D R A F T

Syllabus 021-025
Physics for Science and Engineering Students
Laboratory III

Instructor: TBA
Office Hours:TBA

TA: TBA
Office Hours:TBA

Description: 021-023, 024, 025. General Physics for Science and Engineering Students
1, 2, & 3. Lab. 1 cr. ea. Laboratory courses to accompany introductory
physics courses 021-013, 014 and Introduction to Modern Physics 021-
015 respectively.

Physics 025 is the third semester of the calculus based introductory

laboratory physics course intended for science and engineering majors.
The course provides laboratory work on experiments dealing with
concepts in modern physics.

Co-Requisite: Students should also be enrolled in Introduction to Modern Physics (021-

015)

Goals: The overall goal of this course is to provide the student with the
appropriate experimental evidence to reinforce concepts learned in
elementary modern physics. Specific objectives are as follows:

1. To develop introductory concepts in modern physics, relativity and

quantum mechanics.

2. To develop an understanding of standard techniques of data reduction

and error analysis commonly used by introductory physics students.

3. To develop quantitative reasoning skills and analytical thinking as

related to problem solving in modern physics.

4. To learn proper techniques that are useful for experimental design.

5. To learn proper methods for presentation of scientific results.

Text: Handouts will be provided for each laboratory exercise. No particular text
will be required. Many experimental write-ups will also be available
electronically.

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References: Theory of Errors, Robert Taylor

Modern Physics by Serway (Required text for 021-015)

Attendance: Attendance is required for all laboratories exercises. Students may not
submit reports for exercises for which they were not in attendance.
Students who arrive to class late will be required to complete the entire
laboratory exercise. Such students will not be permitted to join a group
that has already started on the laboratory exercise.

Grading: Laboratory Reports 85%

Final Exam 15%

A penalty of 5 points per day will be imposed for all late reports. Late
reports will not be accepted after 1 week. Students required to make up
laboratories will be required to do so within one week of the date the
laboratory was missed.

Letter Grade:A 90-100%

B 80-89.9%
C 70-79.9%
D 60-69.9%
F Below 60%

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

Laboratories offer an ideal opportunity to learn and strengthen, by means of actual

observations, some of the principles and laws of physics that are taught to you in physics
lectures. You will also become familiar with modern measuring equipment and learn the
fundamentals of preparing a report of the results.

1. You are expected to arrive on time since instructions are given and announcements
are made at the start of class.

2. A work station and lab partners will be assigned to you in the first lab meeting. You
will do experiments in a group but you are expected to bear your share of
responsibility in doing the experiments. You must actively participate in obtaining
the data and not merely watch your partners do it for you.

3. The assigned work station must be kept neat and clean at all times. Coats/jackets
must be hung at the appropriate place, and all personal possessions other than those
needed for the lab should be kept in the table drawers or under the table.

4. The data must be recorded neatly with a sharp pencil and presented in a logical way.
You may want to record the data values, with units, in columns and identify the

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quantity that is being measured at the top of each column.

5. If a mistake is made in recording a datum item, cancel the wrong value by drawing a
fine line through it and record the correct value legibly.

6. Have your data sheet signed by the instructor before you leave the laboratory. This
will be the only acceptable proof that you actually performed the experiment. A
copy of the signed data sheet must be attached to the written report as an Appendix.

7. Each student, even though working in a group, will have his or her own data sheet
and submit his or her own written report, typed, for grading to the instructor on the
next scheduled lab session. No late reports will be accepted.

8. Actual data must be used in preparing the report. Use of fabricated, altered, and other
students' data in your report will be considered as cheating. No credit will be given
for that particular lab and the matter will be reported to the Dean of Students.

9. Be honest and report your results truthfully. If there is an unreasonable discrepancy

from the expected results, give the best possible explanation.

10. If you must be absent, let your instructor know as soon as possible. A missed lab can
be made up only if a written valid excuse is brought to the attention of your
instructor within a week of the missed lab.

11. You should bring your calculator, a straight-edge scale and other accessories to class.
It might be advantageous to do some quick calculations on your data to make sure
that there are no gross errors.

12. Eating, drinking, and smoking in the laboratory are not permitted.

13. Refrain from making undue noise and disturbance.

Report Format

Each report should include the following information:

0. Cover sheet - The cover sheer should contain the name of the experiment and
your name as well as the identification of any laboratory partners. Include the
date, the name of the class and the section, the name of the instructor, the name of
the Teaching Assistant, and your student ID.

1. Introduction - Describe the general nature of the experiment to be performed and

discuss the objectives of the experiment.

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2. Theory - Review the theoretical basis for the measurements and the calculations
that you will be making. Present and discuss appropriate formulas.

3. Data Presentation - Present the data that you measured in appropriate data table.
Discuss how you obtained the data (The Procedure) as needed.

4. Discussion - Discuss your findings. Describe any pertinent calculation that you
made. Present the results of your calculation in Data Table and in Graphs.
Discuss each table and graph presented.

5. Summary - Provide a summary of your findings. Discuss how these finding

deviated from or conformed with your expected results. Discuss the physics
principles that were reinforced by the results of your experiment.

6. Questions - Answer the questions presented at the end of the laboratory report.

7. Appendix - Include a copy of the data sheet obtained in the laboratory. This sheet
must have an instructor signature. (That is, a copy of the signed data sheet must
be attached to the written report as an Appendix.)

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Schedule of Experiments for Fall 1998

Dates Laboratory Exercises

025 Section 1 025 Section 2 Group A
Mondays Tuesdays

8/24/98 8/25/98 Introduction – Measurements, Statistics and

Spreadsheets
8/31/98 9/01/98 Microwave Optics – Double Slit
9/07/98 9/08/98 Labor Day
9/14/98 9/15/98 Microwave Optics – Bragg Diffraction
9/21/98 9/22/98 Precision Interferometer – Wavelength
9/28/98 9/29/98 Precision Interferometer – Index of Refraction
10/05/98 10/06/98 Nuclear Radiation I
10/12/98 10/13/98 Columbus Day
10/19/98 10/20/98 Nuclear Radiation II
10/26/98 10/27/98 Planck’s Constant - h/e
11/02/98 11/03/98 The Ratio – e/m
11/09/98 11/10/98 Critical Potential
11/16/98 11/17/98 Superconductivity
11/23/98 11/24/98 Optional Experiments*
11/30/98 12/01/98 Lab Test

Note: All experiments are due the first class meeting following the completion of the
experiment.

*Optional Experiments
Electron Spin Resonance
Light Emitting Diode

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Statistical Analysis & Spread Sheets

Background

No physical measurement is exact. One must in general indicate to what degree

the experimenter has confidence in the measurement. Usually this is done by the number
of significant digits. For example, the lengths of 2.76 cm and 3.54x103 cm both have
three significant digits. As a common practice the significant digits will include those
numbers taken directly from the scale and one estimated place. Additions and
subtractions use only the smallest number of significant figures that is common to all the
measurements, so that the sum of 6.86 + 9.376 + 8.3782 would be 24.62. For
multiplication and division the result should have only as many significant digits as the
least accurate of the factors. The product of 18.76 by 9.57 = 179 since the less accurate
factor has 3 significant digits.

Regardless of how carefully a measurement is made there is some uncertainty in

the measurement. This uncertainty is called an error. Errors are not necessarily mistakes,
blunders or accidents. There are two classes of errors, systematic and random. They
occur because of problems with the reading of the instrument or because some external
factor such as temperature, humidity, etc. These errors can be corrected if they are
known to be present. Calibration techniques, attention to conditions surrounding the
measurements, and changing operators are used to reduced system error. The random
errors are by nature, erratic. They are subject to the laws of probability or chance. It is
to such errors that experimental statistics is applied.

The effect of random errors may be lessened by taking a large number of

measurements. For a large number of measurement the most probable value of the
quantity (the average or mean) is obtained by adding all the readings and dividing by the
number of readings, taking the mean. The average derivation (a.d.) is obtained by adding
the absolute value of the difference between each reading and the mean and dividing by
the number of readings. The average deviation of the mean (A.D.), sometimes referred to
as the “experimental error”, is the average derivation divided by the square root of the
number of observations (A.D.). The standard deviation is also measure of the uncertainty
of a measurement. When values are quoted for measurements as a value ± another
number, the second number is usually the A.D., the average derivation of the mean, e.g. x
± A.D., or the standard deviation, e.g. x ± σ

The usual experimental procedure is to make a large number of measurements.

For this course you will normally make several measurement of each quantity and
calculate an average and A.D. or σ. Frequently you will compare your measurements to
known values or the a value calculated from a straight forward derivation. The latter
comparison is made by calculating the percentage error. The percentage error is the
difference between the “standard value” and the “experimental value” divided by the
“standard value” and multiplied by 100%.

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Data Tables

All data tables should be properly labeled with a title for the table, headings for
each column and description of the information in the table..

Title of Table Here

Calculated Quantity Formula

N
1
average deviation a.d. =
N
∑x i − x , for N measurements of the quantity xi
i =1

average deviation of the mean a.d.

A.D. =
N
1 N
average or mean x= ∑x
N i=1 i

 N 
2

∑
xi

∑(x − x)
N N
standard deviation
∑
2
i xi −
2 i =1

N
σ = i=1
= i =1
N −1 N −1
 x − xa 
percentage error %error =   • 100%, where xa is the accepted value
 xa 
N N N N

∑ xi 2 ∑ yi − ∑ xi ∑x y
N N N
Least Squares Fit: N ∑ xi yi − ∑ x ∑y i i i
i =1 i =1 i =1
b= i =1 i =1 i =1
;a= = y − bx
i=1
(y = a + bx)
 N   N 
N 2 N 2

N ∑ x i − ∑ x i N ∑ x i − ∑ x i
2 2

i =1  i =1  i =1  i =1 
N

Least Squares Fit: ∑x y i i

(y = bx), i.e. the origin is (0,0) b= i =1
N ;a=0
∑x i
2

i= 1

Table 1. (Place a description of the information in the table here.)

Graphs

All graphs should follow the format given below. A description of the graph should be
placed immediately after the graph.

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Graph Title
30

Error Bars

20
Least Squares Fit Line
Y Axis Lable (units)

Plot Symbols

10

Equation of Least Squares Fit Line Y=Intercept +Slope*X

y = - 1.5 + 2.6x

0
0 2 4 6 8 10

X Axis Lable (units)

Graph 1: (Place a statement here that describes the graph and its corresponding data
immediately after the graph.)

Note: These simulations we have developed are written using EXCEL. The student may
use other spreadsheets or computer graphics programs to complete these exercises if
he/she so chooses.

Exercise # 1 for 021-025 Experiment I

The student should run Simulation #1 on the worksheet named SIMULATION in the
Excel Program PHYIIIEXPI. The program is for a black box that generates numbers and
shows the value of the number and its corresponding index (sequence) on displays in the
simulation. The number are selected randomly from a known parent distribution with a
mean of ten (10) and a standard deviation of two (2).

1. Generate a minimum of 30 numbers by clicking on the NEXT READING button.

2. Record the INDEX and each corresponding VALUE in the worksheet named
ANALYSIS.
3. Using EXCEL Spreadsheet FUNCTIONS, determine the following:
(a) average

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(b) average deviation

(c) average deviation of the mean
(d) standard deviation
(e) median
(f) range of data
4. Compute the percentage error from the known value for the mean
5. Present the data and results in appropriately labeled tables on your EXCEL
Spreadsheet.

Excel Worksheet for Simulation #1

Exercise for 021-025 Introductory Laboratory

The student should run Simulation #2 on the worksheet named SIMULATION in the
Excel Program PHYIIIEXPI. The program is for a simulated counting experiment in
which the SAMPLE (a point source) is located at a variable distance from the
DETECTOR. The operator controls the distance between the SAMPLE PLATFORM
and the DETECTOR by clicking the UP or DOWN buttons. The distance (in cm)
between the SAMPLE PLATFORM and the DETECTOR is displayed on a button in the
simulation. The simulated signal is given as counts per second received by the
DETECTOR and are displayed on a button in the simulation. The simulated signals are
selected randomly from a Gaussian distribution with a known mean and standard
deviation. These numbers are corrected so that the signal is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between the DETECTOR and the SOURCE. A small offset is
applied to this correction to account for the typical situation where there is some
unknown distance between the front of the detector housing and its active elements. A
small background count is also accounted for in the simulation.

1. Generate a DETECTOR reading in Counts/s for every cm from 1 to 20 cm.

Control the separation by using the UP and DOWN buttons.

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2. Record the SEPARATION and each corresponding DETECTOR READING in

the worksheet named ANALYSIS.
3. Using EXCEL graphics, graph a log-log plot of DETECTOR READINGS vs.
SEPARATION. Be sure to properly label your graph.
4. Plot the best fit straight line to your graphical data using Least Squares Analysis
techniques. Built in Functions in EXCEL can do this.
5. Verify the 1/r2 relationship by comparing the value of the slope for your straight
line to the expected value of two (2).
6. Compute the percentage error from the known value for the mean
7. Present the data, graph and results in appropriately labeled tables and graphs on
your EXCEL Spreadsheet.

Excel Worksheet for Simulation #2

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INTERFEROMETRY: MEASUREMENT OF WAVELENGTH∗

INTRODUCTION

In general, an interferometer can be used in two (2) ways. If the

characteristics of the light source are accurately known (wavelength,
polarization, intensity), changes in the beam path can be introduced and
the effects on the interference pattern can be analyzed. On the other
hand, by introducing specific changes in the beam path, information can
be obtained about the light source that is being used. In this experiment,
you will use the interferometer to measure the wavelength of your light
source (laser).

In the interferometer arrangement, the distance that the movable

mirror moved toward the beam-splitter is given by dm. If N fringe
transitions are observed in the diffraction pattern, as the position of the
“movable” mirror is changed, then the wavelength of the light source is
given by

λ = 2dm/N (1)

PROCEDURE

1. Align the laser and interferometer in the Michelson mode, so an

interference pattern is clearly visible on your viewing screen. See
Figure 1.

2. Adjust the micrometer knob to a medium (approximately 50 µm).

In this position, the relationship between the micrometer reading
and the mirror movement is most nearly linear.

3. Turn the micrometer knob one full turn counterclockwise. Continue

turning counterclockwise until the zero on the knob is aligned with
the index mark. Record the micrometer reading.

NOTE: When you reverse the direction in which you turn the
micrometer knob, there is a small amount of give before the mirror

∗
Taken from PASCO Scientific laboratory write-ups

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begins to move. This is called mechanical backlash, and is present

in all mechanical systems involving reversals in direction of
movement. By beginning with a full counterclockwise turn, and
then turning only counterclockwise when counting fringes, you can
eliminate errors due to backlash.

4. Adjust the position of the viewing screen so that one of the marks
on the millimeter scale is aligned with one of the fringes in your
interference pattern. You will find it easier to count the fringes if
the reference mark is one or two fringes out from the center of the
pattern.

5. Rotate the micrometer knob slowly counterclockwise. Count the

fringes as they pass your reference mark. Continue until some
predetermined number of fringes have passed your mark. (Count
20 fringes for your first trial.). As you finish your count, the fringes
should be in the same position with respect to your reference mark
as they were when you started to count. Record the final reading
of the micrometer dial.

6. Record dm, the distance that the movable mirror moved toward the
beam-splitter according to your readings of the micrometer knob.
Each small division on the micrometer knob corresponds to one µm
(10-6 meters) of mirror movement.

7. Record N, the number of fringe transitions that you counted.

8. Repeat steps 3 through 7 five times, increasing

N by 5 counts each
time.

Analysis

For each trial, calculate the wavelength of the light, using equation (1),
then average your results. Complete the data table below. Determine
the Average and standard deviation of the data. Compare your results
for the wavelength to the known wavelength for the laser used in the
experiment.

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Table 1. Wavelength Determination

Trail N dm (µm) λ (µm)

Average

Standard

Deviation

% error

Questions

λ based on the
1. In the calculation to determine the value of
micrometer movement, why was md multiplied by two?

2. Why move the mirror through many fringe transitions instead of

just one? Why take several measurements and average the results?

3. If the wavelength of your light source is accurately known,

compare your results with the known value. If there is a difference, to
what do you attribute it?

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4. When measuring mirror movement using the micrometer dial on

the interferometer, what factors limit the accuracy of your measurement?

Viewing Screen

Compensator
18 mm Lens (optional)

Laser

Movable
Beam
Mirror
Splitter

Adjustable Mirror

Adjustment
Screws

Micrometer Knob

Figure 1. Experimental Layout

Figure 2. Experimental Setup

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THE INDEX OF REFRACTION OF GLASS∗

INTRODUCTION

One method to measure the index of refraction of glass is to slowly

vary the length of glass through which the interferometer beam passes.
This experiment introduces a technique for making such a measurement.

In principle, the method for calculating the index of refraction is

relatively straight forward. The light passes through a greater length of
glass as the plate is rotated. One thus determines the change in path
length of the light beam as the glass plate is rotated. Then determine
how much of this change in path length is through glass dg(θ) and how
much is through airda(θ). The relationship between the measured fringe
transitions (N) and the change in path length is given by

2na da (θ) + 2ng dg (θ )

N= (1),
λo

where na = index of refraction of air,

ng = index of refraction of glass plate, and
λo = wavelength of the light source in vacuum.

It can then be shown that for a plate of thickness t, the index of

refraction is given by

(2t − Nλo )(1 − cosθ )

ng = (2),
2t (1− cosθ ) − Nλo
{Light Principles and Measurements, Monk,McGraw-Hill, 1937.}

PROCEDURE

1 Align the laser and interferometer in the Michelson mode. See

Figure 1.

2. Place the rotating table between the beam-splitter and movable

mirror, perpendicular to the optical path.

∗
Taken from PASCO Scientific laboratory write-ups

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NOTE: if the movable mirror is too far forward, the rotating table won’t
fit. You may need to loosen the thumbscrew and slide the
mirror farther back.

3. Mount the glass plate on the magnetic backing of the rotational

pointer.

4. Position the pointer so that its “0” edge on the Vernier scale is
lined up with the zero on the degree scale on the interferometer
base.

5. Remove the lens from in front of the laser. Hold the viewing screen
between the glass plate and the movable mirror. If there is one
bright dot and some secondary dots on the viewing screen, adjust
the angle of the rotating table until there is one bright dot only.
Then realign the pointer scale. The plate should now be
perpendicular to the optical path.

6. Replace the viewing screen and the lens and make any minor
adjustments that are necessary to get a clear set of fringes on the
viewing screen.

7. Slowly rotate the table by moving the lever arm. Count the number
of fringe transitions that occur as you rotate the table from 0
degrees to an angelθ = 5 degrees.

8. θ through 0 to 10
Repeat the procedure above for rotations of
degrees, 0 through 15 degrees and 0 through 20 degrees.

DATA ANALYSIS

Complete Table 1 below. Determine the average value of the index

of refraction for the glass plate and the standard deviation in this value.

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Table 1: Experiment Results for Index of Glass Plate

Trial θ max (degrees) N ng
1

Average

Standard Deviation

QUESTIONS:

1. Explain any trends or differences for the four difference

measurements you made, i.e. 0< θ<5, 0<θ<10, 0<θ<15, and 0<θ<20. Is it
better to use a small angle or a large angle of this experiment? Why?

2. Starting with equation 1, derive equation 2.

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Viewing Screen

Glass plate
18 mm Lens

Laser

Movable
Beam
Mirror
Splitter

Rotational Pointer
Adjustable Mirror

30

-5 0

Adjustment
Screws

Micrometer Knob

Figure 1. Experimental Layout

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∗
DOUBLE SLIT INTERFERENCE

INTRODUCTION:

When an electromagnetic wave passes through a two-slit aperture

the wave diffracts into two waves which superpose in the space beyond
the apertures. Similar to a standing wave pattern, there are points in
space where maxima are formed and others where minima are formed.
With a double slit aperture, the intensity of the wave beyond the aperture
will vary depending on the angle of detection. For two thin slits
separated by a distance d, maxima will be found at angles such that

d sinθ = nλ (1)

and minima will be found at angles such that

d sinθ = nλ/2, (2)

where θ = the angle of detection,λ = the wavelength of the incident

radiation, and n is any integer. See Figure 1. Refer to a textbook for
more information about the nature of the double-slit diffraction pattern
and the derivations of equations (1) and (2).

PROCEDURE:

1. Arrange the equipment as shown in Figure 2. Use the Slit Extender

Arm, two Reflectors, and the Narrow Slit Spacer to construct the double
slit. (Use a slit width of about 1.5 cm.) Be precise with the alignment of
the slit and make the setup as symmetrical as possible.

2. Adjust the Transmitter and Receiver for vertical polarization (0°)

and adjust the Receiver controls to give a full-scale reading at the lowest
possible amplification.

3. Rotate the Goniometer arm, on which the Receiver rests, slowly

about its axis. Observe the meter readings.

∗
taken from PASCO Scientific laboratory write-ups

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4. Reset the Goniometer arm so the Receiver directly faces the

Transmitter. Adjust the Receiver controls to obtain a meter reading of
1.0. Vary the angleθ for every two degrees from 0 to 80 degrees. At
each setting record the meter reading. (In places where the meter
reading changes significantly between angle settings, you may find it
useful to investigate the signal level at intermediate angles.)

5. Keep the slit widths the same, but change the distance between
the slits by using the Wide Slit Spacer instead of the Narrow Slit Spacer.
Because the Wide Slit Space is 50% wider than the Narrow Slit Spacer (90
mm vs. 60 mm) move the Transmitter back 50% so that the microwave
radiation at the slits will have the same relative intensity. Repeat the
measurements.

ANALYSIS:

1. Present your data in an appropriate data. From your data, plot a

graph of meter reading versusθ. Identify the angles at which the maxima
and minima of the interference pattern occur. Be certain to label your
graph properly.

2. Calculate the angles at which you would expect the maxima and
minima to occur in a standard two-slit diffraction pattern. Refer to
equations (1) and (2). Determine the percentage error between the
calculated maxima and minima and the locations of your observed maxima
and minima

3. Plot a graph of sinθ vs. n for your data at each maximum observed.
Determine the best fit straight line for your data with the constraint that
the intercept is located at the origin. Given this constrain the slope of
the best fit line is given by
N

∑x y i i
b= i =1
N . (3)
∑ xi2
i =1

QUESTIONS:

1. What assumptions are made in the derivation of equation (1) and

to what extent are these assumptions met in this experiment?

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2. Derive equation (1).

Transmitter

d θ

Receiver

Figure 1. Double Slit Interference

Transmitter

Double Slit

Receiver

Figure 2. Equipment Setup.

NOTES:
1. Wavelength at 10.525 GHz = 2.85 cm
2. The experimenter’s body position may affect the results.

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Figure 3. Photo of Setup

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Ratio of e/m

Introduction
The Specific Charge of Electron Apparatus is used in conjunction with the
Electron Tube to measure the ratio of electron charge e to electron mass m. An
electron stream is accelerated through a measured potential difference. The
stream is projected through, and perpendicular to, a magnetic field of sufficient
strength to cause it to bend in a circular path. The value of e/m can be computed
from the relationships that exist among the acceleration potential, the strength of
the magnetic field, and the diameter of the circular path that the electron beam
describes.

From the definition of the magnetic induction B in a magnetic field, the force F
acting upon a charge e that is moving with velocity v perpendicular to the
direction of the field is given by

F = BeV. (1)

Since the direction of this force is always perpendicular to the velocity vector, it
follows that the force is a centripetal one. Such a force causes the electron with
mass m to move in a circular path. Hence,

mv 2
= BeV, (2)
r

where r is the radius of the circular path of the electron. The kinetic energy
acquired by an electron that falls through a potential difference V is given by
mv 2
eV = . (3)
r

From equations (2) and (3)

e 2V
= 2 2 (4)
m B r
Note that since the cathode “gun” is located about 0.254 cm below the anode
plate opening the part of the equation involving the radius has a constant
numerical factor added.

e 2V
= 2 2
( )
. (5)
m B r + 0.00254 2

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The apparatus used in this experiment makes it possible to determine the ratio
e/m. The magnitude of the flux density B, caused by the Helmholtz coils at the
central point is given by

8µoNI
B= , (6)
125R

where N is the number of turns per coil, I the current in the coils and R the coil
radius and µo the permeability of free space.

Procedure

6. Explore the area around the Helmholtz coils to see that there is no serious
interference from stray magnetic fields. This can be done with a compass
or a gaussmeter.
7. Connect the apparatus as shown in Figure 1. Check that the anodes of
the grid and plate are referenced to the cathode of filament. HAVE
INSTRUCTOR CHECK SETUP!
8. Adjust the filament current to about 0.9 amps. The e/m base is designed
such that 0.9 amperes supplied to the base yields 0.6 amps to the tube
filament. After allowing the cathode to heat for about 1 minute, apply the
plate potential and grid potential and notice the blue stream of electrons
that rises from the hole in the center of the disk. Then reduce the filament
current to the minimum level that still yields a visible beam. Adjust the
plate potential to 80-200 volts and vary the grid potential to bring the beam
into sharp focus. The electron stream should have a diameter of about
2 mm or less.
9. Energize the circuit to the field coils and then increase the current until the
beam bends into a complete semicircle. Adjust the plate voltage to vary
the accelerating potential and change the field current until the beam falls
on one of the marked circles. (The grid potential may need to be adjusted
when the plate potential is changed in order to keep the beam in focus.)
Record the plate potential, the field current, and the radius of the
described circle(.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 cm). Measure the mean radius of the
Helmholtz coils and record the number of turns per coil (119).
10. Repeat the observations by switching the field current polarity to obtain
several sets of data for each of the circles on the disk. Depending on the
anode plate voltage applied, it may be impossible to focus the beam on
the innermost circle.

Analysis

Using the data recorded from the experiment and the working equation, calculate
the values of e/m obtained from the sets of observations. Record the percentage
difference between the standard value of e/m and the mean of the values

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 24-

 D R A F T

calculated from the observations. Do there seem to be sources of systematic

error? Try to identify some of the sources of error.

Data Table for e/m Experiment

Number of Turns per Coil (N) =

Radius of Coil (R) = m
Positive Polarity

Radius of Inscribed Circle 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

(cm)
Radius of electron beam,
r (cm
Field Coil Current, I
(amps)
Plate Potential, V (volts)

Magnetic Field, B (tesla)

e/m (coulombs/meter)

Reversed Polarity

Radius of Inscribed Circle 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

(cm)
Radius of electron beam,
r (cm
Field Coil Current, I
(amps)
Plate Potential, V (volts)

Magnetic Field, B (tesla)

e/m (coulombs/meter)

Average value for e/m

(coulombs/meter)
Percentage Error

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 25-

 D R A F T

Field Coils
0-20VDC

E&M Apparatus
Plate

Filament Cathode
Grid

6.3 VAC 0-80VDC

80-200VDC

Figure 1. Box Diagram for wiring the e/m tube.

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 26-

 D R A F T

Photoelectric Effect Using the h/e Apparatus

Introduction

In photoelectric emission, light strikes a material, causing electrons to be emitted.

The classical wave model predicted that as the intensity of incident light was
increased, the amplitude and thus the energy of the wave would increase. This
would then cause more energetic photoelectrons to be emitted.

The new quantum model, however, predicted that higher frequency light would
produce higher energy photoelectrons, independent of intensity, while increased
intensity would only increase the number of electrons emitted(or photoelectric
current).

In the early 1900s several investigators found that the kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons was dependent on the wavelength, or frequency, and
independent of intensity, while the magnitude of the photoelectric current, or
number of electrons was dependent on the intensity as predicted by the quantum
model.

Explaining the photoelectric effect in terms of the quantum model, we see that

E = hν = KE max + W0

Where E is the energy of the photon, h is Planck’s constant, ν is the frequency,

KEmax is the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons and Wo is the
energy needed to remove the electrons from a material’s surface.

Experiment 1.

According to the photon theory of light, the maximum kinetic energy, KE, of
photoelectrons depends only on the frequency of the incident light, and is
independent of the intensity. Thus the higher the frequency of the light, the
greater its energy.

In contrast, the classical wave model of light predicted that KE would depend on
light intensity. In other words, the brighter the light, the greater its energy.

This lab investigates both of these assertions. Part A selects two spectral lines
from a mercury light source and investigates the maximum energy of the
photoelectrons as a function of the intensity. Part B selects different spectral
lines and investigates the maximum energy of the photoelectrons as a function of
the frequency of the light.

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 27-

 D R A F T

Part A

11. Adjust the h/e Apparatus so that only one of the spectral colors falls upon
the opening of the mask of the photodiode. If you select the green or
yellow spectral line, place the corresponding colored filter over the white
reflective mask on the apparatus.
12. Place the Variable Transmission Filter in front of the White Reflective
mask so that the light passes through the section marked 100% and
reaches the photodiode. Record the DVM voltage reading.
13. Press the instrument discharge button, release it and observe
approximately how much time is required to return to the recorded voltage.
14. Move the variable Transmission Filter so that the next section is directly in
front of the incoming light. Record the new DVM reading, and
approximate the time to recharge after the discharge button has been
pressed and released.
15. Repeat step 4 until you have tested all five sections of the filter.
16. Repeat the procedure using a second color from the spectrum.

Part B

(g) You can easily see five colors in the mercury light spectrum. Adjust the h/e
Apparatus so that only one of the yellow colored bands falls upon the
opening of the mask of the photodiode. Place the yellow colored filter over
the White Reflective Mask on the h/e Apparatus.
(h) Record the DVM voltage reading(stopping potential).
(i) Repeat the process for each color in the spectrum. Be sure to use green
filter when measuring the green spectrum.

Experiment 2.

According to the quantum model of light, the energy of light is directly

proportional to its frequency. Thus, the higher the frequency, the more energy it
has. With careful experimentation, the constant of proportionality, Planck’s
constant, can be determined.
In this lab you will select different spectral lines from mercury and investigate the
maximum energy of the photoelectrons as a function of the wavelength and
frequency of the light.

Procedure

1. You can see five colors in two orders of the mercury light spectrum.
Adjust the h/e Apparatus carefully so that only one color from the first
order falls on the opening of the mask of the photodiode.

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 28-

 D R A F T

2. For each color in the first order, measure the stopping potential with the
DVM and record that measurement. Use the yellow and green colored
filters on the Reflective mask of the h/e Apparatus when you measure the
yellow and green spectral lines.
3. Move to the second order and repeat the process.

Analysis

After graphing stopping potential vs. frequency can you get a result for h/e and
W/e? Also can you calculate h and W?

Questions

8. Describe the effect that passing different amounts of the same colored
light through the variable Transmission Filter has on the stopping potential
and thus the maximum energy of the photoelectrons, as well as the
charging time after pressing the discharge button.
9. Describe the effect that different colors of light had on the stopping
potential and thus the maximum energy of the photoelectrons.
10. Defend whether this experiment supports a wave or a quantum model of
light based on your results.
11. Explain why there is a slight drop in the measured stopping potential as
the light intensity is decreased.

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 29-

 D R A F T

The Photoelectric Effect Using Light Emitting Diodes

The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from a metallic surface by

the incidence of a beam of light. The maximum kinetic energy of the ejected
photoelectrons depends only on the frequency of the light and the kind of metal
used. For a particular metal, there is a definite cutoff frequency υo below which
no photoelectric effect occurs.

Theory:

Light can be viewed as a series of discontinuous, concentrated packages of

energy, called photons. The energy of a single photon is given by E = hυ, where
E is the quantum energy, υ is the frequency and h is Planck's constant. In the
photoelectric process a whole quantum of radiant energy is absorbed by a single
electron. In addition, a certain amount of energy is required to liberate the
electron from the metal; and any extra energy that the electron absorbs goes to
increase the kinetic energy of the photoelectron. Applying the principle of energy
conservation, Einstein arrived at the photoelectric equation:

hυ = W + (1/2) mv2

where W is the work function of the metal and (1/2) mv2 is the kinetic energy of the
ejected electron. Here m is the mass of the electron and v is the maximum
velocity of the photoelectron.

When an electron is accelerated by a potential difference V, the kinetic energy of

the electron is given by:

(1/2) mv2 = eV

where e is the charge on the electron. A large enough negative potential difference
will stop the flow of the fastest-moving electrons between electrodes and is
known as the stopping potential. In terms of the stopping potential V, the
photoelectric equation can be written as:

hυ = W + eV

For V = 0, W = hυo, where υo is the photoelectric threshold frequency. Thus,

the frequency υ must be equal to or greater than υo for the photocathode to emit
any electrons at all.

Apparatus:

The photoelectric unit consists of a rod-mounted panel featuring six Light

Emitting Diodes (LEDS) and a saddle base. In addition you will need an AC

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 30-

 D R A F T

power supply capable of delivering 0 - 5 V, a digital voltmeter , and a digital

ammeter.

Procedure:

An LED begins to emit light when the voltage applied to it creates a large
enough energy difference between two electronic states in the parts of the diode
for an electron transition to release one quantum of light at the wavelength of the
LED. When the diode's characteristic curve is is obtained by plotting Diode
current versus voltage, a “knee” on the curve is clearly seen. The applied
voltage at the "knee" is proportional to the minimum emission voltage for the
light. Measuring this voltage for several LEDs of known emission wavelength
enables Planck’s constant, h, to be found to within 10% reliability.

Let Vo be the applied voltage at the "knee", Then

eVo = h(c/λ)

where c = 3x108 m/s and λ is the known emission wavelength. A plot of Vo

versus 1/λ will yield a straight line. Planck's constant can be determined from the
slope of this straight line.

(1) Graph at least one current vs. voltage curve for each diode given in the table
below.

Diode Emission Wavelength 480 560 590 635 650 950

(nm)

(2) Determine the stopping potential (“knee” of the curve) for each curve obtained
in step (1) above.

(3) From a plot of Vo vs. 1/λ, determine your experimental value of h.

(4) Discuss your results. Compare your findings to the accepted value for h.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 31-

 D R A F T

Typical Current Vs. Voltage Curve Wiring Diagram

LED
Current

100 Ω
V
A

0-5V

+
Voltage
"knee"

***WARNING*** Do Not Exceed 5 Volts on the Diodes

I max
480 nm
20 mA

560 nm
50 mA

590 nm

635 nm

665 nm

950 nm
100 mA

+ -

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 32-

 D R A F T

Critical Potential Tube1

Introduction

Collisions between electrons and gas atoms can be studied in some detail
with the gas triode tubes. The luminous discharge produced, when viewed with a
spectroscope, reveals a line spectrum indicating exchanges of discrete amounts
of energy due to collision when atoms are “excited”. Introductory laboratory
experiments have confirmed that the exchange is made by non-elastic collisions
but the resolution of such experiments is typically not sufficient to show existence
of any individual energy levels. In this experiment we utilized a tube which
produces a beam of electrons with a relatively narrow spread in energy.
The critical Potential Tube is of standard size and fits in the Universal
Stand for TelAtomic tubes. The inside surface of the bulb is coated with a
transparent conducting layer connected to the anode of a simple diode gun. A
tungsten cathode emits electrons in a narrow cone determined by the exit
aperture in the anode. The collector is a wire ring that is positioned so that it
cannot receive electrons directly from the cathode. The tube contains helium at
low pressure.
Electrical connections are made to plugs on the neck and the bulb of the
tube, and sockets in the base cap of the tube. Filament voltage should be 3.0 V,
1.5 A d. c., ripple free. Built in diode protection in the tube permits safe
application of 6.3 V a. c., but results are not so demonstrative when using a. c.
as opposed to d .c. voltage for the filament.
The anode voltage should range from 0 - 35 V d. c. with a current of 10
mA. The collector should be maintained at a voltage of 1 - 3 V d. c. above
(positive) with respect to the anode. Dry cells are convenient for this purpose.
Discussion
The onset of excitation of atoms occurs when the colliding electrons have
certain “critical energies” measured by the potential drop between the anode and
cathode through which they are accelerated. An electron with just sufficient
energy to excite an atom will, after collision, have little or no residual energy and
in the field-free region of the bulb will diffuse eventually to the walls and be
returned to the cathode. By making the collector a few volts more positive than
the anode such an electron will be attracted to the wire collector.
Thus when the average energy of the electron stream is sufficient to excite
the helium gas atoms, the population of the low energy electrons will increase
significantly to produce in the collector a measurable current which has little or no
contribution from the main beam. As the accelerating potential voltage is
increased, the collector current at first increases and then falls away until

1
Taken from TelAtomic Experiment 2533

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 33-

 D R A F T

another, higher energy, excitation occurs. The principal excitations potentials for
Helium is given in Table 1.

Table 1. Average Values of the Critical Potentials for the Principal Energy Levels
of Helium
Level Ground State 1st 2nd 3rd Ionization

Energy (eV) 0 19.8 20.9 22.9 24.6

The collector current is typically a few microamps and can be measured

with a sensitive ammeter or galvanometer. The circuit is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Wiring Schematic

Grounded Screen

TEL 2533.01

TEL. 2501

TEL 2533
C5
V
F F4
-
F3
+
A1
1.5 - 3.0 V

V IC
A
a.c. amplifier
0-60 V

0.75/1.5 V V
C Channel 1 0-1 V 1 Channel
Slow Fast
- +
2 2
Battery Unit
Hertz Control Console
TEL.2812
TEL. 2355.06 Data
Oscilloscope
Recorder

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 34-

 D R A F T

Figure 2. Ramp Signal

V max
A

min

V Y1
M
Y2

Procedure

17. Set up the equipment in the correct configuration as in figure 1.

18. Set channel 2 FAST on the Hertz Control Console to the signal of the
oscilloscope and channel 1 on the Hertz Control Console as the
oscilloscope trigger. (Remember for the BNC connectors, the black clips
should go to the common ground.)

19. Set the filament voltage, Vf (Vf is the round steel knob on top of the
DIGIRAMP) to zero and adjust the Oscilloscope trigger level control and
the channel 1 shift control to obtain a stable trace as shown in figure 2.

20. Use the oscilloscope controls to invert channel 2 and move the trace to
the lower edge of the screen.

21. Slowly increase Vf in the region 1.5 to 3.0 volts using the fine controls on
the top surface of LOVOLT DIGIRAMP.

22. Set Vm to 10 V and carefully adjust Vf to obtain a trace with several peaks
and adjust the trace to fill the oscilloscope screen.

Analysis

1. Graph the collector current as a function of accelerating voltage and

obtain the characteristic curve for the helium filled tube. Use a resolution
of 0.1 volt for the accelerating voltage on the x-axis. It should be sufficient
to take the data for the graph in the range of 18 to 29 volts on the anode.

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 35-

 D R A F T

A typical curve is shown in figure 2. Note the locations of each transition

as shown in the figure. Label each transition level observed on your
graph.
2. Obtain a correction for the ionization potential by comparing the ionization
voltage measured from your curve to the known value of 24.6 eV. Use the
difference in the measured valued and the known value as a correction
factor for your measurements.
3. From the characteristic current versus voltage curve that you obtained,
determine the average value of the critical potentials for each principal
energy level of helium.
(j) Determine the corrected values for these potentials using the correction
factor that you obtained in # 3 above.
5. Compare your results to the expected results. Discuss any differences
and the possible sources of error in the experiment.

Figure 3. Typical Graph

Ionization
Level 3
Level 2
Collector Current

Level 1

Anode Voltage (eV)

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 36-

 D R A F T

Table 2: Data Table

Excitation Level Peak Voltage (eV) Correction Factor Corrected Voltage

(eV) (eV)
1

Ionization

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 37-

 D R A F T

BRAGG DIFFRACTION
(Taken from PASCO Scientific laboratory write-ups)

INTRODUCTION:

Bragg’s Law provides a powerful tool for investigating crystal

structure by relating the interplanar spacings in the crystal to the
scattering angles of incident x-rays. In this experiment, Bragg’s Law is
demonstrated on a macroscopic scale using a cubic “Crystal” consisting
of 10-mm metal spheres embedded in an ethafoam cube.

Before performing this experiment, you should understand the

theory behind Bragg Diffraction. In particular, you should understand the
two criteria that must be met for a wave to be diffracted from a crystal
into a particular angle. Namely, there is a plane of atoms in the crystal
oriented with respect to the incident wave, such that:

1. The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection, and

2. Bragg’s equation, 2d sinθ = nλ., is satisfied; whered is the spacing

between the diffracting planes,θ is the grazing angle of the incident
wave, n is an integer, andλ is the wavelength of the radiation.

PROCEDURE:

1. Arrange the equipment as shown in Figure 1.

2. Notice the three families of planes indicated in Figure 2. (The

designations (100), (110), and (210) are the Miller indices for these sets
of planes.) Adjust the Transmitter and Receiver so that they directly face
each other. Align the crystal so that the (100) planes are parallel to the
incident microwave beam. Adjust the Receiver controls to provide a
readable signal. Record the meter reading.

3. Rotate the crystal (with the rotating table) one degree clockwise
and the Rotatable Goniometer arm two degrees clockwise. Record the
grazing angle of the incident beam and the meter reading. (The grazing
angle is the complement of the angle of incidence. It is measured with
respect to the plane under investigation, NOT the face of the cube; see
Figure 3.)

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 38-

 D R A F T

4. Continue in this manner, rotating the Goniometer arm two degrees

for every one degree rotation of the crystal. Record the angle and meter
reading at each position. (If you need to adjust the INTENSITY setting on
the Receiver, be sure to indicate that in your data.)

5. Repeat the steps above for the (110) family of planes.

ANALYSIS

1. Graph the relative intensity of the diffracted signal as a function of

the grazing angle of the incident beam for each of the family of planes.
At what angles do definite peaks for the diffracted intensity occur?

2 Use your data, the known wavelength of the microwave radiation

(2.85 cm), and Bragg’s Law to determine the spacing between the (100)
planes of the Bragg Crystal. Measure the spacing between the planes
directly, and compare with your experimental determination. Present
your findings in an appropriately labeled table.

QUESTIONS:

1. What other families of planes might you expect to show diffraction

in a cubic crystal? Would you expect the diffraction to be observable
with this apparatus? Why?

2. Suppose you did not know beforehand the orientation of the “inter-
atomic planes” in the crystal. How would this affect the complexity of
the experiment? How would you go about locating the planes?

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 39-

 D R A F T

Cubic Lattice

n Table
Rotating

Figure 1: Experimental Set-up

Photograph of Experimental Setup

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 40-

 D R A F T

(210) (110)

(100)

Figure 2: Definition of Families of planes.

Grazing Angle

Figure 3: The Grazing angle, measured with respect to the crystal plane
for (100) orientation.

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 41-

 D R A F T

Nuclear Radiation 1: Radiation Shielding∗

Introduction

The purpose of this laboratory activity is to investigate the penetrating

ability of three common types of nuclear radiation and the ability of different
materials to absorb the energy associated with nuclear radiation.
Radioactive decay is strange and mysterious for several reasons.
Besides the obvious fact that none of our senses can detect individual decay
events, the nuclear decay process seems at the same time to be random yet
predictable. It is impossible to say which nucleus will become unstable enough to
decay next; however, it is fairly easy to use a Geiger counter to count the number
of nuclei which do decay per second.
The statistical nature of radiation decay is clearly demonstrated when one
takes a repeated readings of counts for a specific number of time units, (for
example counts per second) and then plot the histogram of these data. The
resulting plots shows that the data approximates a Gaussian Distribution.

Distribution of Radiation Counts

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Counts (Arbitrary Units)

Figure 1. Approximation of Gaussian distribution by random nuclear radiation

Absorption of radiation is governed by the equation

N = No e − µx , (1)

where, N is the measured number of counts per second, No is an arbitrary

constant, µ is the absorption coefficient for the material being tested, and x is the

∗
Lab write up based on PASCO Scientific Workshop Lab Manual.

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 42-

 D R A F T

thickness of the material. The value of µ depends on both the material and the
type of radiation.

Procedure

Background Radiation

23. The setup should include a Macintosh computer, signal interface, Nuclear
sensor, sources and assorted cables and stands. The software program
titled P59 Radiation Shielding should be running.
24. Move all radiation sources at least 10 feet from the Nuclear Sensor.
25. Click the REC button to begin collecting data. (Data collecting will
automatically stop after 60 seconds. The Table display will show the
number of counts for each 15 second interval.)
26. Click on the Table to make it active. Record the MEAN as the average
background radiation count (per 15 second interval ) .
27. After you record the MEAN, delete RUN #1. Click on RUN #1 in the Data
List in the Experiment Window.

Radiation Shielding

(k) Use the same setup as in the background radiation procedure.

(l) Position the alpha source under the Geiger-Muller tube at the bottom end of
the Nuclear sensor.
(m)Click the REC button to collect counts for 60 seconds.
(n) Record the MEAN as the unshielded alpha source radiation count .
(o) After recording the mean, delete RUN #1.
(p) Place 1 small square of paper on top of the alpha source.
(q) Click the REC button to collect counts for 60 seconds.
(r) Record the MEAN as the one layer shielded alpha source radiation count.
(s) After recording the mean, delete the data.
(t) Repeat steps 6-9 until you have 5 pieces of paper over the source.
(u) Repeat steps 1-10 for the beta and gamma sources.
(v) Now repeat the entire process with the alpha, beta and gamma sources only
use plastic squares to shield the sources.
(w) Repeat the entire process with the alpha, beta, and gamma sources but use
LEAD squares to shield the sources.

By measuring the thickness of each absorber you will have sufficient data
to graph the number of counts as a function of absorber thickness for each of the
absorbers. Make a semi-log plot of these data and determine µ for each
absorbing material from the slope of your graphs.

Data Table For Paper Shielding

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 43-

 D R A F T

Layers of Shielding zero one two three four five

Materials
Thickness of
Material (mm)

Source Counts µ (mm-1)

Alapa

Beta

Gamma

Data Table For Plastic Shielding

Layers of Shielding zero one two three four five
Materials
Thickness of
Material (mm)

Source Counts µ (mm-1)

Alapa

Beta

Gamma

Data Table For Lead Shielding

Layers of Shielding zero one two three four five
Materials
Thickness of
Material (mm)

Source Counts µ (mm-1)

Alapa

Beta

Gamma

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 44-

 D R A F T

Questions

4. Which type of radiation is the most penetrating?

5. Which type of radiation is the least penetrating?
6. What generalization can you make about the effect of the thickness of the
shielding material on the count rate?
7. What generalization can you make about the effect of the density of the
shielding material on the count rate?

Lab write up based on PASCO Scientific Workshop Lab Manual.

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 45-

 D R A F T

Nuclear Radiation II: Inverse Square Law∗

Introduction

The purpose of this laboratory activity is to investigate the relationship between

the distance to a radioactive source and the measured activity from the source.

One of the most common natural laws is the inverse square law. As one famous
scientist put it, “the inverse square law is characteristic of anything which starts
out from a point source and travels in straight lines without getting lost.” Light
and sound intensity both behave according to an inverse square law when they
spread out from a point source. Your intuition says that as you move away from
a point source of light like a light bulb, the light intensity becomes smaller as the
distance from the bulb becomes larger. The same is true for sound intensity as
you move away from a small radio speaker. What may not be as obvious is that
if you move twice as far from either of these sources, the intensity becomes one
fourth as great, not half as great. In a similar way, if you are at the back of an
auditorium listening to music and you decide to move three times closer, the
sound intensity becomes nine times greater. This is why the law is called the
inverse square law.

Nuclear radiation behaves this way as well. If you measure the counts per
second at a distance of 1 centimeter, the counts per second at 2 centimeters or
at 4 centimeters should vary inversely as the square of the distance. If N is the
number of counts measured at a distance r from the detector, N is given by

N0
N= (1)
r2
where No is an arbitrary constant.

Procedure

The equipment and software should be setup beforehand. The setup should
include a computer, Pasco interface, Geiger-Muller counter, adjustable stand and
radioactive sources.

28. Remove the plastic cap from the counter.

29. Place the beta source on the adjustable stand.
30. Move the stand and source as close as possible to the sensor.
31. Click the record button for ten different counts. Record average and
standard deviation.
32. Move the stand down one centimeter.
33. Repeat steps 4 and 5 until the source is 7 centimeters away from the
counter.

∗
taken from PASCO scientific Science Workshop

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 46-

 D R A F T

34. Repeat the entire procedure for the alpha and gamma sources.

Data Analysis

Using your data discuss the relationship between distance and activity. Use
graphs and any statistical techniques that may be appropriate to this laboratory.

Questions

(x) Dose nuclear radiation follow the inverse square law? Justify you answer.
(y) What first action would be important to protect yourself from the radiation
released from a broken container of radioactive material?
(z) Does alpha and gamma radiation have the same relationship to distance
from the source as beta radiation?
(aa) How would the risk of exposure to radioactive substances be different if
nuclear radiation followed an inverse cube law?

Figure 1. Experimental Layout

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 47-

D R A F T

Manual 021 2/25/1999 - 48-