COMPUTER

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APPLICATIONS IN

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POWER SYSTEM
BY
Kibrom G.

Adigrat University
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
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Chapter 1

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Introduction

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COMPUTERS IN POWER SYSTEMS

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▪ In the 1960s tighter control of the system frequency
and voltage levels.

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▪ The two primary functions of an energy management
system are security and economy of operation and
these tasks are achieved in main control centers.

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COMPUTER TASKS
• Transmission system

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development
• Generation scheduling.
• Power system analysis.

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The main computer • Optimal Power Flow
tasks involved in the • Automatic generation control
management of (AGC)
electrical energy • Supervisory control and data
systems are as follows. acquisition (SCADA).

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THE STRUCTURE OF ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM

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Generation
Thermal energy sources are coal, natural gas,
nuclear fuel and oil.

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non-fossil fuels such as wind, solar, tidal, and
geothermal and biogas

Transmission
The transmission system interconnects all the
generating stations and major load centers in
the system.
It forms the back bone of the power system
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….CONT.

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 The interconnections of power systems offer the following advantages.
(a) Quality: The voltage profile of the transmission network improves

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as more generators contribute to the system, resulting in an increased
total system capability.

 This also improves the frequency behavior of the system

 (b) Economy: In interconnected systems, it is possible to reduce the

total set of generating plants required to maintain the desired level of
generation reserve.

 This results in reduction of operational and investment costs.

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….CONT.

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(c) Security: In case of emergency, power can be made available from
the neighboring systems and each system can benefit even when
individual spinning reserves may not be sufficient for isolated operation.

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Distribution system

A power system operates in a normal state, if the

following conditions are satisfied:
• The bus voltages are within the prescribed
limits.
• The system frequency is within the specified
limits.
• The active and reactive power balance exists in 8
the system.
POWER SYSTEM CONTROL STRUCTURE

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 A properly designed and operated power system must
meet the following requirements:

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….CONT.

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 (a) The system must have adequate capability to meet the
continuously varying active and reactive power

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demand of system load. This requires maintaining and
approximately controlling adequate spinning reserve of
active and reactive power at all time instants.

 (b) The system should be designed and operated so as to

supply electrical energy at minimum cost and with
minimum adverse ecological impact. 10
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 (C) The electrical power supplied to the consumers must meet certain
minimum quality standards with respect to the following:

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i) The network frequency should be maintained within a range of ±3
percent of its ‘nominal’ value.
ii) The voltage magnitudes should be maintained within a range of ±10
percent of the corresponding ‘nominal’ value at each network bus bar.
iii) The supply should meet a desired level of reliability to ensure supply
continuity as far as possible

 (d) It should maintain scheduled tie-line flow and contractual power

exchange.
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GENERATING UNIT CONTROLS

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The controls provided in generating units consist of prime
mover control and excitation controls.

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The controls are also called as load frequency control (LFC)
and automatic voltage control (AVC)

These controllers are set for a particular operating condition

and maintain the frequency and voltage magnitude within the 12
specified limits following small changes in load demand .
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 If the input to the prime mover is constant, then an
increase in the active power of load at the generator

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terminals results in a drop in the prime mover speed.
This then, causes a reduction in the frequency.
 an increase in reactive power demand at the generator
results in the reduction of terminal voltage, if the
excitation (generation field current) is kept constant

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Figure 1.2: Controls in a Power System

LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL

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 In LFC, two feedback loops namely, primary and secondary
loops are provided.

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 Both the loops help in maintaining the real power balance by
adjusting the turbine input power.

 The primary LFC loop senses the generator speed and

accordingly controls the turbine input.

 This is a faster loop and operates in the order of seconds.

 But this loop provides only a coarse frequency control. 15

….CONT.

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 The secondary LFC loop which senses the system

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frequency and tie-line power, fine tunes the frequency

back to the nominal value. This is a slower loop and may

take minutes to eliminate frequency error.

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Figure 1.3: Generator controls 17
AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE CONTROL

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 In AVC, the bus voltage is measured and compared to a
reference. The resulting error voltage is then amplified

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and applied to the excitation control system.
 The output of the exciter controls the generator field
current.
 An increase in the reactive power load of the generator
causes the terminal voltage to decrease and this results in
generation of voltage error signal.
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….CONT.

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The amplified error signal then increases the exciter field current
which in turn increases the exciter terminal voltage.

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This increases the generator field current, which results in an
increase in the generated emf.

The reactive power generation of the generator is thus increased

and the terminal voltage is brought back to its nominal value.

The generation control maintains the active power balance in the 19

system.
ECONOMIC DISPATCH

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 Power systems need to be operated economically to make
electrical energy cost-effective to the consumer and profitable

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for the operator.
 The operational economics that deals with power generation
and delivery can be divided into two sub-problems.
 One dealing with minimum cost of power generation and
other dealing with delivery of power with minimum power
loss.
 The problem of minimum production cost is solved using
economic dispatch 20
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 The main aim of economic dispatch problem is to minimize the total
cost of generating real power at different plants in the system while

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maintaining the real power balance in the system.

 The economic dispatch and minimum loss problems can be solved by

means of optimal power flow (OPF) method.
 The OPF calculations involve a sequence of load flow solutions in
which certain controllable parameters are automatically adjusted to
satisfy the network constraints while minimizing a specified objective
function

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SECURITY ANALYSIS AND CONTINGENCY EVALUATION

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 For the analysis of power system security and development of approximate
control systems, the system operating conditions are classified into five states:

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normal, alert, emergency, in extremis and restorative.

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Figure 1.4: Power system state transition diagram

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 Normal state: In this state, all the system variables are
within the normal range with no equipment being

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overloaded.

 The system is in a secure state with both ‘equality’ (total

system generation equals total system load) and
‘inequality’(bus voltages and equipment currents within
the limits) constraints being satisfied.

 In this state, a single contingency cannot disrupt the system 23

security and cannot cause any variable to violate the limit.

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 Alert state: If the security level of the system falls below
some specified threshold, the system then enters the alert state

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and is termed as ‘insecure’.
 The system variables are still within limits.
 This state may be brought about by a single contingency,
large increase in system load or adverse weather
conditions. Preventive control steps taken to restore
generation or to eliminate disturbance can help in restoring
the system to the normal state.
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 If these restorative steps do not succeed, the system
remains in the alert state.

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 Occurrence of a contingency with the system already in
alert state, may cause overloading of equipment's and the
system may enter emergency state.

 If the disturbance is very severe, the system may enter

into extremis state directly from alert state
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 Emergency state: If the preventive controls fail or if a
severe disturbance occurs, the system enters emergency

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state.
 The transition to this state can occur either from normal state
or alert state.

 In this state the balance between generation and load is still

maintained (equality constraints still satisfied) and the system
remains in synchronism.
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 Some components are however overloaded(some inequality
constraints violated).

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 Failure of these components results in system disintegration.
Emergency control actions like disconnection of faulted
section, re-routing of power excitation control, fast valving,
and load curtailment have to be taken.

 It is most urgent that the system be restored to normal or alert

state by means of these actions.
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 In-extremis state: If the emergency control actions fail
when the system is in emergency state, then the system

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enters into in-extremis state.
 The system starts to disintegrate into sections or islands.
Some of these islands may still have sufficient
generation to meet the load.
 The components are overloaded and the active power
balance is also disrupted
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 Overloaded generators start tripping leading to cascade
outages and possible ‘blackout’.

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 Control actions, such as load shedding and controlled
system operation are taken to save as much of the system
as possible from a widespread blackout.

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 Restorative state: The restorative state represents a
condition in which control action is being taken to restart

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the tripped generators and restore the interconnections.
 The system transition can be either to normal or alert
state depending on system conditions.
 The sequence of events that result in system transition
from normal to in-extremis state may take from few
seconds to several minutes.
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 Bringing the system back to normal through the restorative
state is an extremely time consuming process and may last for

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hours or may be days.
 A large generator may require many hours from restart to
synchronization.
 The switched off loads can be picked up gradually and
resynchronization of operating islands to the grids is also a
time consuming process.
 The control actions may be initiated from the central energy
control centre either through operators or automatically 31
UNIT COMMITMENT

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 The total load in the power system varies throughout a day
and its value also changes with the day of the week and

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season.

 It is not economical to run all the units available all the time.

 The problem of unit commitment is to determine in advance,

the start and the shut down sequence of the available
generators such that the load demand is met and the cost of
generation is minimum . 32
MAINTENANCE SCHEDULING

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 Preventive maintenance has to be carried out on power
system components to ensure that they continue to

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operate efficiently and reliably.
 Generators are usually put on maintenance once every
year.
 Their maintenance has to be so scheduled such that the
available generation is sufficient to meet the system load
demand.
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• The sequencing of
generator maintenance such

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that sufficient generation is
always available to meet
The problem of the load demand
maintenance • The cost of maintenances
scheduling and cost of lost generation
is minimum
deals with

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SYSTEM PLANNING

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 To meet ever increasing load demand, either new power
systems have to be built or the existing power systems are

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expanded by adding new generators and transmission
lines.

 Many analyses must be performed to design and study the

performance of the system and plan expansion.

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To study the system feasibility

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and performance, the following
analyses need to be carried out:

(b) Fault (d)

(a) Load flow (c) Stability
analysis/short Contingency
analysis studies
circuit studies analysis
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LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

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 The load flow analysis involves the steady state solution
of the power system network to determine power flows

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and bus voltages of a transmission network for specified
generation and loading conditions.
 These calculations are required for the study of steady
state and dynamic performance of the system.
 The system is assumed to be balanced and hence, single
phase representation is used.
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 These studies are important in planning and designing
future expansion of power system and also in

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determining the best operation of the existing systems.

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OPTIMAL POWER FLOW

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 The computational need becomes even more critical when
it is realized that contingency-constrained optimal power

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flow (OPF) usually needs to iterate with contingency
analysis.
 The ultimate goal is to have the security constrained
scheduling calculation initiated, completed and dispatched
to the power system entirely automatically without human
intervention.

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FAULT STUDIES

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 In these studies the line currents and bus voltages of a
system are calculated during various types of faults.

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 Faults on power system are divided into balanced and
unbalanced faults.
 Three phase symmetrical faults are balanced faults in
which the system retains its balanced nature.
 The unbalanced faults are single line to ground fault, line
to line fault and double line to ground fault.
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….CONT.

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 The fault currents values are useful in relay setting and
co-ordination as well as for selecting the proper rating of

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the circuit breakers.

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STABILITY STUDIES

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 The stability studies ascertain the impact of disturbances
on the electrochemical dynamic behavior of the power

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system.

 These studies are of two types; small signal stability

study and transient stability study

 The small signal stability studies deal with the behavior

of a system following any small disturbances like small
change in load, small change in AVR gain etc. 42
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 As the disturbance is small, the equations that describe
the dynamics of the power system are linearized for the

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purpose of analysis.
 The system is small signal stable for a particular
operating point, if following a small disturbance it
returns to essentially the same steady state operating
condition.

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 Transient stability study deals with the response of a power
system subjected to a large disturbance such a short circuit,

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line tripping or loss of large generation.
 In this study the equations describing system dynamics are
solved using numerical techniques.
 The power system transient stability problem is then defined
as that of assessing whether or not the system will reach an
acceptable steady state operating point following a large
disturbance
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AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL

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During normal operation the following four tasks can be
identified with the purpose of AGC:

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Distributing the
Reducing the Distributing the
individual area
Matching of system total system
generation
system frequency generation
among its
generation and deviations to among the
generating
various control
system zero. areas to
sources
load.(met by (associated (associated with
comply(associat
governor with load- the economic
ed with load-
speed control) frequency dispatch
frequency
control ) function )
control )
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SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION (SCADA )

▪ Data acquisition

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▪ Information display
▪ Supervisory control
▪ Alarm processing
▪ Information storage and reports
▪ Sequence of events acquisition
▪ Data calculations
▪ Remote terminal unit processing
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INTERACTIVE POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

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Recent advances in graphics devices in terms of
 speed

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 resolution
 color
 reduced costs and
 improved reliability have enhanced the interactive
capabilities and made the designer’s task more effective and
attractive
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POWER SYSTEMTERMS

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 Power system reliability: ability to satisfy the customer
demand

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 Power system security: ability to remain secure(normal)

Or insecure (emergency) state

 Power system Contingency: loss or failure of small part
of the power system or an unplanned outage
 Power system Stability: the ability of the power system
to return to its steady state when subjected to
disturbances
 Power system Quality: voltage and frequency stays
with in the prescribed range 48