Datums, Map Projections

UNIT 9 UNDERSTANDING MAPS and Coordinate Systems

Structure
9.1 Introduction
Objectives
9.2 What is a Map?
9.3 Types of Maps
According to Scale
According to Function
9.4 Map Scale
Definition
Methods of Representation
9.5 Map Elements
Title
Legend
Scale
Direction
Credits
Spherical Coordinate System
Border and Neat Lines
9.6 Colour Composition of Maps
9.7 Placement of Feature’s Name on Maps
Basic Principles of Map Naming
Data Representation by Maps
Types of Map Naming
9.8 Visual Aspects of Maps
Primary Visual Variables
Secondary Visual Variables
9.9 Comparison of Different Map Layouts
Map Elements
Balance
Focus of Attention
9.10 Summary
9.11 Unit End Questions
9.12 References
9.13 Further/Suggested Reading
9.14 Answers

9.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 8, we have discussed about the shape and size of the planet Earth,
datum, coordinate system (latitudes and longitudes) and various types of map
projections. As you know map projections are very important for transferring
the spherical network of latitudes and longitudes of the Earth on a flat surface
or on a piece of paper. It simply means that a map can be drawn with the help
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Basics of Mapping of a system of map projections. A thorough knowledge of cartography – an art
and science of designing, constructing and producing maps – is essential for
map making and its understanding. In this unit, we will discuss about maps
and their types, elements, scale, visual aspects and colour composition. We
will also make a comparison between various map layouts at the end of the
unit.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to:
• define a map;
• classify maps and outline their elements;
• discuss significance of maps having different scales;
• compare various maps;
• select an appropriate map for a specific purpose; and
• identify a good or a bad map.

9.2 WHAT IS A MAP?

We know that the Earth is large and is fully covered by natural (physical) and
cultural (man-made) features. Hence it is impractical to communicate the
picture of the whole Earth and its features verbally. To overcome this problem,
a projection has been developed to represent the Earth along with the location,
distribution and relationship of its features through pictorial representations
known as maps. A map is the graphical two dimensional representations of all
or part of the Earth’s surface and its features on a plane surface drawn to a
specific scale. Since, it is also impractical to represent all features of the
Earth’s surface in their actual sizes and forms on a map, maps are drawn at
reduced scales. This attempt to show the surface of the Earth or a portion of
Cartography is the art and the Earth on a flat surface is known as map. Map projections help to represent
science of making maps the three-dimensional features of the Earth’s surface in two-dimensional
and Cartographer is a forms. With the help of scales and map projections a correspondence of every
person who creates maps. point on the map to the actual ground position can be established. In a map,
the real-world features have been replaced by symbols, signs, shades and
colours. In other words, maps are really selective, symbolised and generalised
representation of real-world phenomena on a plane surface at a reduced scale.
Maps, therefore, are the paper storehouses of geospatial information.

It is very important for you to understand the difference between maps and
sketches. A sketch is simple arrangement of lines, polygons, etc., with no scale
and spherical coordinates. A map on the other hand always shows scale and
coordinate system. Maps are mainly prepared and published by the national
mapping organisation of every country of the world.

9.3 TYPES OF MAPS

There are several types of maps. Each map may show one or different kinds of
information. Maps are generally made according to the function and scale. For
example, some maps are used for forecasting the weather, while others are
32
used to plot the population in an area. Depending upon the function and scale, Understanding Maps
maps are classified into various types as shown in Fig. 9.1.

Types of maps

Based on scale Based on function

Large scale maps Small scale maps Physical/Natural maps Cultural maps
Cadastral maps Wall maps Relief maps Political maps
Topographical maps Atlas maps Geological maps Population maps
Climatic maps Economic maps
Weather maps Transportation maps
Soil maps Agricultural maps
Natural vegetational maps Industrial maps
Astronomical maps Historical maps

Fig. 9.1: Types of maps

9.3.1 According to Scale

According to the scale, maps may be classified into large scale and small scale
maps.
Large Scale Maps
A map which shows a small area with detailed information is referred to as a
large scale map. Large scale maps represent an area in higher detail; thus,
map may contain more information but coverage of an area is small. US
Geological Survey maps are drawn at a scale of 1:62,500, the Canadian Centre Scale represents the ratio
of distance on the map to
for Topographic Information maps at a scale of 1:50,000, the Survey of India
the actual distance on the
maps at a scale of 1:25,000 are few examples of large scale maps. Large scale ground.
maps are further sub-divided into cadastral and topographical maps.
a) Cadastral Maps
The term ‘cadastral’ is derived from the French word ‘cadastre’ which
means ‘register of property’ are related to land. These maps are drawn on
a very large scale such as 1:3,960, 1:1,900 or even more. They are used to
show the ownership of land properties by demarcating the boundaries of
agricultural fields and buildings. Cadastral maps are prepared and
compiled by the government agencies and are used for revenue and
taxation purposes. Village maps prepared by Patwari may be put under
this type.
b) Topographical Maps
Topographical maps are also drawn on a fairly large scale but their scale
is relatively smaller than cadastral maps. Topographic maps are based on
precise topographical surveys and are published in the form of series of
maps by the national mapping agencies. These maps are drawn at
different scales, like 1:250,000; 1:50,000; 1:25,000 by the various
mapping agencies. A topographical map, for example, shows only natural
and cultural features and does not show the boundaries of individual
agricultural lands (Fig. 9.2). These maps follow a standard system of
symbols, signs, contours and colours to show topographic information.
You will read more about topographical maps in Unit 10 of this course.
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Basics of Mapping

Fig. 9.2: A sample topographical map

Small Scale Maps

Small scale maps refer to maps on which objects are relatively small. For
instance, a map depicting a large area, such as an entire country is considered
to be a small scale map. They are drawn to show large areas e.g. a map of the
world that fits on one/two page would be a small scale map. Small scale maps
are further sub-divided into wall and atlas maps.

a) Wall Maps
Wall maps are usually drawn on large size papers or plastic sheets. After
unfolding these maps you can hang on the wall. Wall maps look like
posters (Fig. 9.3). Wall maps are small and simple, and used for many
purposes. They are used in classrooms, lecture halls, and also help to
navigate highways, roads, and locations. Scale for these maps is smaller
than those of topographical maps.

Fig. 9.3: Wall map of the world (source: www.worldmapsonline.com)

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b) Atlas Maps Understanding Maps

These maps are generally drawn on a very small scale. Therefore, they
represent large areas and also provide highly generalised information of
physical and cultural features of different regions of the world. Scale of
atlas maps is smaller than wall maps.

9.3.2 According to Function

Maps can also be classified according to their functions and purposes. For
example, a political map shows an administrative arrangement of a nation or a
state and a climate map shows different types of climatic zones. Based on the
functions and purposes, maps are also classified into physical and cultural
maps.

Physical Maps
Physical maps are especially prepared to show natural features such as
heavenly bodies, relief, soils, rocks, vegetation, drainage, weather, climate,
etc. These maps further sub-divided into following types:

a) Astronomical Maps
Astronomical maps are prepared to show heavenly bodies, like stars,
galaxies, or surfaces of the planets and the Moon. Modern astronomical
maps are based on a coordinate system similar to geographic latitudes and
longitudes. These maps have both large and small scales.
b) Relief Maps
Relief maps are drawn to show the actual relief (topography) features of
surface of the Earth, like mountains, valley, plains, plateaus, drainage,
slopes, river systems, etc.
c) Geological Maps
These types of maps are prepared to show different types of rocks,
minerals, and geological structures.
d) Climatic Maps
Climatic maps depict different types of climate zones of an area (Fig. 9.4).

Fig. 9.4: Climatic map of the world (source: www.map.com)

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Basics of Mapping e) Weather Maps
These maps are drawn to show the average conditions of weather’s
elements (temperature, pressure, rainfall, direction and velocity of winds,
etc.) over a short period, which may range from one day to one season.

f) Soil Maps
Maps are also drawn to show different soil types found in a region or
continent using different shades and colours.

g) Vegetation Maps
These maps are prepared to show distribution and types of vegetation in
an area, nation or the whole Earth.

Cultural Maps
Cultural maps are drawn to represent man-made features such as buildings,
canals, dams, rails and road networks, etc.

a) Political Maps
These maps represent boundaries between various political regions, such
as tehsil, district, state and country. For example, political map of India
shows 28 states and 7 union territories of India (Fig. 9.5).

Fig. 9.5: Outline of political map of India showing States and Union Territories with
major cities and capitals (www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/india_map.html)

36
b) Population Maps Understanding Maps

These maps are drawn to show distribution and density of population,

and related features such as growth rate, age and sex composition,
religious distribution, occupation, etc.
c) Economic Maps
These maps depict distribution and production of agricultural, mining and
industrial products. In addition, economic maps also show location of
industries and markets, trade routes, commercial centres, etc.
d) Transportation Maps
These maps are drawn to show the network of roads, railway lines, air
and shipping routes.
e) Agricultural Maps
These maps represent production and distribution of different types of
crops in an area, nation, or the whole world.
f) Industrial Maps
These maps are drawn to show location of industrial hubs in a region,
nation or continent.
g) Historical Maps
Historical maps are drawn to show past events.

9.4 MAP SCALE

From the last section you would have realised that maps can be drawn that are
region specific e.g. map of a district, a state, a country, a continent or the
whole world. It is impossible to represent the whole surface of the Earth on a
single plane piece of paper in its actual size because for this we need a very
long paper of the same size as the Earth. To overcome this problem, we make
use of a scale to represent a part or entire surface of the Earth. A scale helps us
to reduce whole or a portion of the Earth to a size which is convenient and
handy to represent the portion to be shown as well as has scientific and logical
values. Therefore, maps are scaled down so that they fit on available paper.

9.4.1 Definition
We can define a map scale as the relationship between distance on a map and For example, let us
distance on the ground. In other words, map scale can also be expressed as the assume that 1cm on a map
ratio of distances between any two points on map and their corresponding represents 1 km on the
ground. It means scale
distance between the same two points on the ground. Thus, map scale is a would be
method for expressing relationship between map distance and ground distance 1 cm = 1 km or
or distance on the surface of the Earth. Understanding map scale is very
Distance on the map /
important to know the size of the land features represented on a map and Distance on the ground
relative distances between them. During the process of scaling down of a map, = 1 cm/1 km
every part of the map should be scaled down by the same amount. This will =1 cm/1,00,000 cm
ensure that every feature on the map is in same proportion. Suppose, if a city = 1/1,00,000 scale.
is twice as large as a neighbouring town, an accurate scaled map will show the
same relationship on paper. The drawn city will be twice as large as the drawn
town.
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Basics of Mapping 9.4.2 Methods of Representation
There are three ways to represent a map scale:

Statement of Scale
It is the simplest method of scale representation. In this method, scale of a
map is expressed in written statement like 1 centimetre (cm) equals to 10
kilometre (km). It means 1 cm on map is representing 10 km of the
corresponding distance on the ground. The main demerits of this method are a)
people who are not familiar with the used system of measurements, find it
difficult to understand the units and b) when a map is reduced or enlarged, the
statement of scale will change.

Graphical Scale
The second way of expressing relation between a distance on a map and
corresponding distance on the ground is the graphical scale. Graphical scale is
also known as linear scale, bar scale, or scale bar. In graphical scale, distance
is shown graphically along a line with primary and secondary divisions
marked on it (Fig. 9.6). Length of a segment of line represents some distance
on the Earth. In a graphical scale, zero point is located on the left end of the
scale. To the right of zero point, the scale is graduated in primary divisions and
from left of zero scale is graduated in secondary divisions. The advantage of
this method is that when a map is reduced or enlarged scale will get
To the right of the zero, proportionally reduced or enlarged.
the scale is marked in full
units of measure and is
called the primary scale.
To the left of the zero, the
scale is divided into
subunits and is called the
secondary scale.
Fig. 9.6: Graphical scale

Representative Fraction
We may also specify scale as a representative fraction (R.F.). R.F. shows a
relationship between map distance and corresponding distance on the ground
in units of length. For example, if we have a R.F. of 1/1000 or 1:1000. It
means one unit of measurement on a map represents 1000 units on the ground.
R.F. is always written with map distance as 1 and is independent of any unit of
measurement e.g., yards, meters, inches, cms, etc. But it is important to
remember that both values of the fraction must have same units of
measurement, like 1 inch represents 1000 inches, or 1cm represents 1000 cms.
In this method, numerator shows distance on the map while denominator
represents distance on the ground and its value changes according to the scale.

In R.F., ground distance between two points can be determined by measuring

distance between the same two points on the map and then multiplying map
measurement by the denominator of R.F. For example, R.F is 1:1000 and map
distance of two points say from point A to point B is 5 cm then ground
distance is 5×1000 = 5000 cm. R.F. is a versatile method as it can be used with
any system of measurement.

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Check Your Progress I Spend Understanding Maps
5 mins
1) Name three ways of representing the scale on a map.
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9.5 MAP ELEMENTS

Maps are not domain of only geographers. In fact, they are also used by
different people and professionals all over the world for various purposes.
Therefore, the amount of information a map communicates, or a reader can
extract from it, is dependent on certain elements of maps. For better
representation of maps, cartographers used some terms or elements to make
readers understand maps easily and to interpret information displayed on them
correctly. The main types of map elements as shown in Fig. 9.7 and include
title, legend, scale, north arrow, projection type, date of publication, neat lines,
and map notes.

9.5.1 Title
Title is a very important feature of maps. A title of a map will tell you what it
is for. It should be simple and clearly indicate its purpose. Title is usually
displayed on top of the map to provide a clear indication on the thematic and
geographic region displayed.

Fig. 9.7: Labelling of map of India 39

Basics of Mapping 9.5.2 Legend
Legend is a guide which lists symbols and colours used on a map to represent
different geographic features. Legend helps to identify what symbols and
colours represent. It is important to note symbols appearing in the legend
should remain same as they appear in the body of the map. Legend should be
described clearly.

9.5.3 Scale
As you learnt in section 9.3, scale represents the relationship between distance
on a map and actual distance on the ground. Scale provides important
information regarding linear aspects on the maps to the users. Scale on a map
can be shown as a statement of scale, graphical scale and/or R.F. Most of the
cartographers prefer graphic form of scale representation during map making.

9.5.4 Direction
It is another important map element. With help of direction, you can determine
orientation of the map. As a rule, each map should have a north arrow that
points to the North Pole. North arrow is a symbol indicating the direction in
which north lies. Generally, the “north arrow” is placed at the top of a map. In
some maps “compass rose” is used as symbol to indicate the cardinal
directions such as N (North), S (South), E (East) and W (West) (Fig. 9.8).

Fig. 9.8: (a) North arrow and (b) compass rose

9.5.5 Credits
Credits include name of cartographer/s and organisation responsible for map
making. Credits also indicate accuracy of map, date of publication or revision,
and other explanatory material. Credits should be written in small readable
text.

9.5.6 Spherical Coordinate System

Spherical coordinate system includes latitudes and longitudes. This system
helps us to determine absolute position of an object or an area on the surface
of the Earth. Left and right margins of the map are marked by position of
40
latitudes while top and bottom margins are marked by position of longitudes Understanding Maps
(Fig. 9.9). Cartographers have taken the equator (0° latitude) as the starting
point for latitudes and the prime meridian (0° longitude) for longitudes.
Latitudes above the equator show north and below the equator show the south.
In the same way, lines to the right of prime meridian show east and to the left
show west.

9.5.7 Border and Neat Lines

Both these elements are optional. Borders help to frame the whole map
composition to focus the attention of readers on different elements of
information. Neat lines are finer lines than borders and drawn inside the
borders. Neat lines are used to indicate where an area of a map begins and
ends.

9.6 COLOUR COMPOSITION OF MAPS

If you see a map, you will find that it has a number of colours. Actually,
cartographers use different colours to represent features on maps. Many
colours used on maps have a relationship to features on the ground. For
example, in a map, blue colour is used for representing water bodies, brown
for mountains and hills, green for vegetation, etc. It is very important for you
to become familiar with different colours which are used by the cartographers
to show various features on the maps. A general scheme of colours and their
representation of features are given in Table 9.1. However, it is important to
note that different maps can use colours in a variety of ways. For example,
political maps which show mostly human-made features usually use more map
colours than physical maps. Physical maps show the natural features of the
Earth. As a result, it is important to have a serious look at the legend of a map
before taking any decision.

Fig. 9.9: Map of the world showing position of latitudes and longitudes
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Basics of Mapping Table 9.1: Features by map colours
Colours Features shown
Blue Water bodies such as lakes, swamps, rivers, drainage, reservoirs, and oceans.
Black Cultural features such as buildings, roads, railways, highways, bridges, place
names, borders surveyed, spot elevations, and all labels.
White Areas that are mostly clear of trees - fields, plains, sand flats, etc.
Green Dense vegetation – areas covered by forests, woods, jungles, parks, golf
courses, forest, orchards, etc.
Brown Contour lines that help to identify all relief features and elevation.
Red Classifies cultural features, such as populated areas, main roads, and
boundaries.

9.7 PLACEMENT OF FEATURE’S NAME ON MAPS

By now you would have become familiar with the fact that maps represent
spatial information. The way in which spatial information or geographical
entities on maps are represented is called map naming or name placement on
maps. Map naming is a time consuming task but it forms an important part of
a map for many reasons. The most obvious reasons are given below:
• labels tell the names of the spatial features
• make maps more readable and interpretable
• provide understanding of the linear extent and orientation of map features
• provide information about the nominal class to which spatial features
belong and
• provide understanding of the relative size and importance of the features
Over centuries, cartographers have developed various methods of placing
names on maps. Generally, map labelling can be accomplished through
cartographic text which includes font size, spacing, orientation and placement
Eduard Imhof was a of labels. Finally, good name placement makes map reading considerably
professor of cartography effective and enhances aesthetic appearance of a map. Imhof (1975) stated that
at the Swiss Federal ‘good form and placing of type makes a good map’ in the same way as
Institute of Technology, ‘clothes make the man’. Thus, labels are an essential aspect of maps, and
Zürich, from 1925 - 1965.
In 1949 he was awarded
quality of a map depends on the way these (labels) are annotated.
by an honorary Doctorate
of Philosophy from the 9.7.1 Basic Principles of Map Naming
University of Zurich for Imhof (1975) suggested six basic principles that should be taken into
his work as a cartographer.
consideration before placing names on maps. These are:
• names should be easily readable and locatable
• name and object to which it belongs should be easily recognisable
• names should not disturb to other map contents as little as possible so
that there is no overlapping and concealment of object/names
• names should assist directly in revealing spatial situation, territorial
extent, connections, importance and differentiations of features

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• arrangement of names should reflect the classification and hierarchy of Understanding Maps
objects on the map
• names should neither be evenly dispersed over the map nor be densely
clustered

9.7.2 Data Representation by Maps

Generally, three types of data/designations are represented in a map (Fig. 9.10).
These designations are given below:
Point data consist of small and localised places on a map whose surface
extent is so small that names cannot be placed within them e.g. cities, villages,
ports, towns, churches, mines, mountain peaks, historical sites, triangulation
points, etc.
Line data refer to spatial features that have linear or ribbon-like extent e.g.
rivers, roads, railways, canals, streets, ship routes, etc.
Area data show a region on a map e.g. tehsils, districts, states, countries,
lakes, oceans, bay, etc. An area data is usually represented by closed
boundaries on maps in which names can be set.

Fig. 9.10: Example of point, line, and area data along with name placement in a map

9.7.3 Types of Map Naming

Based on data, map labelling can be divided into point, line and area labelling.
It is also important to note that placing a name in any type of data mentioned
above depends on the scale of maps e.g., in a large scale map names can be set
within a building but same is not possible in a small scale map. Ahn and
Freeman (1983) suggested certain rules for naming point, line, and area
features, which are given below:
Point Features: The rules that apply to name the point features are as follows:
• label for a point feature should be horizontal i.e. east-west direction and
parallel to one of the map boundaries 43
Basics of Mapping • point feature labels should not spread out
• a point feature label should be close to the point feature to which it refers,
but a minimum distance must be maintained
• position of a point label may be somewhat above and to the right of the
point but other positions in connection to the feature can also be
considered.
Line Features: Rules for labelling line features are:
• labels for a line feature should conform to the curvature of the line
• complicated and extreme curvatures should be avoided
• line feature labels should not spread out, but may be repeated at
reasonable interval along the line
• for horizontal line features, the names should be placed above the line
• for vertical line features, names of left half line features should be placed
on the left side of the line to be read upward and names of right half line
features should be placed on the right side of the line to be read
downward
• avoid placing a name near an end point of the line feature.
Area Features: For area features, naming is somewhat more difficult than line
and point naming because of the complicated shapes of areas and variety of
naming methods. The following rules apply to name area features:
• the label for an area feature should span entire area and conform to the
general shape of the feature, leaving about one and one-half letter spaces
at both ends. However, if there is no significant difference between this
placement and horizontal placement of an area name, then preference
should be given to horizontal placement
• non-horizontal placed names should not be straight but curved. The arcs
should not be greater than 60 degrees
• a name that reads away from the horizontal is preferred over a name that
reads towards the horizontal.
You should keep in mind that generally, point names are preferably positioned
above and to the right of the feature. Line names should follow line feature
and be placed in unoccupied space and preferably be almost horizontal. In area
naming, name is set inside the area, and stretched so that it represents whole
area. It is also equally important to take into consideration the fact that
distribution of features should be even as much as possible, within the map
frame to avoid unnecessary crowding or leaving large blank areas.

9.8 VISUAL ASPECTS OF MAPS

Once geographic features and data are selected and classified for compilation
of a map, it is important to choose appropriate symbols to represent them on
maps. A specific set of symbols that can be used to communicate information
is called visual variables/visual aspects of maps. Originally, a French
cartographer, Bertin (1967), has given a comprehensive account of the theories
of visual aspects of maps and their uses.Visual variables include location in
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space, shape, size, orientation, hue (colour), and colour value (Fig. 9.11). The Understanding Maps
visual variables are the building blocks for map making.

Fig. 9.11: Primary visual variables with examples of their application to the classes of
symbols (redrawn after Robinson and others, 2004)

Visual variables are of two types namely, primary and secondary visual
variables.

9.8.1 Primary Visual Variables

Primary visual variables are shape, size, orientation and colour. Let us look at
Fig. 9.11 to understand how they are used.

a) Orientation
Orientation provides another mode of visual distinction. It is best suited
for vector fields, like wind, gravity and magnetism. Map symbols used by
meteorologists to denote wind direction and speed combine orientation
with shape (1st Row, Fig. 9.11).
b) Size
The size of the displayed object reflects the unit value of the feature of
interest. Size is limited by the ability of the map reader to estimate the
difference between sizes (2nd Row, Fig. 9.11). Size differences may be
displayed by adjusting linearly or by adjusting the area, for example, by
increasing twice the length of the sides of a square or by increasing twice
its area. In another example, size of line features corresponds to width, in
which wider lines correspond to interstate highway and narrow lines to
local streets.
c) Shape
Shape is represented in the form of a graphic mark. For example, a shape
may be regular and geometric in case of a square, circle, triangle, etc.
(Fig. 9.11). Shapes can also be irregular, for instance, in the case of a
pictographic version of a bridge or tree (3rd Row, Fig. 9.11).
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Basics of Mapping d) Colour
Colour is the most important single medium in map design. It enables us
to create a better contrast in symbols. Used in conjunction with other
graphic symbols, it makes the portrayal of data visually more interesting.
It also enables more information to be fed in a map without making it
congested. The colours perceived by us have following three
characteristics:
• Value: Is the vertical division of hues. Each hue has ten shades of values
ranging from white at the top to black at the bottom (4th Row, Fig. 9.11).
• Hue: It is the quality which differentiates one colour from the other.
There are following 10 types of hues: yellow-red (orange) yellow,
yellow-green, green, blue-green, blue, purple-blue, violet, purple,
red-purple (magenta). The shades between any two hues can be
further subdivided into 10 steps, to make 100 hues in all. Each of the
hundred hues is further divided vertically and horizontally (5th Row,
Fig. 9.11).
• Intensity: Here each hue is again divided into 10 shades to give the
varying degrees of intensity or brightness or relative saturation of
colour area. These 10 shades vary from gray to pure colour.
In all, we get combinations to form over 5,000 colours. These colours are
designated to give all the three characteristics. For example, Y.R. 4/3 means
yellow-red of fourth gradation in darkness (value) between black and white
and third gradation in brilliance (intensity) from grey to full yellow-red.

9.8.2 Secondary Visual Variables

The various combinations of primary or graphic visual variables produce an
areal graphic effect which is known as pattern. A pattern is characterised by
the arrangement, texture and orientation of graphic elements (Fig. 9.12). Hence
pattern arrangement, texture and orientation forms secondary visual variables.
a) Texture
Texture refers to the size and spacing of component elements (graphic
variable, combining size, value, hue, shape and orientation) that make up
a pattern (1st Row, Fig. 9.12). A fine texture is formed by the close
spacing of small elements while a coarse texture is formed by an open
arrangement of larger elements (Fig. 9.13). It is used for nominal and
ordered attributes of areas and lines.

Fig. 9.12: Secondary visual variables with examples of their application to the classes of
46 symbols (source: Robinson et al, 2004)
 Understanding Maps

(a) (b)

Fig. 9.13: (a) Coarse and (b) Fine textures

b) Orientation
It is directional arrangement of parallel rows of elements (2nd Row, Fig. 9.12).

c) Arrangement
It refers to the shape and configuration of component elements that make
up a pattern. The point or line patterns generally have systematic structure
(3rd Row, Fig. 9.12).

Check Your Progress II

Spend
1) Name three types of geographic data shown on the map. 5 mins

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9.9 COMPARSOIN OF DIFFERENT MAP LAYOUTS

A map layout is basically a plan or design in which a map can be drawn. It can
be portrait or landscape. Map layouts are very important in creating good
composition and visual balance of maps. There are five basic principles
behind making map layouts:
• you should understand the concept and the requirements of the person
using the maps so that you get an idea how to display data on the map
and which map elements should be included
• you should understand the hierarchy with harmony. This means the kind
of interrelationship between various elements on maps. Emphasis should
be given according to the level of importance of the elements of the map.
Associated features must be given an associated treatment. A perfect
harmony of features leads to a neutral bloom in a map
• readers can gain maximum information from map at a glance with
minimum cost and time
47
Basics of Mapping • your map layout should be designed to engage attention of its readers.
This can be done by taking into account how the readers would like to
visualise the information in the map. Map layout consists of map
elements, balance, and focus of attention

9.9.1 Map Elements

For each map element, the cartographer must determine its importance and
priority within overall map design. Most important elements in a given design
should feature in more prominent positions and occupy a larger area within the
map frame than other less important elements. In this way, the importance of
the various map elements can be matched to the visual hierarchy of map itself
(Fig. 9.14).

Fig. 9.14: Arrangement of map elements

9.9.2 Balance
Balance in graphic design refers to the visual balance of positioning of
various visual components (legends, boxes, colour areas, scale, map figure,
etc.) in such a way that their relationship appears logical. Nothing should
appear to be out of place. In fact, layout is the process of arriving at a proper
balance. In a well-balanced design, nothing is too light or too dark, too long or
too short, or too small or too large.
Generally, visual balance depends on the relative position and visual
importance of basic parts of a map. It also depends on the relationship of each
item to other items and to the optical center of the map. A map has two centers
namely geometric center and an optical center (Fig. 9.15). An optical center is
a point that lies slightly above the geometric center. For achieving better visual
balance, designer should arrange map elements around the natural (optical)
48 center, rather than the geometric center.
 Understanding Maps

Fig. 9.15: Optical and geometric centers of an image. Balancing is achieved around the
optical center.

If you study the Fig. 9.16, you will be able to find that first three layouts are
unbalanced because there is poor balance between various objects of map such
as margins, white space, bounding boxes and alignment. But the fourth layout
has a very good combination of different objects of the map hence, it is a
balanced layout.

Fig. 9.16: Comparison between unbalanced and balanced layouts of map

A simple way to understand how balance can affect impression one would
have while viewing a map, is illustrated in Fig. 9.17. The figure shows several
different locations of the shape of India. Can you find which appears better
balanced within the map frame? 49
Basics of Mapping

Fig. 9.17: Different layouts of map. The A, B, and C panels leave more space on right,
left and top of outlines, respectively. Position in panel D shows visual
equilibrium and appears better balanced within the map frame

9.9.3 Focus of Attention

Normally, the optical center of a map attracts the viewer’s eye. As a result, the
eyes follow a path from upper left, proceed through the optical center and exit
the space at the lower right (Fig. 9.18). Cartographic designers may use this
pattern when arranging the map elements, so that positions of important
objects on the map correspond to natural eye movement.

Fig. 9.18: Eye movement through the image space, arrow indicates direction of
movement (redrawn after Dent, 1999)
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 Understanding Maps
9.10 SUMMARY
• Maps are the graphic representation of all or part of the Earth’s surface
and its features drawn to a specific scale.
• There are three methods of scale representation on maps viz. statement of
scale, graphical scale and R.F.
• Maps are classified into large and small scale maps based on scale as well
as into physical and cultural maps based on their function.
• As you know maps are used by a number of audiences hence, certain map
elements comprising title, legend, scale, orientation, directional arrow,
credits, latitudes and longitudes have been used by cartographers to
communicate geographical information.
• For better understanding of features, cartographers also use a
combination of colours and visual variables, like shape, size, orientation,
colour, colour value and pattern to represent spatial information on maps.
• Good name positioning increases legibility, clarity, and aesthetic value of
maps. Although name placement is a very time consuming process but it
gives a clear understanding of various spatial (point, line and area)
features shown on the maps.
• Layouts of maps tell us which is a good or a bad map. A good map has
balanced layout in which map elements, visual variables, colours and
name placement done in a proper manner. Overall, a good map shows
even distribution of its various components within map frame without
leaving any overcrowding or large blank areas.
Spend
9.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS 30 mins
1) What is a map?
2) Name the visual variables, and explain one of them.
3) Give a concise account of types of maps.

9.12 REFERENCES
• Ahn, J. and Freeman, H. (1983), A program for automatic name
placement, Aut-Carto, Vol.VI 2,444-453p.
• Bertin, J. (1967), Semiologie Graphique, Paris/Den Haag, Mouton, 570p.
• Dent, B.D. (1999), Cartography: Thematic Map Design, 5th Ed. WCB
McGraw-Hill, 433p.
• Imhof, E. (1975), Positioning names on maps. The American
cartographer. Vol 2, 128-144p.
• Robinson, A.H., Morrison, J.L., Muehrcke, P.C., Kimerling, A.J. and Cuptill,
S.C. (2004), Elements of Cartography, Wiley India (P.) Ltd, New Delhi.
• www.map.com
• www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/india_map.html
• www.worldmapsonline.com
Data from above websites was retrieved on July 3, 2011.
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Basics of Mapping
9.13 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READING
• Misra, R.P. and Ramesh, A. (1989), Fundamentals of Cartography,
Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 556 p.
• www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions.

9.14 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress I
1) i) by a statement of scale,
ii) by a graphical scale and
iii) by representative fraction (R.F).
Check Your Progress II
2) Line data, Point data and Area data.

Unit End Questions

1) A map is the selective, symbolised and generalised representation of the
whole or a part of the Earth at a reduced scale.

2) Visual variables include shape, size, orientation, colour pattern

arrangement, texture and their orientation. Colour is the most important
single medium in map design. It enables us to create a better contrast in
symbols. Used in conjunction with other graphic symbols, it makes the
portrayal of data visually more interesting. It also enables more
information to be introduced in a map without making it congested.

3) According to scale, maps may be classified into large scale and small
scale. Large scale maps are drawn to show small areas with more detail
information. Small scale maps are drawn to show large areas in less
detail. Maps are also classified according to their function into physical
and political maps.

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