The operation of the thyristor is covered in the article in
this section and accessible through the "Related Articles" box on the left of the page and below
the main menu.

For the operation of the triac, it can be imagined from the circuit symbol that the triac
consists of two thyristors in parallel but around different ways. The operation of the triac can
be looked on in this fashion, although the actual operation at the semiconductor level is rather
more complicated.
 When the voltage on the MT1 is positive with regard to MT2 and a positive gate voltage
is applied, one of the thyristors conducts. When the voltage is reversed and a negative voltage
is applied to the gate, the other thyristor conducts. This is provided that there is sufficient
voltage across the device to enable a minimum holding current to flow.

Triac applications

Triacs are used in many applications. They are often used in low to medium power AC
switching requirements. Where large levels of power need to be switched, two thyristors / SCRs
tend to be used as they can be controlled more easily.

Nevertheless triacs are widely used in many applications:

 Lighting control - especially domestic dimmmers.

 Control of fans and small motors.

 General AC control

There are naturally many other triac applications, but these are some of the most common.

Using triacs

There are a number of points to note when using triacs. Although these devices operate very
well, to get the best performance out of them it is necessary to understand a few hints on tips
on using triacs.
 It is found that because of their internal construction and the slight differences between
the two halves, triacs do not fire symmetrically. This results in harmonics being generated: the
less symmetrical the triac fires, the greater the level of harmonics that are produced. It is not
normally desirable to have high levels of harmonics in a power system and as a result triacs are
not favoured for high power systems. Instead for these systems two thyristors may be used as
it is easier to control their firing.

To help in overcoming the problem non-symmetrical firing ad the resulting harmonics,

a device known as a diac (diode AC switch) is often placed in series with the gate of the triac.
The inclusion of this device helps make the switching more even for both halves of the cycle.
This results from the fact that the diac switching characteristic is far more even than that of the
triac. Since the diac prevents any gate current flowing until the trigger voltage has reached a
certain voltage in either direction, this makes the firing point of the triac more even in both
directions.

6. TRIAC DRIVER

Also known as a Phototriac Coupler, a TRIAC Driver is a specific type of optocoupler

that is used exclusively to provide an optically-isolated gate drive current to a TRIAC. This
allows designers greater flexibility in selecting the gate drive current and isolation value desired
separately from the TRIAC required. The TRIAC Driver + TRIAC combination is a common
means of creating a discrete, high powered SSR.
TRIAC Drivers are composed of an input LED optically coupled to a photo-sensitive
TRIAC Driver chip. Upon application on an input current (2.5-15mA, typically) the input LED
shines light on the TRIAC Driver chip thereby allowing current flow through the device. This
current then flows to the gate of a discrete output TRIAC and allows the load to be switched
on or off.
All SSO TRIAC Drivers offer high input to output isolation, in load voltages from 400V
to 800V, for both Zero Volt Cross (ZVC) and Random Phase (RP) switching. ZVC TRIAC
Drivers turn on a Discrete TRIAC within a small window near Zero Volts, and thus avoid the
creation of transients in the discrete Triac. In contrast, upon application of an input current,
Random Phase TRIAC Drivers will turn on anywhere within the AC line cycle and are typically
used in dimming applications. SSO TRIAC Drivers are offered in 4 pin SOP, 4 pin DIP/SMD
and 6 pin DIP/SMD packages.

Features:

 High input to output potential isolation (2.5 - 5kVrms)

 Low input control current (as low as 2.5mA)
 Variable load voltages (400V to 800V)
 Random Phase and Zero Volt Switching
 Offered in 4SOP, 4DIP/SMD and 6DIP/SMD packages

Applications:

 Motor Control
 Motor Starters
 Dimmer Circuits (random phase devices)
 Solenoid/Valve controls
 Lighting controls
 Static power switches
 Temperature controls
 Solid State Relays

7. RELAY

A relay is an electrically operated switch. These are remote control electrical switches that are
controlled by another switch, such as a horn switch or a computer as in a power train control
module, devices in industries, home based applications. Relays allow a small current pin, 4-
pin, 5-pin, and 6-pin, single switch or dual switches. Relays are used throughout the
automobile. Relays which come in assorted sizes, ratings, and applications, are used as remote
control switches. A typical vehicle can have 20 relays or more.
BASICS ON RELAY HANDLING
 To maintain initial performance, care should be taken to avoid dropping or hitting the
relay.
 Under normal use, the relay is designed so that the case will not detach. To maintain
initial performance, the case should not be removed. Relay characteristics cannot be
guaranteed if the case is removed.
 Use of the relay in an atmosphere at standard temperature and humidity with minimal
amounts of dust, SO 2, H 2 S, or organic gases is recommended.
 Please avoid the use of silicon-based resins near the relay, because doing so may result
in contact failure. (This applies to plastic sealed type relays, too.)
 Care should be taken to observe correct coil polarity (+, –) for polarized relays.
 Proper usage requires that the rated voltage be impressed on the coil. Use rectangular
waves for DC coils and sine waves for AC coils.
 Be sure the coil impressed voltage does not continuously exceed the maximum
allowable voltage.
 Absolutely avoid using switching voltages and currents that exceed the designated
values.
 The rated switching power and life are given only as guides. The physical phenomena
at the contacts and contact life greatly vary depending on the type of load and the
operating conditions. Therefore, be sure to carefully check the
 type of load and operating conditions before use.
 Do not exceed the usable ambient temperature values listed in the catalog.
 Use the flux-resistant type or sealed type if automatic soldering is to be used.
 Use alcohol based cleaning solvents when cleaning is to be performed using a
sealed type relay.
 Avoid ultrasonic cleaning of all types of relays.
 Avoid bending terminals, because it may cause malfunction.
  As a guide, use a Faston mounting pressure of 40 to 70N {4 to 7kgf}for relays
with tab terminals.

A relay is used to isolate one electrical circuit from another. It allows a low current control
circuit to make or break an electrically isolated high current circuit path. The basic relay
consists of a coil and a set of contacts. The most common relay coil is a length of magnet wire
wrapped around a metal core. When voltage is applied to the coil, current passes through the
wire and creates a magnetic field. This magnetic field pulls the contacts together and holds
them there until the current flow in the coil has stopped. The diagram below shows the parts of
a simple relay.

Figure: Relay

Operation:

When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts an armature that is
mechanically linked to a moving contact. The movement either makes or breaks a connection
with a fixed contact. When the current is switched off, the armature is usually returned by a
spring to its resting position shown in figure 6.6(b). Latching relays exist that require operation
of a second coil to reset the contact position.

By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device, a solid-state relay
operates a thyristor or other solid-state switching device with a transformer or light-emitting
diode to trigger it.

Pole and throw

Since relays are switches the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays. A relay
will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil in
one of three ways:

 Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit
is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A contact or "make"
contact.
 Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the
circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or
"break" contact.
 Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits: one normally-
open contact and one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It is also called
a Form C contact or "transfer" contact ("break before make"). If this type of contact
utilizes a "make before break" functionality, then it is called a Form D contact.

SPST

SPST relay stands for Single Pole Single Throw relay. Current will only flow through the
contacts when the relay coil is energized.

Figure: SPST Relay

SPDT Relay

SPDT Relay stands for Single Pole Double Throw relay. Current will flow between the
movable contact and one fixed contact when the coil is De-energized and between the movable
contact and the alternate fixed contact when the relay coil is energized. The most commonly
used relay in car audio, the Bosch relay, is a SPDT relay.

Figure: SPDT Relay

DPST Relay

DPST relay stands for Double Pole Single Throw relay. When the relay coil is energized, two
separate and electrically isolated sets of contacts are pulled down to make contact with their
stationary counterparts. There is no complete circuit path when the relay is De-energized.

Figure: DPST Relay

DPDT Relay

DPDT relay stands for Double Pole Double Throw relay. It operates like the SPDT relay but
has twice as many contacts. There are two completely isolated sets of contacts.
Figure: DPDT Relay

This is a 4 Pole Double Throw relay. It operates like the SPDT relay but it has 4 sets of isolated
contacts.

Figure: 4 Pole Double Throw relay

Types of relay:

1. Latching Relay
2. Reed Relay
3. Mercury Wetted Relay
4. Machine Tool Relay
5. Solid State Relay (SSR)
Latching relay
Latching relay, dust cover removed, showing pawl and ratchet mechanism. The ratchet operates
a cam, which raises and lowers the moving contact arm, seen edge-on just below it. The moving
and fixed contacts are visible at the left side of the image.
A latching relay has two relaxed states (bi-stable). These are also called "impulse", "keep", or
"stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This is
achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing
coils with an over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in
position while the coil is relaxed, or with a remanent core. In the ratchet and cam example, the
first pulse to the coil turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil example,
a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This
type of relay has the advantage that it consumes power only for an instant, while it is being
switched, and it retains its last setting across a power outage. A remanent core latching relay
requires a current pulse of opposite polarity to make it change state.

Figure: Latching relay

Reed relay

A reed relay has a set of contacts inside a vacuum or inert gas filled glass tube, which protects
the contacts against atmospheric corrosion. The contacts are closed by a magnetic field
generated when current passes through a coil around the glass tube. Reed relays are capable of
faster switching speeds than larger types of relays, but have low switch current and voltage
ratings.

Mercury-wetted relay

A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted with
mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less) because of their
low contact resistance, or for high-speed counting and timing applications where the mercury
eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are position-sensitive and must be mounted
vertically to work properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these relays
are rarely specified for new equipment. See also mercury switch.

Machine tool relay

A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools, transfer
machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number of contacts
(sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally-open to
normally-closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly
installing many relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of
automation in such industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller
(PLC) mostly displaced the machine tool relay from sequential control applications.

Solid-state relay
A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar function
to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing long-term
reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor has a small
voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount of current a given SSR could
handle. As transistors improved, higher current SSR's, able to handle 100 to 1,200 Amperes,
have become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely
triggered by transients.

Figure: Solid relay, which has no moving parts

Specification
  Number and type of contacts – normally open, normally closed, (double-throw)
 Contact sequence – "Make before Break" or "Break before Make". For example, the
old style telephone exchanges required Make-before-break so that the connection didn't
get dropped while dialing the number.
 Rating of contacts – small relays switch a few amperes, large contactors are rated for
up to 3000 amperes, alternating or direct current
 Voltage rating of contacts – typical control relays rated 300 VAC or 600 VAC,
automotive types to 50 VDC, special high-voltage relays to about 15 000 V
 Coil voltage – machine-tool relays usually 24 VAC, 120 or 250 VAC, relays for
switchgear may have 125 V or 250 VDC coils, "sensitive" relays operate on a few milli-
amperes

Applications:

Relays are used:

 To control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems,

 To control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of
an automobile,
 To detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and
closing circuit breakers (protection relays),
 To isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different
potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage
switch. The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are
easily installed in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may
also be controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy,
 To perform logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realized by
connecting relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting contacts in parallel.
Due to the failure modes of a relay compared with a semiconductor, they are widely
used in safety critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste handling
machinery.
 As oscillators, also called vibrators. The coil is wired in series with the normally closed
contacts. When a current is passed through the relay coil, the relay operates and opens
the contacts that carry the supply current. This stops the current and causes the contacts
 to close again. The cycle repeats continuously, causing the relay to open and close
rapidly. Vibrators are used to generate pulsed current.
 To generate sound. A vibrator, described above, creates a buzzing sound because of the
rapid oscillation of the armature. This is the basis of the electric bell, which consists of
a vibrator with a hammer attached to the armature so it can repeatedly strike a bell.
 To perform time delay functions. Relays can be used to act as an mechanical time delay
device by controlling the release time by using the effect of residual magnetism by
means of a inserting copper disk between the armature and moving blade assembly.

8. RELAY DRIVER:

The ULN2003A is an array of seven NPN Darlington transistors capable of

500 mA, 50 V output. It features common-cathode fly-back diodes for switching inductive
loads. It can come in PDIP, SOIC, SOP or TSSOP packaging. In the same family are
ULN2002A, ULN2004A, as well as ULQ2003A and ULQ2004A, designed for different logic
input levels.

The ULN2003A is also similar to the ULN2001A (4 inputs) and the ULN2801A,
ULN2802A, ULN2803A, ULN2804A and ULN2805A, only differing in logic input levels
(TTL, CMOS, PMOS) and number of in/outputs (4/7/8)

Darlington transistor:

A Darlington transistor (also known as Darlington pair) achieves very high current
amplification by connecting two bipolar transistors in direct DC coupling so the current
amplified by the first transistor is amplified further by the second one. The resultant current
gain is the product of those of the two component transistors:

The seven Darlington pairs in ULN2003 can operate independently except the common
cathode diodes that connect to their respective collectors.

Features:

The ULN2003 is known for its high-current, high-voltage capacity. The drivers can be
paralleled for even higher current output. Even further, stacking one chip on top of another,
both electrically and physically, has been done. Generally it can also be used for interfacing
with a stepper motor, where the motor requires high ratings which cannot be provided by other
interfacing devices.

Main specifications:

 500 mA rated collector current (single output)

 50 V output (there is a version that supports 100 V output)
 Includes output fly-back diodes
 Inputs compatible with TTL and 5-V CMOS logic

9. CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR:

An electronic circuit or electronic device that is used to generate periodically oscillating

electronic signal is called as an electronic oscillator. The electronic signal produced by an
oscillator is typically a sine wave or square wave. An electronic oscillator converts the direct
current signal into an alternating current signal. The radio and television transmitters are broad
casted using the signals generated by oscillators. The electronic beep sounds and video game
sounds are generated by the oscillator signals. These oscillators generate signals using the
principle of oscillation.

There are different types of oscillator electronic circuits such as Linear oscillators –
Hartley oscillator, Phase-shift oscillator, Armstrong oscillator, Clapp oscillator, Colpitts
oscillator, and so on, Relaxation oscillators – Royer oscillator, Ring oscillator, Multivibrator,
and so on, and Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO). In this article, let us discuss in detail about
Crystal oscillator like what is crystal oscillator, crystal oscillator circuit, working, and use of
crystal oscillator in electronic circuits

An electronic circuit that is used to generate an electrical signal of precise frequency by

utilizing the vibrating crystal’s mechanical resonance made of piezoelectric material. There
are different types of piezoelectric resonators, but typically, quartz crystal is used in these
types of oscillators. Hence, these oscillator electronic circuits are named as crystal oscillators.

Crystal Oscillator Circuit Diagram

The quartz crystal oscillator circuit diagram can be represented as follows:

Electronic Symbol for Piezoelectric Crystal Resonator

The above diagram represents the electronic symbol for a piezoelectric crystal resonator which
consists of two metalized electrodes and quartz crystal.
 Equivalent Circuit Diagram of Quartz Crystal

The above figure shows the equivalent circuit diagram of quartz crystal in an electronic
oscillator that consists of resistor, inductor, and capacitors which are connected as shown in
the figure.

Crystal Oscillator Working

The atoms, molecules, ions are packed in an order in three spatial dimensions with
repeating pattern to form a solid that can be called as a crystal. The crystal can be made by
almost any object that is made of elastic material by using appropriate electrical transducers.
As every object consists of natural resonant frequency of vibration, steel consists of high speed
of sound and is also very elastic.

Thus, steel is frequently used instead of quartz in mechanical filters. This resonant
frequency depends on different parameters such as size, elasticity, speed of sound, and shape
of the crystal. In general, the shape of high frequency crystals is simple rectangular plate and
the shape of low frequency crystals is tuning fork shape as shown in the figure below.

High Frequency-Rectangular Plate Crystals and Low Frequency-Tuning Fork Crystals

 Crystal oscillator circuit works on the principle of the inverse piezoelectric effect, i.e.,
a mechanical deformation is produced by applying an electric field across certain materials.
Thus, it utilizes the vibrating crystal’s mechanical resonance which is made of a piezoelectric
material for generating an electrical signal of a specific frequency.

These quartz crystal oscillators are highly stable, consists of good quality factor, they
are small in size, and are very economical. Hence, quartz crystal oscillator circuits are superior
compared to other resonators such as LC circuits, turning forks, and so on. Generally, 8MHz
crystal oscillator is used in microprocessors and microcontrollers.

The equivalent electrical circuit also represents the crystal action of the crystal. The
basic components used in the circuit, inductance L1 represent crystal mass, capacitance C1
represents compliance, resistance R1 represents the crystal’s internal structure friction, and C0
is used to represent the capacitance that is formed because of crystal’s mechanical moulding.

The quartz crystal oscillator circuit diagram consists of series resonance and parallel
resonance, i.e., two resonant frequencies. If the reactance produced by capacitance C1 is equal
and opposite to the reactance produced by inductance L1, then the series resonance occurs. The
series and parallel resonant frequencies are represented by fs and fp respectively, and the values
of fs and fp can be determined by using the following equations shown in the figure below.

Series Resonant Frequency and Parallel Resonant Frequency

Thus, the impedance is approximately equal to the resistance R1 during this condition.
If the series resonant leg reactance is equal to the reactance caused due to capacitance C0, then
parallel resonance occurs. Thus, the external circuit if offered a very high impedance by the
crystal during this condition.
 Impedance vs Frequency Graph

The above figure shows the graph between impedance and frequency of the quartz
crystal oscillator circuit. Typically, crystal oscillators are having a frequency range from
32KHz to 200MHz.

Use of Crystal Oscillator

In general, we know that, crystal oscillators are used in the microprocessors and
microcontrollers for providing the clock signals. Let us consider 8051 microcontroller for
which an external crystal oscillator circuit of 12MHz is essential, even though (based on model)
8051 microcontroller is capable to run at 40 MHz (max). 8051 requires 12 clock cycles for one
machine cycle, such that to give effective cycle rate at 1MHz (considering 12MHz clock) to
3.33MHz (considering maximum 40MHz clock). This crystal oscillator is used to generate
clock pulses required for the synchronization of all the internal operations.

There are numerous applications for crystal oscillator in various fields and a few crystal
oscillator applications are shown below:

Application of Crystal Oscillator in Military and Aerospace

The use of crystal oscillator in military and aerospace, is to establish an

efficient communication system, for the navigation purpose, electronic warfare, in the guidance
systems, and so on.
Use of Crystal Oscillator in Research and Measurement

The crystal oscillator is used in research and measurement for celestrial navigation, space
tracking purpose, in the measuring instruments and medical devices, and so on.

Industrial Applications of Crystal Oscillator

There are a huge number of industrial applications of crystal oscillator such as in computers,
digital systems, instrumentation, phase locked loop systems, marine, modems, sensors,
telecommunications, disk drives, and so on.

Use of Crystal Oscillator in Automotive

Crystal oscillator is used for engine controlling, stereo, clock and to trip computer, and in GPS
system.

Consumer Applications of Crystal Oscillator

Crystal oscillators are used in many consumer goods such as cable television systems, personal
computers, video cameras, toys and video games, radio systems, cellular phones, and so on.

10. ENCODER

An encoder is a device, circuit, transducer, software program, algorithm or person

that converts information from one format or code to another, for the purpose of
standardization, speed or compression.

Media

Software for encoding audio, video, images, or text into standardized formats:

 A compressor encodes data (e.g., audio/video/images) into a smaller form (see codec)
 An audio encoder converts analog audio to digital audio signals
 A video encoder converts analog video to digital video signals
 A multiplexer combines multiple inputs into one output
 An 8b/10b encoder creates DC balance on a communication transmission line
Transducers

Transducers (such as optical or magnetic encoders) sense position or orientation for use as a
reference or active feedback to control position:

 A rotary encoder converts rotary position to an analog (e.g., analog quadrature) or digital
(e.g., digital quadrature, 32-bit parallel, or USB) electronic signal.
 A linear encoder similarly converts linear position to an electronic signal.

Such encoders can be either absolute or incremental. The signal from an absolute
encoder gives an unambiguous position within the travel range without requiring knowledge
of any previous position. The signal from an incremental encoder is cyclical, thus ambiguous,
and requires counting of cycles to maintain absolute position within the travel range. Both can
provide the same accuracy; the absolute encoder is more robust to interruptions in transducer
signal, whereas the incremental encoder reports position changes in real time.

Telecommunications

 A device used to change a signal (such as a bitstream) or data into a code.

Electronic circuits

 A simple encoder assigns a binary code to an active input line.

 Priority encoders establish the priority of competing inputs (such as interrupt requests) by
outputting a binary code representing the highest-priority active input.

11. VOICE RECOGNITION MODULE

PARAMETERS:

a. Voltage: 4.5-5.5V
b. Current: <40mA
c. Digital Interface: 5V TTL level UART interface
d. Analog Interface: 3.5mm mono-channel microphone connector + microphone
pin interface
e. Size: 30mm x 47.5mm
f. This module can store 15 pieces of voice instruction. Those 15 pieces are divided
into 3 groups, with 5 in one group. First we should record the voice instructions
group by group. After that, we should import one group by serial command before it
could recognize the 5 voice instructions within that group. If we need to implement
instructions in other groups, we should import the group first. This module is
speaker independent. If your friend speaks the voice instruction instead of you, it
may not identify the instruction.

12. LED:

Introduction:

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as

indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a
practical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but
modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with
very high brightness.

The LED is based on the semiconductor diode. When a diode is forward

biased, electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in
the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the
semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical
components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection. LEDs present
many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability
and reliability.
 However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat
management than traditional light sources. Current LED products for general lighting are
more expensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

Working:

Charge-carriers—electrons and holes—flow into the junction

from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a
lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon. The wavelength of the
light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap energy of the materials
forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes
recombine by a non-radiative transition which produces no optical emission, because these
are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with
energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light.
 Colors and materials :

Color Wavelength (nm) Voltage (V) Semiconductor Material

Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Infrared λ > 760 ΔV < 1.9
Aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
1.63 < ΔV <
Red 610 < λ < 760 Aluminium gallium indium
2.03
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

2.03 < ΔV < Aluminum gallium indium
Orange 590 < λ < 610
2.10 phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

2.10 < ΔV < Gallium

Yellow 570 < λ < 590 arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
2.18 Aluminium gallium indium
 phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III)

nitride (GaN)
1.9[42] < Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Green 500 < λ < 570
ΔV < 4.0 Aluminium gallium indium
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)

Zinc selenide (ZnSe)

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
2.48 < ΔV <
Blue 450 < λ < 500 Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
3.7
Silicon (Si) as substrate — (under
development)

2.76 < ΔV <

Violet 400 < λ < 450 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
4.0

Dual blue/red LEDs,

2.48 < ΔV <
Purple multiple types blue with red phosphor,
3.7
or white with purple plastic

Diamond (235 nm)

Boron nitride (215 nm)
3.1 < ΔV < Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)
Ultraviolet λ < 400
4.4 Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN)
— (down to 210 nm)
 White Broad spectrum ΔV = 3.5 Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor

13. RF TRANSMITTER:

RF Link Transmitter - 434MHz

sku: WRL-08946

Description: This is only the 434MHz transmitter. This will work with the RF Links at
434MHz at either baud rate. Only one 434MHz transmitter will work within the same location.

This wireless data is the easiest to use, lowest cost RF link we have ever seen! Use these
components to transmit position data, temperature data, even current program register values
wirelessly to the receiver. These modules have up to 500 ft range in open space. The
transmitter operates from 2-12V. The higher the Voltage, the greater the range - see range test
data in the documents section.

We have used these modules extensively and have been very impressed with their ease of use
and direct interface to an MCU. The theory of operation is very simple. What the transmitter
'sees' on its data pin is what the receiver outputs on its data pin. If you can configure the UART
module on a PIC, you have an instant wireless data connection. The typical range is 500ft for
open area.
This is an ASK transmitter module with an output of up to 8mW depending on power supply
voltage. The transmitter is based on SAW resonator and accepts digital inputs, can operate
from 2 to 12 Volts-DC, and makes building RF enabled products very easy.
 CHAPTER 5

SOFTWARE USED

Keil Cross Compiler

Keil C cross compiler: -

Keil is a German based Software development company. It provides several development tools
like
• IDE (Integrated Development environment)
• Project Manager
• Simulator
• Debugger
• C Cross Compiler, Cross Assembler, Locator/Linker
Keil Software provides you with software development tools for the 8051 family of
microcontrollers. With these tools, you can generate embedded applications for the multitude
of 8051 derivatives. Keil provides following tools for 8051 development
1. C51 Optimizing C Cross Compiler,
2. A51 Macro Assembler,
3. 8051 Utilities (linker, object file converter, library manager),
4. Source-Level Debugger/Simulator,
5. µVision for Windows Integrated Development Environment.
The keil 8051 tool kit includes three main tools, assembler, compiler and linker.
An assembler is used to assemble your 8051 assembly program
A compiler is used to compile your C source code into an object file
A linker is used to create an absolute object module suitable for your in-circuit emulator.
8051 project development cycle: - these are the steps to develop 8051 project using keil
1. Create source files in C or assembly.
2. Compile or assemble source files.
3. Correct errors in source files.
4. Link object files from compiler and assembler.
5. Test linked application.

Keil development tools for the 8051 Microcontroller Architecture support every level of
software developer from the professional applications engineer to the student just learning
about embedded software development. The industry-standard Keil C Compilers, Macro
Assemblers, Debuggers, Real-time Kernels, Single-board Computers, and Emulators support
all 8051 derivatives and help you get your projects completed on schedule.

Why we use Keil Software?

The Keil 8051 Development Tools are designed to solve the complex problems facing
embedded software developers.

 When starting a new project, simply select the microcontroller you use from the Device
Database and the µVision IDE sets all compiler, assembler, linker, and memory options
for you.
 Numerous example programs are included to help you get started with the most popular
embedded 8051 devices.
 The Keil µVision Debugger accurately simulates on-chip peripherals (I²C, CAN,
UART, SPI, Interrupts, I/O Ports, A/D Converter, D/A Converter, and PWM Modules)
of your 8051 device. Simulation helps you understand hardware configurations and
avoids time wasted on setup problems. Additionally, with simulation, you can write and
test applications before target hardware is available.
 When you are ready to begin testing your software application with target hardware,
use the MON51, MON390, MONADI, or FlashMON51 Target Monitors, the ISD51
In-System Debugger, or the ULINK USB-JTAG Adapter to download and test program
code on your target system.

Hardware and Software Requirements

The following requirements must be met for Monitor-51 to operate correctly:

 8051 CPU or derivative

 5 Kbyte external code memory (EPROM) starting at address 0 (loaded with Monitor-
51 software)
 256 Byte external data memory (XDATA RAM) and 5 Kbytes trace buffer (optional).
Additionally, the external data memory must be big enough to hold the complete
application (code and data). All these external data memory areas must be von
Neumann wired, this means that access is possible from XDATA and CODE space. A
 common way to do this is to connect the CPU signals /PSEN and /RD to a AND gate.
The output of this AND gate is then connected to the /RD pin of the RAM.
 serial interface with a timer as baudrate generator.
 Between 1 and 5 port pins if you are using a banked hardware (for 2 – 32 banks). See
example hardware schematics in the 8051 Utilities User’s Guide under “Bank
Switching Configuration” for more details. All these memory banks have to be von
Neumann wired!
 additional 6 bytes stack space (IDATA) in the user program to be tested.

All other hardware components can be used by the application.

Von-Neumann wired code/xdata Memory:

The Monitor requires that the program you are debugging is located in RAM space. For setting
breakpoints in your code, the Monitor modifies the user code and inserts ACALL instructions
at all breakpoint locations. Therefore you need to configure your code memory as von-
Neumann memory. Von-Neumann means that you can read physically the same memory bytes
from code and xdata space. This is necessary to download software into code space since the
8051 does not provide CPU instructions to write into code memory. Typically a AND gate is
used to combine the RD/ and PSEN/ signals of the CPU and generate a RD/ signal for the RAM
device as shown in the figure on the left.

Serial Interface:

Monitor-51 works with any standard serial interface and requires only the signals TRANSMIT
DATA, RECEIVE DATA and SIGNAL GROUND from the RS232 or V.24 line. However, in
most cases, some additional connections are required by the PC COM interface, to enable
transmit and receive data. If you are using a 9-PIN standard connector on your application
board you should therefore connect the pin 7 to pin 8, and pin 1 to pin 4 and pin 6.
 CHAPTER 6

WORKING

Objectives:

 Simple head movement based operation.

 Voice announcement of needs.
 Wireless data transmission.
 Robot with obstacle detection.
 Forms the surveillance system for combing areas.

 Monitors large spaces in industrial environment.

 Wireless transmission over RF.

Technology is the word coined for the practical application of scientific knowledge in
the industry. The advancement in technology cannot be justified unless it is used for leveraging
the user’s purpose. Technology, is today, imbibed for accomplishment of several tasks of
varied complexity, in almost all walks of life. The society as a whole is exquisitely dependent
on science and technology. Technology has played a very significant role in improving the
quality of life. One way through which this is done is by automating several tasks using
complex logic to simplify the work.
The main aim of this project is video coverage at required places with the help of digital
camera and high power LED. Robot is controlled by depending upon the tilt directions and its
wireless communication. The video will be transmitted to the receiver using AV transmitter.
At receiver end, these can be seen on TV. It is a very low cost survey line system used to
monitor a larger area. We are using RF communication to send commands to robot. RF
Communication ranges in between 30 KHz to 300 GHz. RF communication works by creating
electromagnetic waves at a source and being able to pick up those electromagnetic waves at a
particular destination. These electromagnetic waves travel through the air at near the speed of
light. The wavelength of an electromagnetic signal is inversely proportional to the frequency;
the higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength.
MEMS is a Micro Electro Mechanical Sensor which is a highly sensitive sensor and
capable of detecting the tilt. The project consists of two micro controller based motherboards.
One motherboard consists of a controller interfaced with MEMS Accelerometer sensor
technology to control the direction of the robot, a RF transmitter to send commands to robot
and it will provide a channel for wireless communication, a LED indicator. This entire board
acts as a remote to control the movement of the robot as well as receive the information from
the robot. The other board is present with the Robot itself. It is interfaced with some DC motors
for moving the robot, a RF receiver for receiving the instructions from the transmitter.
The innovative feature in the system is it automatically detects the light intensity and
switches ON the light source if intensity of light is low which helps in better vision of
surroundings. The Microcontroller is programmed using Embedded C language. This project
finds its major applications while we are monitoring larger areas like political canvassing,
cricket stadiums, international conferences, worship places, banking etc. This project assures
us with more reliable and highly secured system. The microcontroller will act as the mediator
between the input module and output module.
 CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

Integrating features of all the hardware components used have been developed in it.
Presence of every module has been reasoned out and placed carefully, thus contributing to the
best working of the unit. Secondly, using highly advanced IC’s with the help of growing
technology implementation done much easier way. “Wireless Gestures controlled Robot with
Voice and Video Camera” is a gestures controlled device switching system and also a robot
control wirelessly with a video camera fixed on it for physically challenged persons.

The system is designed to operate Robot using MEMS accelerometer sensor wirelessly
using RF technology and also displays the audio, video signals in TV by using audio & video
transmitter (Camera). The robot also consists of voice module which announces the basic needs
like food, water etc. The micro controller is programmed in such a way that the robot can be
operated using MEMS accelerometer technology wirelessly using RF communication. We can
be extended this application using Zigbee technology, which increases operating wireless
distance from transmitter section to the receiver section.
 CHAPTER 8

REFERENCES

[1]. A low-power 3-axis digital-output MEMS gyroscope with single drive and multiplexed
angular rate readout - STMicroelectronics, Cornaredo, Italy
[2]. Modelling and Simulation of the Fiber Optic Gyroscope (FOG) in Measurement-
WhileDrilling (MWD) Processes - EBRAHIM ASHOURI,ALIREZA KASHANINIA
Electrical Engineering Department Islamic Azad University – Central Tehran Branch