BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

MODULE III & IV NOTES

B.TECH 2ND SEMESTER

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 CONTENTS

MODULE III : BUILDING MATERIALS

Chapter I: BRICK

Chapter II: BRICK

Chapter III: STONE

Chapter IV: CEMENT

Chapter V: FOUNDATION

Chapter VI: STONE MASONARY

Chapter VII: BRICK MASONARY

Chapter VIII: ROOF

Chapter IX: FLOORING

MODULE IV A: SURVEYING

MODULE IV B: TRANSPORTATION
 MODULE III

Chapter I: BRICK
A brick is building material used to make walls, pavements and other elements in masonry
construction. Traditionally, the term brick referred to a unit composed of clay, but it is now used to
denote any rectangular units laid in mortar. A brick can be composed of clay-bearing soil, sand, and
lime, or concrete materials. Bricks are produced in numerous classes, types, materials, and sizes
which vary with region and time period, and are produced in bulk quantities.

CONSTITUENTS OF GOOD BRICK EARTH:

Bricks are the most commonly used construction material. Bricks are prepared by moulding clay in
rectangular blocks of uniform size and then drying and burning these blocks. In order to get a good
quality brick, the brick earth should contain the following constituents.

1.Silica (50 to 60%)

2.Alumina (20% to 30%)
3.Lime (< 5%)
4.Iron oxide (5% to 7%)
5.Magnesia (<1%)

Silica
o Brick earth should contain about 50 to 60% of silica.
o It is responsible for preventing cracking, shrinking and warping of raw bricks.
o It also affects the durability of bricks.
o If present in excess, then it destroys the cohesion between particles and the brick becomes brittle.

Alumina
o Good brick earth should contain about 20% to 30% of alumina.
o It is responsible for plasticity characteristic of earth, which is important in moulding operation.
o If present in excess, then the raw brick shrink and warp during drying.

Lime
o The percentage of lime should not exceed 5% in a good brick earth.
o It prevents shrinkage of bricks on drying.
o It causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it.
o Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and brick loses its shape.

Iron oxide
o A good brick earth should contain about 5% to 7% of iron oxide.
o It gives red colour to the bricks.
o It improves impermeability and durability.
o It gives strength and hardness.
o If present in excess, then the colour of brick becomes dark blue or blakish.
o If the quantity of iron oxide is comparatively less, the brick becomes yellowish in colour.
Magnesia
o Good brick earth should contain less a small quantity of magnesia about
1% o Magnesium in brick earth imparts yellow tint to the brick. o It is
responsible for reducing shrinkage
o Excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.

CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS AS PER COMMON PRACTICE:

Bricks, which are used in construction works, are burnt bricks. They are classified into four
categories on the basis of its manufacturing and preparation, as given below.
2
1. First class bricks – ( Water absorption < 20%, Compressive strength >10.5 N/mm )
2 2
2. Second class bricks – (Water absorption 20% - 22 %, C.S. 10.5 N/mm to 7 N/mm )
2 2
3. Third class bricks – ( Water absorption 22% - 25%, C.S. 7 N/mm to 3 N/mm )

4. Heavy duty machine made bricks should not absorb more than 5% of their weight

First Class Bricks: These bricks are table moulded and of standard shape and they are burnt in
kilns. The surface and edges of the bricks are sharp, square, smooth and straight. They comply with
all the qualities of good bricks. These bricks are used for superior work of permanent nature.
Second Class Bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and they are burnt in kilns. The surface of
these bricks is somewhat rough and shape is also slightly irregular. These bricks may have hair
cracks and their edges may not be sharp and uniform. These bricks are commonly used at places
where brick work is to be provided with a coat of plaster.

Third Class Bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and they are burnt in clamps. These bricks
are not hard and they have rough surfaces with irregular and distorted edges. These bricks give dull
sound when struck together. They are used for unimportant and temporary structures and at places
where rainfall is not heavy.

Fourth Class Bricks: These are over burnt bricks with irregular shape and dark colour. These
bricks are used as aggregate for concrete in foundations, floors, roads etc, because of the fact that
the over burnt bricks have a compact structure and hence they are sometimes found to be stronger
than even the first class bricks.

Classification of Bricks as per constituent materials

There are various types of bricks used in masonry.
• Common Burnt Clay Bricks
• Sand Lime Bricks (Calcium Silicate Bricks)
• Engineering Bricks
• Concrete Bricks
• Fly ash Clay Bricks

Common Burnt Clay Bricks

Common burnt clay bricks are formed by pressing in moulds. Then these bricks are dried and
fired in a kiln. Common burnt clay bricks are used in general work with no special attractive
appearances. When these bricks are used in walls, they require plastering or rendering.
TESTS ON BRICKS

Compressive strength test

Water Absorption test (24 hour-Water Absorption test)
Hardness test (Scratching)
Size, shape and colour test (Dimension & Appearance)
Soundness test (Striking & listening the ringing sound)

QUALITIES OF GOOD BRICK

Brick Earth: Brick earth should be free from stones, kankars, organic matter, saltpetre and harmful
chemical etc.

Size: The bricks should have uniform size, plain, rectangular surfaces with parallel sides and sharp
straight edges. Whatever bricks are used for a construction but the bricks should be regular and
uniform. Good bricks should not exceed 3 mm tolerances in length and 1.5 mm tolerances in width
and height.

Size of Modular brick is 190mm*90mm*90mm (Nominal size (including mortar) 200*100*100)

Shape: Good bricks should have a uniform in shape. Edges of bricks should be a sharp, straight and
right angle.

Colour of Brick: Good brick should be well burnt and uniform copper colour. Over burnt and
under burnt bricks are losses uniformity of colour on its surface and its strength. Good quality
bricks should always be uniform colour throughout.

Soundness: Well burnt brick should give a metallic sound when struck with a hammer or another
brick.

Hardness: The brick should be so hard that when scratched by a finger nail no impression is made

Strength: The Compressive strength of brick should be minimum 35 N/mm2 as per Is code.

Texture and Compactness: The surfaces of brick should not be too smooth to cause slipping of
mortar. The brick should have pre-compact and uniform texture. A fractured surface should not
show cracks, holes grits or lumps of lime.

Water Absorption: Water absorption of good brick should not exceed 20 percent of its dry eight
when kept immersed in water for 24 hours.

Frog in Brick: Brick should have proper frog, so that the mortar can be properly filled in the frog.
The size of frog should be 100 mm in length, 40 mm in width and 10 mm depth.
 Chapter II: STONES

The process of taking out stones from natural rock beds is known as the quarrying. The term quarry
is used to indicate the exposed surface of natural rocks. The stones, thus obtained, are used for
various engineering purposes. The difference a mine and quarry should be noted. In case of a mine,
the operations are carried out under the ground at great depth. In case of quarry, the operations are
carried out at ground level in an exposed condition.

Type of Stones:

Stones used for civil engineering works may be classified in the following three ways:
1. Geological
2. Physical
3. Chemical

Geological Classification
Based on their origin of formation stones are classified into three main groups—Igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

(i) Igneous Rocks: These rocks are formed by cooling and solidifying of the rock masses from their
molten magmatic condition of the material of the earth. Generally igneous rocks are strong and
durable. Granite, trap and basalt are the rocks belonging to this category; Granites are formed by
slow cooling of the lava under thick cover on the top. Hence they have crystalline surface. The
cooling of lava at the top surface of earth results into non-crystalline and glassy texture. Trap and
basalt belong to this category.

(ii) Sedimentary Rocks: Due to weathering action of water, wind and frost existing rocks
disintegrates. The disintegrated material is carried by wind and water; the water being most
powerful medium. Flowing water deposits its suspended materials at some points of obstacles to its
flow. These deposited layers of materials get consolidated under pressure and by heat. Chemical
agents also contribute to the cementing of the deposits. The rocks thus formed are more uniform,
fine grained and compact in their nature. They represent a bedded or stratified structure in general.
Sand stones, lime stones, mud stones etc. belong to this class of rock.

(iii) Metamorphic Rocks: Previously formed igneous and sedimentary rocks undergo changes due
to metamorphic action of pressure and internal heat. For example due to metamorphic action granite
becomes gneisses, trap and basalt change to schist and laterite, lime stone changes to marble, sand
stone becomes quartzite and mud stone becomes slate.

Physical Classification

Based on the structure, the rocks may be classified as:

1. Stratified rocks
2. Unstratified rocks
(i) Stratified Rocks: These rocks are having layered structure. They possess planes of Stratification
or cleavage. They can be easily split along these planes. Sand stones, lime stones, slate etc. are the
examples of this class of stones.
(ii) UnstratifiedRocks: These rocks are not stratified. They possess crystalline and compact grains.
They cannot be split in to thin slab. Granite, trap, marble etc. are the examples of this type of rocks.

Chemical Classification

On the basis of their chemical composition engineers prefer to classify rocks as:
1. Siliceous rocks
2. Argillaceous rocks and
3. Calcareous rocks

(i) Siliciousrocks: The main content of these rocks is silica. They are hard and durable. Examples of
such rocks are granite, trap, sand stones etc.

(ii) Argillaceous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is argil i.e., clay. These stones are hard
and durable but they are brittle. They cannot withstand shock. Slates and laterites are examples of
this type of rocks.

(iii) Calcareous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is calcium carbonate. Limestone is a
calcareous rock of sedimentary origin while marble is a calcareous rock of metamorphic origin.

Characteristics of Stones:

The following properties of the stones should be looked into before selecting them for engineering
works:

(i) Structure: The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or unstratified. Structured stones
should be easily dressed and suitable for super structure. Unstratified stones are hard and difficult to
dress. They are preferred for the foundation works.

(ii) Texture: Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence they are
used for carving. Such stones are usually strong and durable.

(iii) Density: Denser stones are stronger. Light weight stones are weak. Hence stones with specific
gravity less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings.

(iv) Appearance: A stone with uniform and attractive colour is durable, if grains are compact.
Marble and granite get very good appearance, when polished. Hence they are used for face works in

(v) Strength: Strength is an important property to be looked into before selecting stone as building
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block. Indian standard code recommends a minimum crushing strength of 3.5 N/mm for any
building block. Table 1.1 shows the crushing strength of various stones. Due to non-uniformity of
the material, usually a factor of safety of 10 is used to find the permissible stress in a stone. Hence
even laterite can be used safely for a single storey building, because in such structures expected
2
load can hardly give a stress of 0.15 N/mm . However in stone masonry buildings care should be
taken to check the stresses when the beams (Concentrated Loads) are placed on late rite wall.

(vi) Hardness: It is an important property to be considered when stone is used for flooring and
pavement. Coefficient of hardness is to be found by conducting test on standard specimen in
Dorry‘s testing machine. For road works coefficient of hardness should be at least 17. For building
works stones with coefficient of hardness less than 14 should not be used.

(vii) Percentage wear: It is measured by attrition test. It is an important property to be considered

in selecting aggregate for road works and railway ballast. A good stone should not show wear of
more than 2%.
(viii) Porosity and Absorption: All stones have pores and hence absorb water. The reaction of water
with material of stone causes disintegration. Absorption test is specified as percentage of water
absorbed by the stone when it is immersed under water for 24 hours. For a good stone it should be
as small as possible and in no case more than 5.

(ix) Weathering: Rain and wind cause loss of good appearance of stones. Hence stones with good
weather resistance should be used for face works.

(x) Toughness: The resistance to impact is called toughness. It is determined by impact test. Stones
with toughness index more than 19 are preferred for road works. Toughness indexes 13 to 19 are
considered as medium tough and stones with toughness index less than 13 are poor stones.
 Chapter III: CEMENT

Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other materials together.
Cements used in construction can be characterized as being either hydraulic or non-hydraulic,
depending upon the ability of the cement to be used in the presence of water. Non-hydraulic cement
will not set in wet conditions or underwater, rather it sets as it dries and reacts with carbon dioxide
in the air. It can be attacked by some aggressive chemicals after setting. Hydraulic cement is made
by replacing some of the cement in a mix with activated aluminium silicates, pozzolanas such as fly
ash. The chemical reaction results in hydrates that are not very water-soluble and so are quite
durable in water and safe from chemical attack. This allows setting in wet condition or underwater
and further protects the hardened material from chemical attack (e.g., Portland cement).

Uses
• Cement mortar for Masonry work, plaster and pointing etc.
• Concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, weathershed, stairs, pillars etc.
• Construction for important engineering structures such as bridge, culverts, dams, tunnels, light
house, clocks, etc.
• Construction of water, wells, tennis courts, septic tanks, lamp posts, telephone cabins etc.
• Making joint for joints, pipes, etc.
• Manufacturing of precast pipes, garden seats, artistically designed wens, flower posts, etc.
• Preparation of foundation, water tight floors, footpaths, etc.

Types of Cements
Many types of cements are available in markets with different compositions and for use in different
environmental conditions and specialized applications. A list of some commonly used cement is
described in this section:

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)

Ordinary Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use around the world. This
cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with small quantities of other materials
(such as clay) to 1450°C in a kiln, in a process known as calcination, whereby a molecule of carbon
dioxide is liberated from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide, or quicklime, which is then
blended with the other materials that have been included in the mix. The resulting hard substance,
called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary
Portland Cement.

Lime (CaO) 60 to 67%

Silica (SiO2) 17 to 25%
Alumina (Al2O3) 3 to 8%
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5 to 6%
Magnesia (MgO) 0.1 to 4%
Sulphur trioxide (SO3) 1 to 3%
Soda and/or Potash (Na2O+K2O) 0.5 to 1.3%
 Ordinary Rapid Lowheat
Abbreviated
Bogue’s Compound Portland hardening Portland
Designation
cement cement cement
Tricalcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2) C3S 40 50 25
Dicalcium silicate (2CaO.SiO2) C2S 30 21 35
Tricalcium aluminate (3CaO.Al2O3) C3A 11 9 6
Tetracalcium alumino-ferrite 12 9 14
C4AF
(4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3)

Rapid hardening Portland cement

• It is firmer than Ordinary Portland Cement
• It contains more C3S are less C2S than the ordinary Portland cement.
• Its 3 days strength is same as 7 days strength of ordinary Portland cement.

Low heat Portland cement

• Heat generated in ordinary Portland cement at the end of 3days 80 cal/gm. While in low heat
cement it is about 50cal/gm of cement.
• It has low percentage of C3A and relatively more C2S and less C3S than O.P. Cement.
• Reduce and delay the heat of hydration. British standard (B S. 1370: 1974) limit the heat of
hydration of this cement.

Sulphate resisting Portland cement

•Maximum C3A content by 3.5% and minimum fineness by 2500 cm/g.
• Firmer than ordinary pot land cement.
• Sulphate forms the sulphar-aluminates which have expensive properties and so causes
disintegration of concrete.

Sulphate resisting Portland cement

• For this cement, the silage as obtained from blast furnace is used
• The clinkers of cement are ground with about 60 to 65 percent of slag.
• Its strength in early days is less and hence it required longer curing period. It proves to be
economical as slag, which is a Waste product, is used in its manufactures.

Pozzolanic Portland cement

• As per Indian standard, the proportions of Pozzolana (Burnt clay, shale, Fly ash. ) may be 10 to 25
% by weight.
• This Cement has higher resistance to chemical agencies and to sea water because of absence of
lime.
• It evolves less heat and initial strength is less but final strength is 28 days onward equal to
ordinary Portland cement.
• It possesses less resistance to the erosion and weathering action.
• It imparts higher degree of water tightness and it is cheap.
White Portland cement
• Grey colour of O.P. cement is due to presence of Iron Oxide. Hence in White Cement Fe,,O, is
limited to 1 %. Sodium Alumina Ferrite (Crinoline) NavAlF6 is added to act as flux in the absence
of Iron-Oxide.
• It is quick drying, possesses high strength and has superior aesthetic values and it also cost lee
than ordinary Cement because of specific requirements imposed upon the raw materials and the
manufacturing process.
• White Cement is used in Swimming pools, for painting garden furniture, moulding sculptures and
statues etc.

Coloured Portland
• The Cement of desired colour may be obtained by mixing mineral pigments with ordinary
Cement.
• The amount of colouring material may vary from 5 to 10 percent. If this percentage exceeds
10percent, the strength of cements is affected.
• The iron Oxide in different proportions gives brown, red or yellow colour. The coloured Cement
are widely used for finishing of floors, window sill slabs, stair treads etc.

Expansive Cement:
• This type of cement is produced by adding an expanding medium like sulphoaluminate and a
stabilizing agent to the ordinary cement.
• The expanding cement is used for the construction of water retaining structures and for repairing
the damaged concrete surfaces.

High alumina cement

• This cement is produced by grilling clinkers formed by calcining bauxite and lime. It can stand
high temper lures.
• If evolves great heat during setting. It is therefore not affected by frost.

TESTS ON CEMENT

Basically two types of tests are under taken for assessing the quality of cement. These are either
field test or lab tests. The current section describes these tests in details.
Field test: There are four field tests may be carried out to as certain roughly the quality of cement.
There are four types of field tests to access the colour, physical property, and strength of the cement
as described below.

Colour
• The colour of cement should be uniform. • It should be typical cement colour i.e. grey colour with
a light greenish shade.

Physical properties
• Cement should feel smooth when touched between fingers.
• If hand is inserted in a bag or heap of cement, it should feel cool.
Presence of lumps
• Cement should be free from lumps.
• For a moisture content of about 5 to 8%,this increase of volume may be much as 20 to 40
%,depending upon the grading of sand.

Strength
• A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of thick glass and it is kept under water for
24 hours. It should set and not crack.

Laboratory tests:
Six laboratory tests are conducted mainly for assessing the quality of cement. These are: fineness,
compressive strength, consistency, setting time, soundness and tensile strength.

Fineness
• This test is carried out to check proper grinding of cement.
• The fineness of cement particles may be determined either by sieve test or permeability apparatus
test.
• In sieve test, the cement weighing 100 gm is taken and it is continuously passed for 15 minutes
through standard BIS sieve. The residue is then weighed and this weight should not be more than
10% of original weight.
• In permeability apparatus test, specific area of cement particles is calculated. This test is better
than sieve test. The specific surface acts as a measure of the frequency of particles of average size.

Compressive strength
• This test is carried out to determine the compressive strength of cement.
• The mortar of cement and sand is prepared in ratio 1:3.
• Water is added to mortar in water cement ratio 0.4.
• The mortar is placed in moulds. The test specimens are in the form of cubes and the moulds are of
metals. For 70.6 mm and 76 mm cubes, the cement required is 185gm and 235 gm respectively.
• Then the mortar is compacted in vibrating machine for 2 minutes and the moulds are placed in a
damp cabin for 24 hours.
• The specimens are removed from the moulds and they are submerged in clean water for curing. •
The cubes are then tested in compression testing machine at the end of 3days and 7 days.

Consistency
• The purpose of this test is to determine the percentage of water required for preparing cement
pastes for other tests.
• Take 300 gm of cement and add 30 percent by weight or 90 gm of water to it.
• Mix water and cement thoroughly.
• Fill the mould of Vicat apparatus and the gauging time should be 3.75 to 4.25 minutes.
• Vicat apparatus consists of a needle is attached a movable rod with an indicator attached to it.
• There are three attachments: square needle, plunger and needle with annular collar.
• The plunger is attached to the movable rod. The plunger is gently lowered on the paste in the
mould.
• The settlement of plunger is noted. If the penetration is between 5 mm to 7 mm from the bottom
of mould, the water added is correct. If not process is repeated with different percentages of water
till the desired penetration is obtained.

Setting time
Initial setting time -It is the interval between the moment water is added to the cement, to the time
paste starts losing its plasticity. For OPC it should not be less than 30 minutes.

Final setting time - The time taken to reach the stage when the paste becomes a hard mass and can
sustain some minor load is known as the final setting time. it should not be more than 10 hours for
OPC

• This test is used to detect the deterioration of cement due to storage. The test is performed to find
out initial setting time and final setting time.
• Cement mixed with water and cement paste is filled in the Vicat mould.
• Square needle is attached to moving rod of Vicat apparatus.
• The needle is quickly released and it is allowed to penetrate the cement paste. In the beginning the
needle penetrates completely. The procedure is repeated at regular intervals till the needle does not
penetrate completely. (upto 5mm from bottom)
• Initial setting time =<30min for ordinary Portland cement and 60 min for low heat cement.
• The cement paste is prepared as above and it is filled in the Vicat mould.
• The needle with annular collar is attached to the moving rod of the Vicat apparatus.
• The needle is gently released. The time at which the needle makes an impression on test block and
the collar fails to do so is noted.
• Final setting time is the difference between the time at which water was added to cement and time
as recorded in previous step, and it is =<10hours.

Soundness
• The purpose of this test is to detect the presence of uncombined lime in the cement.
• The cement paste is prepared.
• The mould is placed and it is filled by cement paste.
• It is covered at top by another glass plate. A small weight is placed at top and the whole assembly
is submerged in water for 24 hours.
• The distance between the points of indicator is noted. The mould is again placed in water and heat
is applied in such a way that boiling point of water is reached in about 30 minutes. The boiling of
water is continued for one hour.
• The mould is removed from water and it is allowed to cool down.
• The distance between the points of indicator is again measured. The difference between the two
readings indicates the expansion of cement and it should not exceed 10 mm.

Tensile strength
• This test was formerly used to have an indirect indication of compressive strength of cement.
• The mortar of sand and cement is prepared.
• The water is added to the mortar.
• The mortar is placed in briquette moulds. The mould is filled with mortar and then a small heap of
mortar is formed at its top. It is beaten down by a standard spatula till water appears on the surface.
Same procedure is repeated for the other face of briquette.
• The briquettes are kept in a damp for 24 hours and carefully removed from the moulds.
• The briquettes are tested in a testing machine at the end of 3 and 7 days and average is found out.

CONCRETE

Concrete is a composite material composed mainly of water, aggregate, and cement. Often,
additives and reinforcements are included in the mixture to achieve the desired physical properties
of the finished material. When these ingredients are mixed together, they form a fluid mass that is
easily molded into shape. Over time, the cement forms a hard matrix which binds the rest of the
ingredients together into a durable stone-like material with many uses. The aim is to mix these
materials in measured amounts to make concrete that is easy to: Transport, place, compact, finish
and which will set, and harden, to give a strong and durable product. The amount of each material
(i.e. cement, water and aggregates) affects the properties of hardened concrete.

Production of concrete
A good quality concrete is essentially a homogeneous mixture of cement, coarse and fine
aggregates and water which consolidates into a hard mass due to chemical action between the
cement and water. Each of the four constituents has a specific function. The coarser aggregate acts
as a filler. The fine aggregate fills up the voids between the paste and the coarse aggregate. The
cement in conjunction with water acts as a binder. The mobility of the mixture is aided by the
cement paste, fines and nowadays, increasingly by the use of admixtures. The stages of concrete
production are: Batching or measurement of materials, Mixing, Transporting, Placing, Compacting,
Curing and Finishing.

WORKABILITY

Workability is one of the physical parameters of concrete which affects the strength and durability
as well as the cost of labor and appearance of the finished product. Concrete is said to be workable
when it is easily placed and compacted homogeneously i.e. without bleeding or Segregation.
Unworkable concrete needs more work or effort to be compacted in place, also honeycombs &/or
pockets may also be visible in finished concrete. Definition of Workability ―The property of fresh
concrete which is indicated by the amount of useful internal work required to fully compact the
concrete without bleeding or segregation in the finished product.‖

Factors affecting workability:

• Water content in the concrete mix

• Amount of cement & its Properties
• Aggregate Grading (Size Distribution)
• Nature of Aggregate Particles (Shape, Surface Texture, Porosity etc.)
 • Temperature of the concrete mix
• Humidity of the environment
• Mode of compaction
• Method of placement of concrete
• Method of transmission of concrete

How to improve the workability of concrete

• Increase water/cement ratio

• Increase size of aggregate

• Use well-rounded and smooth aggregate instead of irregular shape

• Increase the mixing time

• Increase the mixing temperature

• Use non-porous and saturated aggregate

• With addition of air-entraining mixtures

Workability tests of concrete

Following are the tests for the workability test

1. Slump test,

2. Compacting factor test,

3. Vee bee test

RECOMMENDED SLUMP VALUES FOR VARIOUS CONCRETE WORKS

Recommend slump in mm
Type of Construction
Minimum Maximum

Pavements 25 50

Mass concrete structure 25 50

Unreinforced footings 25 75

Caissons and bridge decks 25 75

Reinforced foundation, footings and walls 50 100

Reinforced slabs and beams 30 125

Columns 75 125
QUALITY OF MIXING WATER IN CONCRETE

Function of Water in Concrete:

Water serves the following purpose:
1. To wet the surface of aggregates to develop adhesion because the cement pastes adheres quickly
and satisfactory to the wet surface of the aggregates than to a dry surface.
2. To prepare a plastic mixture of the various ingredients and to impart workability to concrete to
facilitate placing in the desired position and
3. Water is also needed for the hydration of the cementing materials to set and harden during the
period of curing.
The quantity of water in the mix plays a vital role on the strength of the concrete. Some water
which have adverse effect on hardened concrete. Sometimes may not be harmless or even beneficial
during mixing. So clear distinction should be made between the effect on hardened concrete and the
quality of mixing water.

Determination of Suitability of Mixing Water:

A simple way of determining the suitability of such water is to compare the setting time of cement
and the strength of mortar cubes using the water in question with the corresponding results obtained
using known suitable or distilled water. About 10% tolerance is generally allowed. Such tests are
recommended when water for which no service record is available containing dissolved solids in
excess of 2000 ppm or, in excess of 1000 ppm.

Quality Parameters Maximum Limit (ppm)

Chlorides 500
SO3 1000
Alkali Carbonates and Bicarbonates 1000
Turbidity 2000
The effect on concreting for different types of contamination or impurities is described below:

Suspended Solids: Mixing water which high content of suspended solids should be allowed to
stand in a setting basing before use as it is undesirable to introduce large quantities of clay and slit
into the concrete.

Acidity and Alkalinity: Natural water that are slightly acidic are harmless, but presence of humic or
other organic acids may result adverse affect over the hardening of concrete. Water which is highly
alkaline should also be tested.

Algae: The presence of algae in mixing water causes air entrainments with a consequent loss of
strength. The green or brown slime forming algae should be regarded with suspicion and such water
should be tested carefully.

Sea Water: Sea water contains a total salinity of about 3.5%(78% of the dissolved solids being
NaCl and 15% MgCl2 and MgSO4), which produces a slightly higher early strength but a lower
long-term strength. The loss of strength is usually limited to 15% and can therefore be tolerated. Sea
water reduces the initial setting time of cement but do not effect final setting time.
Chloride: Water containing large amount of chlorides tends to cause persistent dampness and
surface efflorescence. The presence of chlorides in concrete containing embedded steel can lead to
its corrosion.

Moisture Content of Aggregate: Aggregate usually contains some surface moisture. Coarse
aggregate rarely contains more than 1% of surface moisture but fine aggregate can contain in excess
of 10%. This water can represent a substantial proportion of the total mixing water indicating a
significant importance in the quality of the water that contributes surface moisture in aggregate.

VIBRATION OF CONCRETE:

Concrete pours easily, but unless some means of compaction is employed, the pour will contain
hundreds or even thousands of air-bubbles that substantially weaken it. The usual solution -- which,
in many instances, is also a building code requirement -- is concrete vibration. The consolidation of
the concrete and elimination of air bubbles by vigorously shaking the freshly poured concrete with a
mechanical vibrator.
The three common ways of vibrating a concrete pour are

1. Form Vibration: external electric or air-driven concrete vibrators are mounted to the exterior
of the form work. For larger pours, the external form vibrators are often spaced 6' apart.
2. Surface Vibration: Large vibrators (sometimes called "jumpers") are directed manually onto
the surface of the pour. They are limited in terms of pour depth - often the consolidation
process is ineffective when the slab is more than six inches deep - but they also provide a
smooth surface, which is especially desirable when appearance is an issue.
3. Internal Vibration: Internal vibrators are most often used. Many can be handled by a single
operator. The process is relatively simple: the worker quickly jams the internal vibrator -
again, either electric or pneumatic -- down into the wet concrete, then slowly withdraws it.

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Introduction
The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their relative amounts
with the objective of producing a concrete of the required, strength, durability, and workability as
economically as possible, is termed the concrete mix design. The proportioning of ingredient of
concrete is governed by the required performance of concrete in 2 states, namely the plastic and the
hardened states. If the plastic concrete is not workable, it cannot be properly placed and compacted.
The property of workability, therefore, becomes of vital importance.

The compressive strength of hardened concrete which is generally considered to be an index of its
other properties, depends upon many factors, e.g. quality and quantity of cement, water and
aggregates; batching and mixing; placing, compaction and curing. The cost of concrete is made up
of the cost of materials, plant and labour. The variations in the cost of materials arise from the fact
that the cement is several times costly than the aggregate, thus the aim is to produce as lean a mix
as possible. From technical point of view the rich mixes may lead to high shrinkage and cracking in
the structural concrete, and to evolution of high heat of hydration in mass concrete which may
cause cracking.

Types of Mixes

1. Nominal Mixes: In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement,
fine and coarse aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which ensures adequate
strength are termed nominal mixes. These offer simplicity and under normal circumstances, have a
margin of strength above that specified. However, due to the variability of mix ingredients the
nominal concrete for a given workability varies widely in strength.

2. Standard mixes: The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in
strength and may result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the minimum compressive
strength has been included in many specifications. These mixes are termed standard mixes. IS 456-
2000 has designated the concrete mixes into a number of grades as M10, M15, M20, M25, M30,
M35 and M40. In this designation the letter M refers to the mix and the number to the specified 28
2
day cube strength of mix in N/mm . The mixes of grades M10, M15, M20 and M25 correspond
approximately to the mix proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2) respectively.

3. Designed Mixes: In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but
the mix proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the minimum cement
content can be laid down. This is most rational approach to the selection of mix proportions with
specific materials in mind possessing more or less unique characteristics. The approach results in
the production of concrete with the appropriate properties most economically. However, the
designed mix does not serve as a guide since this does not guarantee the correct mix proportions for
the prescribed performance.

For the concrete with undemanding performance nominal or standard mixes (prescribed in
the codes by quantities of dry ingredients per cubic meter and by slump) may be used only for very
2
small jobs, when the 28-day strength of concrete does not exceed 30 N/mm . No control testing is
necessary reliance being placed on the masses of the ingredients.

GRADE AND STRENGTH OF CONCRETE:

Concrete is represented in the form of concrete grades. i.e. M15, M20, M25, which is known as
concrete grades. In the term M15 ‗M‘ refers to the mix design of concrete and ‗15‘ refers to the
cube compressive strength of concrete after 28 days of curing. From the concrete grades the
proportion of different aggregates such as cement: sand: coarse aggregate. Some of the concrete
grades and their strength are given below.
 2
Grade of concrete Strength of concrete (N/mm )

M15 15

M20 20

M25 25

M30 30

M35 35

MORTAR
Mortar is a workable paste used to bind building blocks such as stones, bricks, and concrete
masonry units together, fill and seal the irregular gaps between them, and sometimes add decorative
colors or patterns in masonry walls. In its broadest sense mortar includes pitch, asphalt, and soft
mud or clay, such as used between mud bricks.
Cement mortar becomes hard when it cures, resulting in a rigid aggregate structure; however the
mortar is intended to be weaker than the building blocks and the sacrificial element in the masonry,
because the mortar is easier and less expensive to repair than the building blocks. Mortars are
typically made from a mixture of sand, a binder, and water. The most common binder is Portland
cement but lime mortar is still used in some new construction. Lime and gypsum in the form of
plaster of Paris are used particularly in the repair and repainting of buildings and structures because
it is important the repair materials are similar to the original materials: The type and ratio of the
repair mortar is determined by a mortar analysis. There are several types of cement mortars and
additives.
Ingredients of mortar:
Followings are the ingredients used in the mortar.
1. Cement
2. Sand
3. Water
 CHAPTER IV: FOUNDATION

The foundations of the building transfer the weight of the building to the ground. While 'foundation'
is a general word, normally, every building has a number of individual foundations, commonly
called footings. Usually each column of the building will have its own footing.

Since the weight of the building rests on the soil (or rock), engineers have to study the properties of
the soil very carefully to ensure that it can carry the loads imposed by the building. It is common for
engineers to determine the safe bearing capacity of the soil after such study. As the name suggests,
this is the amount of weight per unit area the soil can bear. For example, the safe bearing capacity
(SBC) at a location could be 20 T/m2, or tonnes per square metre.

This capacity also changes at different depths of soil. In general, the deeper one digs, the greater the
SBC, unless there are pockets of weak soil in the earth. To properly support a building, the soil
must be very firm and strong. It is common for the soil near the surface of the earth to be loose and
weak. If a building is rested on this soil, it will sink into the earth like a ship in water. Building
contractors will usually dig until they reach very firm, strong, soil that cannot be dug up easily
before constructing a foundation.

Type of foundation
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

Shallow foundations are also called spread footings or open footings. The 'open' refers to the fact
that the foundations are made by first excavating all the earth till the bottom of the footing, and then
constructing the footing. During the early stages of work, the entire footing is visible to the eye, and
is therefore called an open foundation. The idea is that each footing takes the concentrated load of
the column and spreads it out over a large area, so that the actual weight on the soil does not exceed
the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
There are several kinds of shallow footings: individual footings, strip footings and raft foundations.

ISOLATED FOOTINGS

Individual footings awaiting concreting of the footing column. Individual footings are one of the
most simple and common types of foundations. These are used when the load of the building is
carried by columns. Usually, each column will have its own footing. The footing is just a square or
rectangular pad of concrete on which the column sits. To get a very rough idea of the size of the
footing, the engineer will take the total load on the column and divide it by the safe bearing capacity
(SBC) of the soil. For example, if a column has a vertical load of 10T, and the SBC of the soil is
10T/m2, then the area of the footing will be 1m2. In practice, the designer will look at many other
factors before preparing a construction design for the footing.

Individual footings connected by a plinth beam. Note that the footings have been cast on top
of beds of plain cement concrete (PCC), which has been done to create a level, firm base for the
footing.

STRIP FOOTINGS

Strip footings are commonly found in load-bearing masonry construction, and act as a long strip
that supports the weight of an entire wall. These are used where the building loads are carried by
entire walls rather than isolated columns, such as in older buildings made of masonry.

RAFT OR MAT FOUNDATIONS

Raft Foundations, also called Mat Foundations, are most often used when basements are to be
constructed. In a raft, the entire basement floor slab acts as the foundation; the weight of the
building is spread evenly over the entire footprint of the building. It is called a raft because the
building is like a vessel that 'floats' in a sea of soil.

Mat Foundations are used where the soil is week, and therefore building loads have to be spread
over a large area, or where columns are closely spaced, which means that if individual footings
were used, they would touch each other.
DEEP FOUNDATIONS

PILE FOUNDATIONS

A pile is basically a long cylinder of a strong material such as concrete that is pushed into the
ground so that structures can be supported on top of it.

Pile foundations are used in the following situations:

1. When there is a layer of weak soil at the surface. This layer cannot support the weight of the
building, so the loads of the building have to bypass this layer and be transferred to the layer
of stronger soil or rock that is below the weak layer.

2. When a building has very heavy, concentrated loads, such as in a high rise structure. Pile
foundations are capable of taking higher loads than spread footings.There are two types of
pile foundations, each of which works in its own way.

End Bearing Piles

In end bearing piles, the bottom end of the pile rests on a layer of especially strong soil or rock. The
load of the building is transferred through the pile onto the strong layer. In a sense, this pile acts
like a column. The key principle is that the bottom end rests on the surface which is the intersection
of a weak and strong layer. The load therefore bypasses the weak layer and is safely transferred to
the strong layer.

Friction Piles
Friction piles work on a different principle. The pile transfers the load of the building to the soil
across the full height of the pile, by friction. In other words, the entire surface of the pile, which is
cylindrical in shape, works to transfer the forces to the soil. In practice, however, each pile resists
load by a combination of end bearing and friction.
 CHAPTER V: STONE MASONRY

Definition:

The art of building a structure in stone with any suitable masonry is called stone masonry.

Types of Stone Masonry:

Stone masonry may be broadly classified into the following two types:

1. Rubble Masonry

2. Ashlar Masonry

1. Rubble Masonry:

The stone masonry in which either undressed or roughly dressed stone are laid in a suitable mortar
is called rubble masonry. In this masonry the joints are not of uniform thickness. Rubble masonry is
further sub-divided into the following three types:

1. Random rubble masonry

2. Squared rubble masonry

3. Dry rubble masonry

RANDOM RUBBLE MASONRY: The rubble masonry in which either undressed or hammer
dressed stones are used is called random rubble masonry. Further random rubble masonry is also

divided into the following three types:

Random rubble Masonary (Uncoursed & coursed)

Suitability: Used for construction of residential buildings, go downs, boundary walls etc.

SQUARED RUBBLE MASONRY: The rubble masonry in which the face stones are squared on
all joints and beds by hammer dressing or chisel dressing before their actual laying, is called
squared rubble masonry.
 Coursed Square rubble masonry & Un-coursed square rubble masonry

DRY RUBBLE MASONRY: The rubble masonry in which stones are laid without using any
mortar is called dry rubble masonry or sometimes shortly as "dry stones". It is an ordinary masonry
and is recommended for constructing walls of height not more than 6m. In case the height is more,
three adjacent courses are laid in squared rubble masonry mortar at 3m intervals.

2. Ashlar masonry:

The stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are laid in cement or lime mortar is known as
ashlars masonry. In this masonry are the courses are of uniform height, all the joints are regular,
thin and have uniform thickness. This type of masonry is much costly as it requires dressing of
stones. Suitability: This masonry is used for heavy structures, architectural buildings, high piers
and abutments of bridges.

Ashlar fine masonry Ashlar rough

Ashlars masonry is further sub divided into the following types:

1. Ashlars fine or coarsed masonry

2. Random coarse ashlars masonry

3. Rough tooled ashlar masonry

4. Rock or quarry faced ashlars masonry

5. Chamfered ashlars masonry

6. Block in coarse masonry

7. Ashlar facing

Ashlar fine or coursed ashlar masonry: In this type of stone masonry stone blocks of same height
in each course are used. Every stone is fine tooled on all sides. Thickness of mortar is uniform
throughout. It is an expensive type of stone masonry as it requires heavy labor and wastage of
material while dressing. Satisfactory bond can be obtained in this type of stone masonry.

Random coursed ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry consists of fine or coursed ashlar
but the courses are of varying thick nesses, depending upon the character of the building.

Rough tooled ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry the sides of the stones are rough
tooled and dressed with chisels. Thickness of joints is uniform, which does not exceed 6mm.

Rock or quarry faced ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry is similar to rough tooled type
except that there is chisel-drafted margin left rough on the face which is known as quarry faced.

Chamfered ashlar masonry: It is similar to quarry faced except that the edges are beveled or
chamfered to 450 for depth of 2.5 cm or more. Block-in course masonry: It is the name given to a
class of ashlar masonry which occupies an intermediate place between rubble and ashlars. The
stones are all squared and properly dressed. It resembles to coursed rubble masonry or rough tooled
ashlar masonry.

Ashlar facing: Ashlar facing is the best type of ashlars masonry. Since this is type of masonry is
very expensive, it is not commonly used throughout the whole thickness of the wall, except in
works of great importance and strength. For economy the facing are built in ashlars and the rest in
rubble.
 CHAPTER VI: BRICK MASONRY

This bond is weak in strength but it is economical Brick masonry is made up of brick units bonded
together with mortar
Components of brick masonry
8. Brick
9. Mortar

Types of mortar
10. Cement mortar
11. Lime mortar
12. Cement-lime mortar
13. Lime surkhi mortar
14. Mud mortar

Types of bricks
1. Traditional bricks
2. Modular bricks

Traditional bricks
It has not been standardize in size Dimensions varies from place to place Thickness varies from
varies from cm to 7.5cm,width varies from 10to13 cm and length varies from 20to25 cm

Modular brick
Any brick which is the same uniform size as laid down by BIS. The nominal size of the modular
brick is 20cm x10cmx10cm Actual size is 19x9x9

Bonds in brick work

Stretcher bond
Header bond
English bond
Flemish bond
Facing bond
English crossing bond
Brick on edge bond
Dutch bond
Racking bond
Zigzag bond
Garden wall bond

Stretcher bond
The length of the brick its along with the face of the wall. This pattern is used only for those wall
which have thickness of half brick.
Header bond
The width of the bricks are thus along the direction of the wall This pattern is used only when the
thickness of the wall is equal to one brick

English bond
It is the most commonly used method. This bond is considered to be the strongest This bond consist
of alternate course of stretchers and headers Alternative courses will show either headers or
stretchers in elevation There is not vertical joint Every alternative header come centrally over the
joint between two stretchers in curse in below Since the number of vertical joint in the header
course twice the number of vertical joints in stretcher course ,the joints in the header course are
made thinner than the joints in the stretcher course

FLEMISH BOND
Inthis type of course is comprised of alternative headers and stretchers

Double Flemish bond

Every course consist of headers and stretchers placed alternatively
The facing and backing of the wall in each course have the same appearance

Single Flemish bond

Single Flemish bond is comprised of double Flemish bond facing an English bond backing and
hearting in each course
Facing bond

This bond is used where the bricks of different thickness are to be used in the facing and backing of
the wall The nominal thickness of facing brick is 10 cm and that of backing bricks is 9 cm the
header course is provided at a vertical interval of 90 cm

English cross bond

This is the modification of English bond to improve the appearance e of the wall Brick on edge
bond.
 CHAPTER VII: ROOF

A roof is part of a building envelope. It is the covering on the uppermost part of a building or
shelter which provides protection from animals and weather, notably rain or snow, but also heat,
wind and sunlight. The word also denotes the framing or structure which supports that covering.

TYPES OF ROOFS
The most commonly used types of pitched roof construction are the gable, the hip, the intersecting,
and the shed (or lean-to).

Gable
A gable roof has a ridge at the center and slopes in two directions. It is the form most commonly
used by the Navy. It is simple in design, economical to construct, and can be used on any type of
structure.

Hip
The hip roof has four sloping sides. It is the strongest type of roof because it is braced by four hip
rafters. These hip rafters run at a 45° angle from each corner of the building to the ridge. A
disadvantage of the hip roof is that it is more difficult to construct than a gable roof other types and
requires more time and labor to construct.

Shed
The shed roof, or lean-to, is a roof having only one slope, or pitch. It is used where large buildings
are framed under one roof, where hasty or temporary construction is needed, and where sheds or
additions are erected. The roof is held up by walls or posts where one wall or the posts on one side
are at a higher level than those on the opposite side.

Gabble roof
Shed roof
 CHAPTER VIII: FLOOR

A floor is the bottom surface of a room. Floors vary from simple dirt in a cave to many-layered
surfaces modern technology. Floors may be stone, wood, bamboo, metal, or any other material that
can support the expected load.

TYPES OF FLOOR
1. Bricks or interlocking tiles flooring
2. Cement concrete floor
3. Marble chips or crazy marble flooring
4. Readymade marble tiles flooring
5. Glazed tiles flooring
6. Kota stone, Agra stones etc stone flooring
7. Wooden flooring

Bricks or interlocking of tiles flooring

High quality materials should be used. If mortar is not used or even subgrade in lower surface, thick
layer of sand is spread, and joints with space 6 mm wide are filled with sand. Normally brick
flooring is done as harry bonding in which joints are not continuous.

Cement concrete flooring

Monolithical cement concrete flooring
Due to technical reason any flooring of cement concrete should not be laid together. In this type of
flooring, the surface is divided into rectangular panels. Alternate panels are laid first. Before
concreting in panels, cement slurry is used.

Heavy duty concrete flooring:

This type of flooring is made for railway platform or where heavy machines are used. In this,
flooring base is 50 mm and total thickness is 125-150 mm.

Marble chips or crazy marble flooring

There are three parts of flooring: Base concrete, under layer and topping. This types of flooring is
just like the cement concrete, except that toping layer is made of marble chips and cement of ratio
1: 1 ½ or 1: 2. To avoid cracks, partitions are made of not more than 25 gm size. Lower layer made
of 30 to 40 mm size aggregate of 1: 2: 4 cement sand and aggregate. Glass or aluminium stripes are
used for partition from lower layer to upper top layer.

Readymade marble tile flooring

Readymade marble tiles are available in market. For this flooring, firstly subgrade is prepared and
then on the mortar, tiles are laid. Mortar surface is prepared with 1:6 ratios of cement and sand. The
thickness of mortar is 20 mm.

Glazed tiles flooring, skirting and dedo

Glazed tiles, skirting and dedo are made on sub grade with thickness 13 mm by cement and sand in
the ratio of 1: 3. These are following types of glazed tile, vitrified, semi vitrified, or normal glazed
tiles. Vitrified tiles are of 10-12 mm thick in which upper layer is of 3-4 mm having long durability
and shining whereas semi vitrified are of medium quality.

Kota Stone Flooring

This is available in size of 600 × 600 mm which after dressing becomes of size 500 × 500 mm and
thickness 25-40 mm. Flooring is done in same manner as in tiles flooring except bed is made in 1: 4
ratio and bed thickness of 40 mm.
 CHAPTER IX: MISCELLANEOUS

AIRCONDITIONING

Ventilation duct with outlet vent. These are installed throughout a building to move air in or out of a
room. Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) is the technology of indoor and vehicular
environmental comfort. Its goal is to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality.

In mechanically ventilated commercial developments air conditioning is often provided by air

handling units (AHU) connected to ductwork that supplies air to and extracts air from internal
spaces. Alternatively, air handling units can be used to supply and extract air direct to a space. Air
handling units typically comprise an insulated box that might include some, or all of the following
components; filter racks or chambers, a fan (or blower), heating, cooling and dehumidification,
sound attenuators and dampers. Air handling units that consist of only a fan and a heating or cooling
element, located within the space they are serving, may be referred to as fan coil units (FCU).
Cooling itself can be generated either within the unit itself, or can be provided by connection to
central chillers.

FIRE PROTECTION AND VENTILATION SUSTEM OF A BUILDING

1. Objective

The objective of this requirement is, in the event of fire, to reduce air movement within the affected
fire compartment, i.e. to allow smoke to rise and form a layer at ceiling level which will not be
disturbed by the introduction of air into that smoke layer.

2. Applications

2.1 A ―ventilation / air-conditioning control system‖ shall be provided to a mechanical ventilating

system having air handling capacity exceeding 1 cubic metre per second or serving more than one
fire compartment, i.e. all the air distribution ductwork systems are not contained within the same
compartment;

2.2 For the purpose of this requirement, a mechanical ventilating system means any air moving
system, with the exceptions as listed in para. 2.3, utilizing both a fan and duct, to mechanically
force air into, around, or out of, any building or part thereof and includes systems which contain
devices for reducing or increasing the temperature and / or humidity of the air inside any building,
or part thereof, below or above the temperature and / or humidity of the external air for the purpose
of environmental control.
2.3 The following mechanical ventilating systems shall be exempted from these requirements:

(a) Any mechanical ventilating system forming part of the Fire Service Installations and installed
solely for fire protection or fire fighting purposes, i.e. Staircase Pressurization System and Smoke
Extraction System.

(b) Individual, self-contained or split-type, direct expansion room cooling units not connected to
ductwork systems.

(c) Mechanical ventilating systems solely for handling toxic gas, flammable gas or grease / air
mixtures, e.g. ventilating system for fume cupboard, exhaust system for cooking range, etc.

(d) Mechanical ventilating systems where all air is supplied at low level and / or extracted (not
recirculated) at high level.

(e) Individual plant rooms, and individual toilets which are mechanically ventilated directly (i.e.
ventilating system not serving other areas) to outside.

3. Control and Installation

3.1 Any one of the following methods of override control shall be used:-

(a) Method ―A‖ – If the fire compartment / unit is provided with a smoke detector automatic fire
alarm system, on activation of that system all fans serving the fire compartment shall be shut down.

(b) Method ―B‖ - Smoke detectors of a type suitable for use in air ducts (duct type smoke
detector), shall be installed in the exhaust and / or recirculation ductwork serving the fire
compartment / unit, which on sensing smoke, will automatically shut down all fans in the
mechanical ventilating system serving the fire compartment / unit.

(c) Method ―C‖ - The override control can be arranged to completely shut down all the fans in the
building instead of isolated compartments/units. The actuation shall be provided by the building fire
alarm system.

(d) Method ―D‖ – Shut down all the fans in the affected compartment by the actuation of smoke
detector(s) installed in suitable position under false ceiling at space of 250m2 of net floor area for
each detector.

3.2 For buildings where central mechanical fresh air supply and / or exhaust systems are installed,
either:

(a) The central fresh air supply and / or exhaust system shall be shut down; or

(b) The central fresh air supply and / or exhaust system shall not require to be shut down but the
fresh air and / or exhaust to the affected compartment / unit shall be closed off from the central
system by actuation of a local motorised smoke damper.
3.3 Shut down of the mechanical ventilating systems by utilizing a multiplex automatic fire alarm
or Building Automation System shall be permitted so long as the multiplex system is on the Fire
Services Department list for this type of equipment / system.

3.4 In addition to either one of the control methods mentioned in paragraph 3.1, manual override
switch shall be provided at the central fire control panel to allow the engineering staff of the
Building Operator, or the Fire Services Department personnel, to switch off the fans for all the
mechanical ventilating systems serving the building in the event of an emergency.

3.5 If the mechanical ventilating system of a ―licensed premises‖ is connected to the central exhaust
/ supply systems of the building, it may be accepted as an independent system provided that a fire
and smoke damper (F&SD) or a smoke damper (SD) as appropriate is installed at the
interconnection to the central exhaust / supply system(s). In the event of a fire inside the ―licensed
premises‖, the central exhaust / supply fan(s) are not required to be shut down but the F&SD / SD
shall be closed by a fire signal from the ―licensed premises‖. Under such circumstance, the
provision of a separate manual override switch at a location agreeable to the Director of Fire
Services may be accepted as an alternative to the manual override switch installed at the central fire
control panel for the ―licensed premises‖.

3.6 If the ―licensed premises‖ have their own mechanical ventilating system, the provision of a
manual override switch at a location agreeable to the Director of Fire Services may be accepted as
an alternative to the one installed at the central fire control panel of the building, provided that there
are specific reasons for such provision or difficulties to install a manual override switch at the
central fire control panel as accepted by the Director of Fire Services.
 SURVEYING
Surveying: To determine the relative position of a point on, above or below the surface of the earth
is called surveying.

- Survey point is called station point

- Line joining two station point is called survey line

Classification of surveying: based on instruments used in surveying

1) Chain survey: Type of surveying in which Measurement of line between two station point by
chain is called chain surveying.

2) compass survey: Types of survey in which measurement of survey line is done by chain or tape
and angle of survey line is done by compass

3)Theodolite survey : Types of surveying in which angle as well as horizontal as well as vertical
distance of survey line is done by theodolite.

Methods of Linear Surveying

Linear surveying methods can be broadly divided into three heads:
1. Direct measurement
2. Measurement by optical means
3. Electronic methods

Direct Measurement In this surveying method, distances are actually measured on the surface of
the earth by means of chains, tapes, etc.

Measurement by Optical Means:In this method, observations are taken through a telescope and
distances are determined by calculation as in tachometer or triangulation.

Electronic Methods: In these linear surveying methods, distances are measured with instruments
that rely on propagation, reflection and subsequent reception of either radio or light waves. The
various instruments that are used under the electronic methods are

CHAIN SURVEYING

INSTRUMENT FOR CHAIN SURVEYING

The following instruments are required for measurements with chain and tape:
Chain,Arrows Pegs Ranging rods and ranging poles, Plumb bobs, Tape

Arrows When the length of the line to be measured is more than a chain length, there is need to
mark the end of the chain length. Arrows are used for this purpose. A typical arrow is shown in
Arrows are made up of 4 mm diameter steel wire with one end sharpened and other end bent into a
loop. Length of an arrow is approximately 400 mm.

Pegs Wooden pegs are used in measuring a length of a line to mark the end points of the line. The
pegs are made of hard wood of 25 mm × 25 mm section, 150 mm long with one end tapered as
shown in Fig. 12.6. When driven in ground to mark station points they project about 40 mm.
Ranging Rods and Ranging Poles
For ranging intermediate points along the line to be measured, ranging rods and ranging poles are
used. Ranging rods are 2 to 3 m long and are made of hard wood. They are provided with iron shoe
at one end They are usually circular in section with 30 mm diameter and are painted with 200 mm
colour bands of red and white or with black and white. If distance is more than 200 m, for clear
visibility they may be provided with multicoloured flags at their top. The ranging rods are
occasionally used to measure short distances since they are painted with alternate colour of band
200 mm. Ranging poles are similar to ranging rods except that they are longer. Their length varies
from 4 m to 8 m and diameter from 60 mm to 100 mm. They are made of hard wood or steel. They
are fixed in the ground by making 0.5 m holes and then packed to keep them vertical.

Plumb Bob
A typical plumb bob is shown in Fig. 12.9. In measuring horizontal distances along sloping ground
plumb bobs are used to transfer the position to ground. They are also used to check the verticality of
ranging poles.

Tapes: Depending upon the materials used, they are classified as: (i) cloth or linen tape (ii) metallic
tape (iii) steel tape and (iv) invar tape.

Steel tape: A steel tape consists of 6 to 10 mm wide strip with metal ring at free end and wound in a
leather or corrosion resistant metal case. It is provided with a suitable winding device. Tapes are
marked indicating 5 mm, centimetres, decimetres and metres. The end 10 cm length is marked with
millimetres also. 10 m, 20 m, 30 m, or 50 m tapes are used in surveying. Figure 12.3 shows a
typical steel tape (Ref. Plate 12.1 also). Steel tapes are superior to metallic tapes as far as accuracy
is concerned. However they are delicate. Care should be taken to wipe clean before winding. They
should be oiled regularly to prevent corrosion.

Invar Tape: Invar is an alloy of nickel (36%) and steel. It‘s coefficient of thermal expansion is
low. Hence errors due to variation in temperature do not affect measurements much. The width of
tape is 6 mm. It is available in length 30 m, 50 m and 100 m. It is accurate but expensive.
Chain: Chains are formed of straight links of galvanised mild steel wire bent into rings at the ends
and joined by 3 circular or oval wire rings. Main purpose of rings is to provide flexibility to the
chains. Ends of the chains are provided with brass handle with swivel joint, so that chain can be
rolled and un-rolled without twisting and knots. Length of the chain is measured from end of one
handle to other.

RAINGING:
When a survey line is longer than a chain length, it is necessary to align intermediate points on
chain line so that the measurements are along the line. The process of locating intermediate points
on survey line is known as ranging. There are two methods of ranging viz., direct ranging and
reciprocal ranging.

Direct Ranging
If the first and last points are intervisible this method is possible. Figure 12.18 shows the
intervisible stations A and B in which an intermediate point C is to be located. Point C is selected at
a distance slightly less than a chain length. At points A and B ranging rods are fixed. The assistant
holds another ranging rod near C. Surveyor positions himself approximately 2 m behind station A
and looking along line AB directs the assistant to move at right angles to the line AB till he aligns
the ranging rod along AB. Then surveyor instructs the assistant to mark that point and stretch the
chain along AC.

Indirect or Reciprocal Levelling

Due to intervening ground, if the ranging rod at B is not visible from station A, reciprocal ranging
may be resorted. Figure 12.19 shows this scheme of ranging. It needs two assistants one at point M
and another at point N, where from those points both station A and station B are visible. It needs
one surveyor at A and another at B. To start with M and N are approximately selected, say M1 and
N1. Then surveyor near end A ranges person near M to position M2 such that AM2N1 are in a line.
Then surveyor at B directs person at N, to move to N2 such that BN2M2 are in a line. The process
is repeated till AMNB are in a line.
USE OF CHAIN AND TAPE FOR MEASUREMENT OF CURRECT LENGTH OF LINE.

If length of the chain used in measuring the length of the line is not equal to the true length, the
measure length of the line will not be correct and suitable correction will have to be applied. If the
chain is too long, the measure distance will be less the error will be there for be negative and
correction is positive.
Similarly if chain is too short, the measure distance will be more the error will be
positive and the correction will be negative.

CORRECTION OF THE LENGTH

L= true length of chain or tape
L‘=in correct length of chain or tape
l‘= measure length of line or actual length
l= true length of line
l= l‘ ( ′ )
Correction to the Area
a‘= measure area of the groung
a=true ara of the groung
then true area =measure area X ( ′ )^2

The length of a line measured with 20m chain was found to be 500m. It was subsequently
found that the chain was 0.04m too long. What is the length of line?

Correct length of chain, L‘ = 20 + 0.04 = 20.04m

Length, L = 20m
Measured length, = 500m
True length = (L‘/L) * measured length
= (20.04/20) * 500
= 501m

The length of survey line was measured with a 20m chain was found to be equal to 1200m. the
lenth was again measured with 25m chain and was found to be 1212m. on compareing the
20m chain with the test gauge it was found to be 1 decimeter too long .find the actual lenth of
the 25 m chain used.
With 20m chain:
Measured length of line by 20m chain l‘=1200m
Length of chain L=20m
Given chain is 1decimeter long
=1/10 long
=.1m long
Measured length or actual length of chain =L‘
L‘= 20+.1m =20.10m
l =l‘(L‘/L) = 1200x(20.10/20) = 1206m
With 25m chain:
Measured length is l‘=1212m
Correct length of line we got l =1206m
Length of chain L =25m
Actual length of chain(L‘)
l= l‘*(L‘/L) 1212= 1206 (L‘/25) L‘=24.88M

PRISMATIC-COMPASS: The prismatic compass is one of the magnetic compass in which there
is a prism for taking observations. The prismatic compass is generally smaller in size than a
surveyor compass. The prismatic compass is used to determine the whole circle bearing of the
lines.It is consists of 1.circular box, about 85 to 100 mm in diameter. The box is made up of brass or
a non metallic material. At the centre of the box there is a hard steel Pivot which supports the
magnetic needle. The needle used in a prismatic compass is board of form. The box is fitted with a
glass disc at its top.
When the compass is not in use, the box is covered with the brass disc. The prism when
carried on a mounting frame which can be raised or lowered for focusing of the prism. The image
of the graduations is viewed through a small circular aperture in the prism mounting. Just above the
aperture there is an narrow slit or a mall V-cut used as an eye vane. The object vane consists of a
metal frame hinged to the box. It has a vertical hair. The object vane is usually provided with a
hinged mirror so that the objects which are either too low or high can be sighted by inclining the
mirror. Dark colored glasses are provided near the eye vane which can be interposed between the
eye and the prism when sighting illuminous objects.
LOCAL ATTRACTION

This is a term denoting any local influence that causes the magnetic needle to be deflected
away from the magnetic meridian for that locality. This causes wrong measurements to be obtained.
Measuring both the forward and the back bearing helps to detect local attraction. Some sources of
local attraction are: permanently fixed objects of iron, steel and magnetite in the ground. Local
attraction includes iron and steel articles about the person. High-tension lines are known to
influence the needle of the compass and should be avoided where possible. Generally, the
o
difference between the forward bearing (FB) and the Back Bearing (BB) is equal to 180

OTHER SURVEYING EQUIPMENTS

Dumpy level Electronic Theodolite EDM

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASURING INSTRUMENT ((EDM)

Electronic distance measuring instrument is a surveying instrument for measuring distance

electronically between two points through electromagnetic waves. Electronic distance measurement
(EDM) is a method of determining the length between two points, using phase changes, that occur
as electromagnetic energy waves travels from one end of the line to the other end.

EDM or Electromagnetic distance measurement – The method of direct distance measurement

cannot be implemented in difficult terrains. When large obstructions exist, this method is avoided.
Above all the EDM with an accuracy of 1 in 105, having a distance range of 100km. Sun light or
artificially generated electromagnetic wave consists of waves of different lengths. The spectrum of
an electromagnetic wave is as shown below:

Among these waves microwaves, infrared waves and visible light waves are useful for the distance
measurement. In EDM instruments these waves are generated, modulated and then propagated.
They are reflected at the point up to which distance is to be measured from the instrument station
and again received by the instrument. The time taken by the wave to travel this 2x distance may be
measured and knowing the velocity of wave, the distance may be calculated. However time is too
short, measuring the time taken is difficult. The improved techniques use phase difference method
in which the number of completed wave and incomplete wave is measured. Knowing the length of
wave, distances are calculated.

Types of Electronic Distance Measurement Instrument

EDM instruments are classified based on the type of carrier wave as

1. Microwave instruments
2. Infrared wave instruments
3. Light wave instruments.

1. Microwave Instruments
These instruments make use of microwaves. Such instruments were invented as early as 1950 in
South Africa by Dr. T.L. Wadley and named them as Tellurometers. The instrument needs only 12
to 24 V batteries. Hence they are light and highly portable. Tellurometers can be used in day as well
as in night.The range of these instruments is up to 100 km. It consists of two identical units. One
unit is used as master unit and the other as remote unit. Just by pressing a button, a master unit can
be converted into a remote unit and a remote unit into a master unit. It needs two skilled persons to
operate. A speech facility is provided to each operator to interact during measurements.

2. Infrared Wave Instruments

In this instrument amplitude modulated infrared waves are used. Prism reflectors are used at the end
of line to be measured. These instruments are light and economical and can be mounted on
theodolite. With these instruments accuracy achieved is ± 10 mm. The range of these instruments is
up to 3 km.
3. Visible Light Wave Instruments
These instruments rely on propagation of modulated light waves. This type of instrument was first
developed in Sweden and was named as Geodimeter. During night its range is up to 2.5 km while in
day its range is up to 3 km. Accuracy of these instruments varies from 0.5 mm to 5 mm/km
distance. These instruments are also very useful for civil engineering projects.

TOTAL STATION

Total station is a surveying equipment combination of Electromagnetic Distance Measuring

Instrument and electronic Theodolite. The instrument can be used to measure horizontal and
vertical angles as well as sloping distance of object to the instrument.

Capability of a Total Station:

Microprocessor unit in total station processes the data collected to compute:
1. Average of multiple angles measured.
2. Average of multiple distance measured.
3. Horizontal distance.
4. Distance between any two points.
5. Elevation of objects and
6. All the three coordinates of the observed points.

Data collected and processed in a Total Station can be downloaded to computers for further
processing. Total station is a compact instrument and weighs 50 to 55 N. A person can easily carry
it to the field. Total stations with different accuracy, in angle measurement and different range of
measurements are available in the market.

Brief Description of Important Operations of Total Station:

Distance Measurement:
Electronic distance measuring (EDM) instrument is a major part of total station. Its range varies
from 2.8 km to 4.2 km. The accuracy of measurement varies from 5 mm to 10 mm per km
measurement. They are used with automatic target recognizer. The distance measured is always
sloping distance from instrument to the object. Angle Measurements: The electronic theodolite part
of total station is used for measuring vertical and horizontal angle. For measurement of horizontal
angles any convenient direction may be taken as reference direction. For vertical angle
measurement vertical upward (zenith) direction is taken as reference direction. The accuracy of
angle measurement varies from 2 to 6 seconds.

Data Processing :
This instrument is provided with an inbuilt microprocessor. The microprocessor averages multiple
observations. With the help of slope distance and vertical and horizontal angles measured, when
height of axis of instrument and targets are supplied, the microprocessor computes the horizontal
distance and X, Y, Z coordinates. The processor is capable of applying temperature and pressure
corrections to the measurements, if atmospheric temperature and pressures are supplied.

Display:
Electronic display unit is capable of displaying various values when respective keys are pressed.
The system is capable of displaying horizontal distance, vertical distance, horizontal and vertical
angles, difference in elevations of two observed points and all the three coordinates of the observed
points.

Electronic Book:Each point data can be stored in an electronic note book (like compact disc). The
capacity of electronic note book varies from 2000 points to 4000 points data. Surveyor can unload
the data stored in note book to computer and reuse the note book.

Use of Total Station

The total station instrument is mounted on a tripod and is levelled by operating levelling
screws. Within a small range instrument is capable of adjusting itself to the level position. Then
vertical and horizontal reference directions are indexed using onboard keys. It is possible to set
required units for distance, temperature and pressure (FPS or SI). Surveyor can select measurement
mode like fine, coarse, single or repeated.

When target is sighted, horizontal and vertical angles as well as sloping distances are
measured and by pressing appropriate keys they are recorded along with point number. Heights of
instrument and targets can be keyed in after measuring them with tapes. Then processor computes
various information about the point and displays on screen.

This information is also stored in the electronic notebook. At the end of the day or whenever
electronic note book is full, the information stored is downloaded to computers.
The point data downloaded to the computer can be used for further processing. There are software
like auto civil and auto plotter clubbed with AutoCad which can be used for plotting contours at any
specified interval and for plotting cross-section along any specified line.

Advantages of Using Total Stations

The following are some of the major advantages of using total station over the conventional
surveying instruments:
1. Field work is carried out very fast.
2. Accuracy of measurement is high.
3. Manual errors involved in reading and recording are eliminated.
4. Calculation of coordinates is very fast and accurate.
 MODULE IV B: TRANSPORTATION

INTRODUCTION

From the beginning of history, human sensitivity has revealed an urge for mobility leading to a
measure of Society's progress. The history of this mobility or transport is the history of civilization.
For any country to develop with right momentum modern and efficient Transport as a basic
infrastructure is a must. Transport (British English) or transportation (American English) is the
movement of people and goods from one place to another.

Modes of Transport

Planning and design aspects of transportation engineering

The planning aspects of transportation engineering relate to elements of urban planning, and involve
technical forecasting decisions and political factors. Technical forecasting of passenger travel
usually involves an urban transportation planning model, requiring the estimation of trip generation
(how many trips for what purpose), trip distribution (destination choice, where is the traveler
going), mode choice (what mode is being taken), and route assignment (which streets or routes are
being used). More sophisticated forecasting can include other aspects of traveler decisions,
including auto ownership, trip chaining (the decision to link individual trips together in a tour) and
the choice of residential or business location (known as land use forecasting). Passenger trips are
the focus of transportation engineering because they often represent the peak of demand on any
transportation system.
Before any planning occurs the Engineer must take what is known as an inventory of the area or if
it is appropriate, the previous system in place. This inventory or database must include information
on (1)population, (2)land use, (3)economic activity, (4)transportation facilities and services,
(5)travel patterns and volumes, (6)laws and ordinances, (7)regional financial resources,
(8)community values and expectations. These inventories help the engineer create business models
to complete accurate forecasts of the future conditions of the system review.

Transport design
Transport engineers face multi-faceted design decisions when they are designing optimized
transport infrastructure networks. These might relate to:
 The physical expansion of transport facilities, such as lane width or the number of lanes, for a
roadway

 The materials and thickness used in pavements

 The geometry of a facility, such as a roadway, rail line or airport

 Road pricing schemes

 Deploying information-based technology.
In all design decisions, multiple performance measures, cost metrics and safety criteria must be
considered and weighed.

Transport operations
Transport operations, whether for road, rail, port or air traffic, are designed to minimise travel
delays, improve safety, reduce emissions and enhance reliability, as well as taking other
considerations into account.
Transport operation decisions involve:
 Optimizing traffic signals

 Setting specific tolls

 Designing traffic signs and markings.
With the development of new Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), transport engineers use
tools including advanced traveller information systems (such as variable message signs), advanced
traffic control systems (such as ramp meters) and vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communications to
optimize the performance of the transport system.
Highway engineering:

Highway engineering is an engineering discipline branching from civil engineering that involves the
planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of roads, bridges, and tunnels to ensure
safe and effective transportation of people and goods. Highway engineers must take into account
future traffic flows, design of highway intersections/interchanges, geometric alignment and design,
highway pavement materials and design, structural design of pavement thickness, and pavement
maintenance.

The most appropriate location, alignment, and shape of a highway are selected during the design
stage. Highway design involves the consideration of three major factors (human, vehicular, and
roadway) and how these factors interact to provide a safe highway.

Human factors include reaction time for braking and steering, visual acuity for traffic signs and
signals, and car-following behaviour. Vehicle considerations include vehicle size and dynamics that
are essential for determining lane width and maximum slopes, and for the selection of design
vehicles.

Highway engineers design road geometry to ensure stability of vehicles when negotiating curves
and grades and to provide adequate sight distances for undertaking passing maneuvers along curves
on two-lane, two-way roads.

Railway engineering:

It is a branch of civil engineering concerned with the design, construction, maintenance, and
operation of railways. Railway engineering includes elements of civil, mechanical, industrial, and
electrical engineering. Railway engineers handle the design, construction, and operation of railroads
and mass transit systems that use a fixed guideway (such as light rail or even monorails). Typical
tasks would include determining horizontal and vertical alignment design, station location and
design, construction cost estimating, and establishment of signaling & controlling system. Railroad
engineers can also move into the specialized field of train dispatching which focuses on train
movement control.Railway engineers also work to build a cleaner and safer transportation network
by reinvesting and revitalizing the rail system to meet future demands.
 Component parts of railway track

Airport engineering:

Airport engineers design and construct airports. Airport engineers must account for the impacts and
demands of aircraft in their design of airport facilities. These engineers must use the analysis of
predominant wind direction to determine runway orientation, determine the size of runway border
and safety areas, different wing tip to wing tip clearances for all gates and must designate the clear
zones in the entire port.

An airport system plan is a representation of the aviation facilities required to meet the immediate
and future needs of a metropolitan area, region, state, or country. The system plan presents the
recommendations for the general location and characteristics of new airports and heliports and the
nature of expansion for existing ones to meet forecasts of aggregate demand. It identifies the
aviation role of existing and recommended new airports and facilities. It includes the timing and
estimated costs of development and relates airport system planning to the policy and objectives of
the relevant jurisdiction. Its overall purpose is to determine the extent, type, nature, location, and
timing of airport development needed to establish a viable, balanced, and integrated system of
airports. It also provides the basis for detailed airport planning such as that contained in the airport
master plan. The airport system plan provides both broad and specific policies, plans, and programs
required to establish a viable and integrated system of airports to meet the needs of the region. The
objectives of the system plan include:
1. The orderly and timely development of a system of airports adequate to meet present and future
aviation needs and to promote the desired pattern of regional growth relative to industrial,
employment, social, environmental, and recreational goals.
2. The development of aviation to meet its role in a balanced and multimodal transportation system
to foster the overall goals of the area as reflected in the transportation system plan and
comprehensive development plan.
3. The protection and enhancement of the environment through the location and expansion of
aviation facilities in a manner which avoids ecological and environmental impairment.
4. The provision of the framework within which specific airport programs may be developed
consistent with the short- and long-range airport system requirements.
5. The implementation of land-use and airspace plans which optimize these resources in an often
constrained environment.
6. The development of long-range fiscal plans and the establishment of priorities for airport
financing within the governmental budgeting process.
The elements in a typical airport system planning process include the following:
1. Exploration of issues that impact aviation in the study area
2. Inventory of the current system
3. Identification of air transportation needs
4. Forecast of system demand
5. Consideration of alternative airport systems
6. Definition of airport roles and policy strategies
7. Recommendation of system changes, funding strategies, and airport development
8. Preparation of an implementation plan

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Traffic engineering is a branch of civil engineering that uses engineering techniques to achieve the
safe and efficient movement of people and goods on roadways. It focuses mainly on research for
safe and efficient traffic flow, such as road geometry, sidewalks and crosswalks, cycling
infrastructure, traffic signs, road surface markings and traffic lights. Traffic engineering deals with
the functional part of transportation system, except the infrastructures provided.
Typical traffic engineering projects involve designing traffic control device installations and
modifications, including traffic signals, signs, and pavement markings. However, traffic engineers
also consider traffic safety by investigating locations with high crash rates and developing
countermeasures to reduce crashes. Traffic flow management can be short-term (preparing
construction traffic control plans, including detour plans for pedestrian and vehicular traffic) or
long-term (estimating the impacts of proposed commercial developments on traffic patterns).
Increasingly, traffic problems are being addressed by developing systems for intelligent
transportation systems, often in conjunction with other engineering disciplines, such as computer
engineering and electrical engineering.
Traffic engineering is closely associated with other disciplines:
 Transport engineering
Pavement engineering
Bicycle transportation engineering
Highway engineering
Transportation planning
Urban planning
Human factors engineering.


Urban planning:

Transportation Engineering and Urban Planning are closely related fields. Transportation
engineering deals with the planning, design, construction, and operation of transportation systems,
while urban planning is concerned with broader issues that are related with transportation. These
issues include land use, environment, economic development, community housing and
development, urban design, and other social, economic and political issues at the local, region, state
and national level. Given the increased complexity and interconnection of the issues engineers and
planners address, there is a great need for engineers to understand planning issues and planners to
grasp engineering principles and skills. People trained in both fields are in high demand.