Section II- Unit No.

I
Pramod Kale
S.E (Ind)-Theory of Machines

Cams and Followers

In machines, particularly in typical textile and automatic machines, many parts need to be
imparted different types of motion in a particular direction. This is accomplished by
conversion of the available motion into the type of motion required. Change of circular
motion to translatory (linear) motion of simple harmonic type and vice-versa and can be
done by slider-crank mechanism. But now the question arises, what to do when circular or
rotary motion is to be changed into linear motion of complex nature or into oscillatory
motion. This job is well accomplished by a machine part of a mechanical member, known
as cam. Complicated output motions which are otherwise difficult to obtain, are possible
by means of cams.
Definition:
A cam is a rotating machine element which gives reciprocating or oscillating motion to
another element known as follower.
A cam and follower have, usually, a line contact between them and as such they
constitute a higher pair. The contact between them is maintained by an external force
which is generally, provided by a spring or sometimes by the sufficient weight of the
follower itself. The cams are usually rotated at uniform speed by a shaft, but the follower
motion is predetermined and will be according to the shape of the cam. In its simplest
form a cam and follower mechanism consists of three links. The cam and follower is one
of the simplest as well as one of the most important mechanisms found in modern
machinery today.
Applications: The cam has a very important function in the operation of many classes of
machines, especially those of the automatic type, such as printing presses, shoe
machinery, textile machinery, gear-cutting machines, and screw machines. In any class of
machinery in which automatic control and accurate timing are paramount, the cam is an
indispensable part of mechanism.

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The cams are widely used for operating the inlet and exhaust valves of internal
combustion engines, automatic attachment of machineries, paper cutting machines,
spinning and weaving textile machineries, feed mechanism of automatic lathes etc.

Classification of Followers:
The followers may be classified as discussed below:
1. According to the surface in contact: The followers, according to the surface in
contact, are as follows:
(a) Knife edge follower: When the contacting end of the follower has a sharp knife edge,
it is called a knife edge follower, as shown in Fig.1 (a). The sliding motion takes place
between the contacting surfaces (i.e. the knife edge and the cam surface). It is seldom
used in practice because the small area of contacting surface results in excessive wear.
In knife edge followers, a considerable side thrust exists between the follower and the
guide.

Figure 1 Classification of followers

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(b) Roller follower: When the contacting end of the follower is a roller, it is called a roller
follower, as shown in Fig.1 (b). Since the rolling motion takes place between the
contacting surfaces (i.e. the roller and the cam), therefore the rate of wear is greatly
reduced. In roller followers also the side thrust exists between the follower and the guide.
The roller followers are extensively used where more space is available such as in
stationary gas and oil engines and aircraft engines.
(c) Flat faced or mushroom follower: When the contacting end of the follower is a
perfectly flat face, it is called a flat-faced follower, as shown in Fig.1 (c). It may be noted
that the side thrust between the follower and the guide is much reduced in case of flat
faced followers. The only side thrust is due to friction between the contact surfaces of the
follower and the cam. The relative motion between these surfaces is largely of sliding
nature but wear may be reduced by off-setting the axis of the follower, as shown in Fig.
1(f) so that when the cam rotates, the follower also rotates about its own axis. The flat
faced followers are generally used where space is limited such as in cams which operate
the valves of automobile engines.
Note: When the flat faced follower is circular, it is then called a mushroom follower.
(d) Spherical faced follower: When the contacting end of the follower is of spherical
shape, it is called a spherical faced follower, as shown in Fig.1 (d). It may be noted that
when a flat-faced follower is used in automobile engines, high surface stresses are
produced. In order to minimize these stresses, the flat end of the follower is machined to
a spherical shape.
2. According to the motion of the follower: The followers, according to its motion, are
of the following two types:
(a) Reciprocating or translating follower: When the follower reciprocates in guides as
the cam rotates uniformly, it is known as reciprocating or translating follower. The
followers as shown in Fig.1 (a) to (d) are all reciprocating or translating followers.
(b) Oscillating or rotating follower. When the uniform rotary motion of the cam is
converted into predetermined oscillatory motion of the follower, it is called oscillating or
rotating follower. The follower, as shown in Fig.1 (e), is an oscillating or rotating follower.
3. According to the path of motion of the follower : The followers, according to its path
of motion, are of the following two types:

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(a) Radial follower: When the motion of the follower is along an axis passing through the
centre of the cam, it is known as radial follower. The followers, as shown in Fig.1 (a)
to (e), are all radial followers.
(b) Off-set follower: When the motion of the follower is along an axis away from the axis
of the cam centre, it is called off-set follower. The follower, as shown in Fig.1 (f), is an off-
set follower.
Note : In all cases, the follower must be constrained to follow the cam. This may be done
by springs, gravity or hydraulic means. In some types of cams, the follower may ride in a
groove.
Classification of Cams
Cams are classified according to:
(a) Shape

(b) Follower movement

(c) Type of constraint of the follower

a) According to Shape:

1. Wedge cam (Flat Cams): A wedge cam has a wedge, which in general has a
translation motion. The follower may either translate or oscillate. Fig 2 (a) shows the
wedge cam with translating (or reciprocating) follower. The follower is held in contact by a
spring. In wedge cam the profile of cam is formed on one side of the cam. Instead of
using a wedge, a flat plate with a groove can also be used and hence also called as flat
cam. Fig 2 (b)

Fig. 2 (a) Wedge cam Fig.2 (b) Flat cam

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2. Radial or disc cam: In radial cams, the follower reciprocates or oscillates in a direction
perpendicular to the cam axis. The cams as shown in Fig. 1 are all radial cams.
3. Cylindrical (Barrel) cam: In cylindrical cams, the follower reciprocates or oscillates in
a direction parallel to the cam axis. The follower rides in a groove at its cylindrical surface.

Figure 3 cylindrical cam

A cylindrical grooved cam with a reciprocating and an oscillating follower is shown in Fig.
3 (a) and (b) respectively. Cylindrical cams are also known as barrel or drum cams.
4. Spiral Cams
It is shown in Figure 4. The cam comprises of a plate on the face of which a groove of the
form of a spiral is cut. The spiral groove is provided with teeth which mesh with pin gear
follower. This cam has a limited use because it has to reverse its direction to reset the
position of the follower. This cam has found its use in computers.

Figure 4: Spiral Cam

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5. Conjugate Cams:
As the name implies, the cam comprises of two discs, keyed together and remain in
constant touch with two rollers of a follower as shown in Figure 5.
This cam is used where the requirement is of high dynamic load, low wear, low noise,
high speed and better control of follower.

Figure 5 : Conjugate Cam

6. End cam :
This cam has a rotating portion of a cylinder. The follower translates or oscillates,
whereas the cam usually rotates. The end cam is rarely used because of the cost and the
difficulty in cutting its contour.

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(b) According to Follower movement :
Rise-return-rise (RRR)
In this type of cam, its profile or contour is such that the cam rises, returns without rest or
dwell, and without any dwell or rest, it again rises. Follower displacement and cam angle
diagram for this type of cam is shown in Figure 6(a).
Dwell, Rise-return Dwell (DRRD)
In this type of cam after dwell, there is rise of the follower, then it returns to its original
position and dwells for sometimes before again rising. Generally, this type of cam is
commonly used. Its displacement cam angle diagram is shown in Figure 6(b).
Dwell-rise-dwell-return (DRDR)
It is the most widely used type of cam. In this, dwell is followed by rise. Then the follower
remains stationary in the dwell provided and then returns to its original position [Figure
6(c)].
Dwell-rise-dwell (DRD)
In this type of cam there is dwelling of follower followed by rise and dwell and
subsequently
there is fall of follower which is shown in fig.6 (d).

Figure 6

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c) According to Type of Constraint of the Follower:
Pre-loaded Spring Cam
For its proper working there should be contact between the cam and the follower
throughout its working, and it is achieved by means of a pre-loaded helical compression
spring as shown in Figures.

Positive Drive Cam

In this case, the contact between the cam and the follower is maintained by providing a
roller at the operating end of the follower. A positive drive cam does not required any
external force to maintain contact between cam and follower. Yoke cam, Conjugate cam
is example of Positive Drive Cam.

Yoke cam Conjugate cam

Gravity Drive Cam

In this type of cam, the lift or rise of the follower is achieved by the rising surface of the
cam and the follower returns or falls due to force of gravity of the follower. Such type of
cams cannot be relied upon due to their uncertain characteristics.

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Terms Used in Radial Cams:
Fig. shows a radial cam with reciprocating roller follower. The following terms are
important in order to draw the cam profile.
1. Base circle: It is the smallest circle that can be drawn to the cam profile. The size of
cam depends upon base circle.
2. Trace point: It is a reference point on the follower and is used to generate the pitch
curve. In case of knife edge follower, the knife edge represents the trace point and the
pitch curve corresponds to the cam profile. In a roller follower, the centre of the roller
represents the trace point.
3. Pressure angle: It is the angle between the direction of the follower motion and a
normal to the pitch curve. This angle is very important in designing a cam profile. If the
pressure angle is too large, it will increase the effect of friction and a reciprocating
follower will jam in its guide ways. The maximum pressure angle is kept up to 30⁰ to 35⁰
without causing difficulties. Pressure angle depends upon the angle of ascent, the lift of
follower, offset between the centre lines of cam and follower and sum of radii of base
circle and roller follower.
4. Pitch point: It is a point on the pitch curve having the maximum pressure angle.
5. Pitch circle: It is a circle drawn from the centre of the cam through the pitch points.
6. Pitch curve: It is the curve generated by the trace point as the follower moves relative
to the cam. For a knife edge follower, the pitch curve and the cam profile are same
whereas for a roller follower, they are separated by the radius of the roller.
7. Prime circle : It is the smallest circle that can be drawn from the centre of the cam and
tangent to the pitch curve. For a knife edge and a flat face follower, the prime circle and
the base circle are identical. For a roller follower, the prime circle is larger than the base
circle by the radius of the roller.
8. Lift or stroke: It is the maximum travel of the follower from its lowest position to the top
most position.
9. The Angles of Ascent, Dwell, Descent and Action
Refer Figure 7; the angle covered by a cam for the follower to rise from its lowest position
to the highest position is called the angle of ascent / angle of outstroke.

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The angle covered by the cam during which the follower remains at rest at its highest
position is called the angle of dwell.
The angle covered by the cam, for the follower to fall from its highest position to the
lowest position is called the angle of descent / angle of return stroke.
The total angle moved by the cam for the follower to return to its lowest position after the
period of ascent, dwell and descent is called the angle of action.

Fig.7 Terms used in radial cams

Motion of the Follower:

The follower, during its travel, may have one of the following motions.
1. Uniform velocity,
2. Simple harmonic motion,
3. Uniform acceleration and retardation, and
4. Cycloidal motion.

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1) Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the Follower Moves
with Uniform Velocity :

The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when a knife-edged follower moves
with uniform velocity are shown in Fig. 8(a), (b) and (c) respectively. The abscissa (base)
represents the time (i.e. the number of seconds required for the cam to complete one
revolution) or it may represent the angular displacement of the cam in degrees. The
ordinate represents the displacement, or velocity or acceleration of the follower. Since the
follower moves with uniform velocity during its rise and return stroke, therefore the slope
of the displacement curves must be constant. In other words, AB1 and C1D must be
straight lines. A little consideration will show that the follower remains at rest during part
of the cam rotation. The periods during which the follower remains at rest are known as
dwell periods, as shown by lines B1C1 and DE in Fig. 8(a). From Fig. 8(c), we see that
the acceleration or retardation of the follower at the beginning and at the end of each
stroke is infinite. This is due to the fact that the follower is required to start from rest and
has to gain a velocity within no time. This is only possible if the acceleration or retardation
at the beginning and at the end of each stroke
is infinite. These conditions are however, impracticable.

Fig.8 Displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when the follower moves with uniform velocity

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In order to have the acceleration and retardation within the finite limits, it is necessary to
modify the conditions which govern the motion of the follower. This may be done by
rounding off the sharp corners of the displacement diagram at the beginning and at the
end of each stroke, as shown in Fig. 9(a). By doing so, the velocity of the follower
increases gradually to its maximum value at the beginning of each stroke and decreases
gradually to zero at the end of each stroke as shown in Fig. 9(b).The modified
displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams are shown in Fig.9. The round corners
of the displacement diagram are usually parabolic curves because the parabolic motion
results in a very low acceleration of the follower for a given stroke and cam speed.

Fig.9 Modified Displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when the follower moves with uniform velocity

2) Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the Follower Moves

with Simple Harmonic Motion:

The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when the follower moves with
simple harmonic motion are shown in Fig. 10 (a), (b) and (c) respectively. The
displacement diagram is drawn as follows :
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1. Draw a semi-circle on the follower stroke as diameter.
2. Divide the semi-circle into any number of even equal parts (say eight).
3. Divide the angular displacements of the cam during out stroke and return stroke into
the same number of equal parts.
4. The displacement diagram is obtained by projecting the points as shown in Fig. 10(a).
The velocity and acceleration diagrams are shown in Fig. 10 (b) and (c) respectively.
Since the follower moves with a simple harmonic motion, therefore velocity diagram
consists of a sine curve and the acceleration diagram is a cosine curve. We see from Fig.
10 (b) that the velocity of the follower is zero at the beginning and at the end of its stroke
and increases gradually to a maximum at mid-stroke. On the other hand, the acceleration
of the follower is maximum at the beginning and at the ends of the stroke and diminishes
to zero at mid-stroke.

Fig. 10 Displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when the follower moves with simple harmonic motion.

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From acceleration diagram it is clear that there are abrupt changes in its value from
maximum to zero and zero to maximum. T he same will happen for return stroke also.
These changes cause infinite jerks, vibrations; etc. so this type of motion is fit for low
speeds of cams.
Let S = Stroke of the follower,
θO and θR = Angular displacement of the cam during out stroke and return stroke of the
follower respectively, in radians, and
ω = Angular velocity of the cam in rad/s.
1) Maximum velocity of the follower on the outstroke
vO = πωS / 2θO
2) Maximum velocity of the follower on the return stroke
vR = πωS / 2θR
3) Maximum acceleration of the follower on the outstroke
aO= π2ω2S / 2(θO)2
4) Maximum acceleration of the follower on the return stroke
aR= π2ω2S / 2(θR)2

3) Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the Follower Moves

with Uniform Acceleration and Retardation
The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when the follower moves with
uniform acceleration and retardation are shown in Fig. 11(a), (b) and (c) respectively. We
see that the displacement diagram consists of a parabolic curve and may be drawn as
discussed below :
1. Divide the angular displacement of the cam during outstroke ( θO ) into any even
number of equal parts (say eight) and draw vertical lines through these points as shown in
Fig. 11 (a).
2. Divide the stroke of the follower (S) into the same number of equal even parts.
3. Join Aa to intersect the vertical line through point 1 at B. Similarly, obtain the other
points C, D etc. as shown in Fig. 11(a). Now join these points to obtain the parabolic
curve for the out stroke of the follower.
4. In the similar way as discussed above, the displacement diagram for the follower
during return stroke may be drawn.
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The velocity diagram is shown in Fig. 11(b). Since the acceleration and retardation are
uniform, therefore the velocity varies directly with the time. The velocity increases from
zero to maximum during acceleration again it reduces to zero during retardation. The
acceleration is constant during throughout the cycle but in second half the acceleration is
in opposite direction. The jerk is infinite throughout the cycle. So this motion of follower is
applicable only upto moderates speeds of the cam.
Let S = Stroke of the follower,
θO and θR = Angular displacement of the cam during out stroke and return stroke of the
follower respectively, in radians, and
ω = Angular velocity of the cam in rad/s

Fig. 11 Displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when the follower moves with Uniform Acceleration
and Retardation

1) Maximum velocity of the follower on the outstroke

vO = 2ωS / θO
2) Maximum velocity of the follower on the return stroke
vR = 2ωS / θR

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3) Maximum acceleration of the follower on the outstroke
aO= 4ω2S / (θO)2
4) Maximum acceleration of the follower on the return stroke
aR= 4ω2S / (θR)2

4) Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the Follower Moves

with Cycloidal Motion
cycloid is a curve traced by a point on a circle when the circle rolls without slipping on a
straight line. In case of cams, this straight line is a stroke of the follower which is
translating and the circumference of the rolling circle is equal to the stroke (S) of the
follower. Therefore the radius of the rolling circle is S / 2π . The displacement diagram is
drawn as discussed below :
1. Draw a circle of radius S / 2π with A as centre.
2. Divide the circle into any number of equal even parts (say six). Project these points
horizontally on the vertical centre line of the circle. These points are shown by a′ and b′
in Fig. 12 (a).
3. Divide the angular displacement of the cam during outstroke into the same number
of equal even parts as the circle is divided. Draw vertical lines through these points.
4. Join AB which intersects the vertical line through 3′ at c. From a′ draw a line parallel
to AB intersecting the vertical lines through 1′ and 2′ at a and b respectively.
5. Similarly, from b′ draw a line parallel to AB intersecting
the vertical lines through 4′ and 5′ at d and e respectively.
6. Join the points A a b c d e B by a smooth curve. This is the required cycloidal curve for
the follower during outstroke.
The velocity is zero at the beginning and at the end of each stroke and is maximum at the
mid of each stroke. The acceleration is zero at the beginning, mid and the end of each
stroke and is maximum at ¼ th and ¾ th of each stroke. The jerk is maximum at beginning,
th th
mid and end of each stroke and zero at ¼ and ¾ of each stroke. The jerk is having
finite value throughout the cycle. Therefore cycloidal motion is best suited for high speed
cams.
Let S = Stroke of the follower,
θO and θR = Angular displacement of the cam during out stroke and return stroke of the
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follower respectively, in radians, and
ω = Angular velocity of the cam in rad/s

Fig.12 Displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when the follower moves with cycloidal motion.

1) Maximum velocity of the follower on the outstroke

vO = 2ωS / θO
2) Maximum velocity of the follower on the return stroke
vR = 2ωS / θR
3) Maximum acceleration of the follower on the outstroke
aO= 2πω2S / (θO)2
4) Maximum acceleration of the follower on the return stroke
aR= 2πω2S / (θR)2
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Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum

velocity during velocity during acceleration acceleration
outstroke return during outstroke during return
(VO) (VR) (aO) (aR)

1) Simple
harmonic motion π2ω2S / 2(θR)2
πωS / 2θO πωS / 2θR π2ω2S / 2(θO)2
(S.H.M)

2) Uniform
4ω2S / (θR)2
Acceleration and 2ωS / θO 2ωS / θR 4ω2S / (θO)2
Retardation
(U.A.R)

3) Cycloidal
motion 2ωS / θO 2πω2S / (θR)2
2ωS / θR 2πω2S / (θO)2

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