UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO
CARTOGRAPHY
Structure
1.1 Introduction 1.6 Laboratory Exercises
Expected Learning Outcomes Exercise 1: Construction of Map
1.2 History and Development of Scale-Plain and Comparative
Cartography Exercise 2: Construction of Map
1.3 Cognition and Scale-Diagonal
Communication 1.7 Summary
1.4 Earth as a Cartographic 1.8 Answers
Challenge 1.9 References and Further
1.5 Representing the Earth: Reading
Scales and Contents

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Cartography is both art as well as science of map making. Its initial
development could very well be traced from the walls of caves made by our
ancestors in prehistoric times. The drawings were crude in form, but very
important and useful for them to understand the surroundings. It was basically
presentation of observed things and their distribution in their vicinity. Later on,
it was made on the skins of animals they were using or the nearby big trees.
Its progression has a long history. It has marched from crude sketches to very
precise presentation of Earth’s surface as well as celestial bodies with
application of scientific knowledge that we have acquired over time. Hence,
the journey of cartography has been a changing affair based on the scientific
developments during different phases.

All of you have read books on Geography during your school and graduation
days. Everyone has studied maps through books and atlas. But have you
ever thought as to how those maps are made? In your higher classes, you
also studied about the cartography which was a part of practical paper in
Geography. This unit will introduce you to some essential aspects of
cartography, especially about its nature, scope, and historical development.
This unit will also help you in learning about the cartographic challenges
primarily due to the shape of the Earth. Earth is geoid in shape and accurately
Ramashay Prasad 11
Block - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Fundamentals of Cartography

transferring the curved 3D Earth on a 2D surface has a problem which is a

prime concern to discuss in this unit. Its transformation is done on certain
proportion known as scale that is also dealt here along with a discussion on
how it could be developed.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

 Define cartography;
 Explain the nature and scope of cartography;
 Discuss the evolution and development of cartography in historical
perspective;
 Elaborate the cartographic challenges in mapping the Earth; and
 Construct the scale of map by doing the given exercises.

1.2 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF

CARTOGRAPHY
What is Cartography?

Under cartography, map making activity is associated with several

techniques, ideas, aspects and used technology. Many of them have changed
and supposed to further change with advancing technologies. Hence, it is
very difficult to give one universal definition of cartography.

According to International Cartographic Union, “Cartography is a discipline

dealing with the conception, production, dissemination and study of maps.”

According to J. Smith, “Cartography is the science of constructing maps and

charts. It includes the making of original surveys, the selection of suitable map
projection and decisions on colours, layer tinting and other visual
representations”.

The Britannica Encyclopaedia explains cartography as an ancient discipline

that dates from the prehistoric depiction and delineation of hunting and fishing
territories. It defines “Cartography as the art and science of graphically
representing a geographical area, usually on a flat surface such as a map or
chart.”

Overall, cartography is the associated with representation of the surface of

Earth or celestial bodies on certain ratio/scale. It involves preparing maps,
charts, models or globes and their designing, formatting, symbolizing, editing
and ultimately finalizing them for better visual understanding of the space.

Nature of Cartography

The nature of cartography is concerned with knowledge and awareness of our

surrounding in prehistoric days to the entire Earth and universe today. It was
drawing on the walls of the caves in those days to a complex system of
mathematical computerised modelling today.

12
Unit - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Introduction to Cartography

It is mentioned above, cartography is the art and science of representing

space on a smaller size on certain scale. Hence, its nature is to acquire
information of selected space. All qualitative and quantitative data are
represented so that one can have a visual conceptualization of the area. With
advancement of knowledge and technologies, now, it is comparatively easy to
get the information about the space in a short possible time. Apart from our
conventional surveying techniques, geographical information system (GIS)
has played a very important role in acquiring information and helping in
preparing visual illustrations. Finally, before releasing the map for common
people, researcher and cartographer used to get the details on the maps
verified and confirmed from the real field.

To represent this information, we need to have an areal true demonstrating

boundary which is prepared using different projections. Map projections are
prepared with the help of physics, mathematics and geometry. Preparing
maps as well as showing information on it is an art. In other words,
cartography is a combination of physics, geometry, mathematics, geography,
geodesy, surveying, engineering, technology and mental visualisation and
presentation of facts. Hence, it is an interdisciplinary subject.

Advancement in space technology, remote sensing, GIS, global positioning

system along with sophisticated computer-based software have enhanced the
capability of cartographer. The much older survey and manual-based tasks
have now become almost automated.

Scope of Cartography

There is extensive use and scope of cartography in our knowledge and

research domain. It has increased immensely with time and fulfilling ability of
requirement by technological development. Primarily, cartography includes
everything pertaining to map making. It encompasses the skill of data
collection, compilation tabulation, storing, map preparation, overlaying,
analysis, ascertaining relationships, and arriving at conclusions. The scale of
study may differ from a minute study area to a large global one. For example,
cadastral map or a drawing of your own house plan for construction at smaller
spatial unit to the world map. Maps are reduced representation of the Earth or
celestial bodies prepared with certain theme and objective.

The maps can be either of the two aspects – physical or cultural – of present
or past. The physical maps are those which represents natural phenomenon
like physiography, geomorphology, geology, soils, forests, rivers and water
bodies, etc. The cultural maps are those which show the distribution of
landscape modified by human activities. Like maps showing land use, area
under several crops and plantation, roads, railways, settlement, dams and
reservoir etc. are cultural in character. Demarcation of the Earth surface on a
piece of paper is very complex process. It happens so because of the shape
and dimensions of the Earth. For this purpose, we need to use map projection
depending on the areal expansion and the purpose of representing any
aspect on the map. It includes both 2D or 3D representation of the surface.

Let us now discuss the history of cartography in three major periods.

13
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Cartography
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.2.1 History of Cartography
The history of raw cartography in the form of sketches of surroundings on the
walls of caves started in prehistoric time. Those people must have required to
know their surroundings to fulfil their day-to-day needs. In that way, they
developed the skill of drawing primitive sketches and charts. The oldest
known map made on clay dates back to about 2300BC, about 4300 years
before present time. It was discovered in the ruined city of Ga-Sur,
approximately 300 km north from Babylon. Later on, Ptolemy depicted the
world map between 30 degree south to 60 degree north and created a
landmark. Many of the Kings prepared maps of their jurisdiction for the
collection of taxes.

The advanced cartography emerged during First World War when aerial
photography was introduced. It helped in preparing accurate and precise
maps. Modern cartography started during 1970s and 1980s. It marked the
period of introduction of automation. Due to this, data storing and map making
became comparatively easy. The development of technology has increased
the pace of map making and producing and still improving exponentially.

The Ancient Period (upto 600AD)

Since prehistoric period, people have been using to draw sketches of their
surroundings and conveying others that what are available nearby. These
were made on cave walls, animals’ skin, trees, tree leaves, clothes and later
on papers. Further afterwards, it was engraved on metallic plates. It was
presented by Egyptians, Babylonians, and Greeks in comparatively improved
versions. In fact, Greek scholars started working on modern cartography.
Some of the important names are Aristotle, Anaximander, Hecateus,
Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus, Ptolemy etc. They considered the
Earth to be spheroid in shape. They were the pioneers’ of developing modern
cartography.

Ancient Romans are known for preparing Peutinger Map showing the physical
features and road network under Roman Empire (Fig. 1.1). In India, the
cartographic roots go back to Vedic Period (1500 to 500 BC) and ancient
period. Many of the scholars like Aryabhatta, Varahmihira, Bhaskara, etc.,
conducted astronomical studies and mapped their observations. The
important discoveries like the rotation of the Earth and calculation of Earth’s
circumference are other major contributions.

The Medieval Period (600 to 1500 AD)

The term cartography was used for the first time during this period of its
history. It is derived from two French terms – Charte (map) and Graphie
(writing) coined in 1839 by Purtuguese scholar Viscount de Santarem. Copper
plate was made and printing technology was developed by this time. Hence,
map making and its prseservation was popularised. The multiple copies of the
same was easily done compared to the earlier manual making. Precision and
accuracy enhanced substantially during this period.

14
Unit - 1 Introduction to Cartography
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Fig. 1.1: Peutinger Map (Map of Roman Empire)

(Source:http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00maplinks/early/roman300s/roman300s.html)

This was the period of description and exploration of the world. Various
voyagers travelled across the world and thus their travelogues helped in
synthesizing their routes and world map. It is considered to be the
‘Renaissance Period of Cartography’.This period witnessed important
development due to the advancements in mathematical geography by Arab
Geographers. It was the era of great travelers like Columbus, Marco Polo,
Magellan, Darke, etc., and their contributions in the preparation of maps of
various explored lands.

The Modern Period (1500 AD onwards)

Various surveying and navigational instruments were invented by this time.

Plane Table and Theodolite surveying and map making instruments played
vital role in preparing maps. Many of the countries and continents were known
to people through voyages by this time. Cylindrical orthomorphic Mercator’s
projection in 1569 was a landmark achievement in mapping the world (Fig.
1.2). It was the era of surveying, data acquisition, storing and map making.
Initially, it was manual preparation and then reproduction through printing. In
the beginning, it started within the developed world and subsequently it
spread worldwide. After World War I, introduction of aerial photography gave
impetus to map making in a big way. Mapping of topography with precision
resulted into quick map delivery. Inaccessible area was easily surveyed and
supervised remotely. It led to increased momentum in preparing maps.

The development of fast computing, plotting and printing technology have

made mapping easier and affordable. Application of modern-day technology
like aircraft/drone photography, remote sensing, Geographical Information
Systems (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS), Electronic Total Station
(ETS) along with computer and appropriate software have revolutionized
cartographic analysis. They have made the possibility of mapping the Earth
on almost real time basis. The details of information on image depend on the
spatial resolution. Temporal analysis depends on the repetivity of data
collected. Together they help in finding associations among various factors
and ascertaining the cause-and-effect relationship.
15
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Cartography
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Fig. 1.2: Mercator’s World Map, 1569.

(Source: https://dl0.creation.com/articles/p121/c12138/Mercators-original-1569-map.jpg)

The availability of very high-resolution satellite data in various forms like

multispectral stereo data (IKONOS, QuickkBird, OrbView, Cartosat), Light
Detection Ranging (LIDAR) and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM)
give information at very-very high resolution at much faster rate with 2D and
3D surfaces that makes, very high photo quality large scale mapping possible.
Moving in unknown areas by using application-based maps in our computer
and mobile guide us to reach our destination. Knowingly or unknowingly, we
are using mapping and cartography in our day-to-day life.

Chronology of Indian Cartography

Maurya Period: Kautilya’s Arthashastra (about 300 years BC) mentions

about revenue collection from productive land in its empire which signify the
known land to the king.

Shukra Niti: Shukra Niti is supposed to be written around 3rd or 4th century
AD mentions about revenue collection from cultivated land.

Survey of India: It was established in 1767 as a central agency with aim for
surveying and mapping. The same aim continues even today.

Geological Survey of India: It was set up in 1851 primarily to explore coal

for the railways. Now, its aim is to carry out geological studies and mapping of
the same.

Indian Marine Survey: It was established in 1874 with the aim to estimate
and map the damage caused along the sea coast. It was renamed as
National Hydrographic Office in 1997.

16
Unit - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Introduction to Cartography

India Meteorological Department: It was established in 1875 to study and

report to the government about the weather conditions in the country.

Botanical Survey of India: It was set up in 1890 with an aim to explore plant
resources of the country for better mapping and utilization of the same.

Zoological Survey of India: It was launched in 1916 to promote survey,

exploration and research to know the flora and fauna.

Central Waterways, Irrigation and Navigation Commission (now Central

Water Commission): It came into existence in 1945 with the aim to evaluate
multipurpose projects, collect, publish and compile hydrological data.

All India Soil and Land Use Survey: It was set up in 1958 to provide
detailed scientific database on soil and land characteristics.

Town and Country Planning: It was established in 1962 for formulating

policies, programmes and strategies for urban development in the country.

Indian Institute of Remote Sensing: It was established in 1966 for research

in higher education and training in the field of remote sensing, geoinformatics
and GPS technology.

Indian Space Research Organisation: It was established in 1969 to

harness, sustain and augment space technology for national development as
well as pursue space research and planetary exploration.

Central Ground Water Board: It was set up in 1970 to provide scientific

inputs for management, exploration, monitoring, and assessment of ground
water resources.

National Remote Sensing Agency: It was established in 1974 with an

objective of undertaking and facilitating remote sensing activities in the
country.

Central Pollution Control Board: It was prevention constituted in 1974 for

advising the central and state government on matters related to prevention,
improvement and control of air and water pollution.

National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organisation: It established was in

1978 to shoulder the responsibility in the field of thematic cartography and
geographical research.

Forest Survey of India: It came into existence in 1981 to prepare and

provide assessment of latest forest cover in the country.

Cartosat 1, 2 and 3: Cartosat is Indian Remote Sensing Satellite capable of

providing high resolution image of Earth surface. So far, its series 1, 2 and 3
has been launched in 2005, 2008 and 2019, respectively.

SAQ 1
a) What is cartography?
b) Name the major periods identified as development of cartography.

17
Block - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Fundamentals of Cartography

c) Which of the following organisations was established in 1978?

(i) Town and Country Planning
(ii) Indian Space Research Organisation
(iii) National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organisation
(iv) Survey of India

1.3 COGNITION AND COMMUNICATION

In a simple term, cognition refers to understanding and visualising something.
Communication is the conveying of idea to someone else. In this context, map
cognition is the understanding of any event pertaining to some area or any
concept with regard to any set of data. When the same is conveyed to
someone else in a meaningful way through maps or diagrams, that is called
map communication. In another words, it is basically designing of map or
diagram and presenting the information through them.

A psychologist, Edward Tolman, for the first time explained in 1948 that
human construct map-like representations in the brain. It is basically a mental
representation which facilitate spatial learning, thinking and translation of the
same in the form of map. In other words, it is a spatial cognition. Whatever we
see or visualise or analyse the spatial data in our mind, the same is finally
shown by spatial organised phenomena in the form of map. Final presentation
is equivalent to communication cognized in our minds.

With the advent of new advanced technology, the whole lot of changes have
taken place. In conventional methods, cartographers used to design the map,
decide map drawing, fonts, symbols, signs, graphics, presentation etc. and
finally prepare the map and distribute the same to the reader/user/consumer
(passive) along with interpretation. It was the initial map communication
methods. The modern map communication method adds readers/ user/
consumer as an active player with several permutations and combinations.
They can change the variables and establish the relationships once the soft
files are created in GIS environment. Therefore, new technology has added
an important dimension in map cognition and its visualisation.

SAQ 2
Differentiate between cognition and communication.

1.4 EARTH AS A CARTOGRAPHIC

CHALLENGE
The biggest cartographic challenge is to prepare a base map for presentation
of information pertaining to the concerned area. Here, the reference is about
the Earth. Earth is not flat but it has curved surface. Curvature bearing
characteristics of Earth is a challenge for the surveyor/cartographer to
prepare a two-dimensional map without any distortion. Take an example of a
coconut and consider it to be the “Earth”. Can the shell of coconut be
flattened the way your books or notebooks are there? No, that is not possible
18
Unit - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Introduction to Cartography

because of the curvature of the shape. Cutting and breaking of the coconut
shell is not so easy. Can football which is soft be flattened like your notebook
by cutting with knife without any compromise? Your answer will be “NO”. It is
all due to curved surface (Fig. 1.3).

Fig. 1.3: Big Challenge to Represent on Two-Dimensional Surface.

1.4.1 Earth as a Sphere

Sphere is a geometrical feature. It is defined as a three-dimensional object of
which all points on its surface are equidistant from its centre. This distance
from the surface of the sphere to its centre is known as radius. When two radii
are in straight direction, the complete length is termed as diameter. It passes
through the centre of the Earth. The two end-points of diameter A and B (Fig.
1.4) is referred as antipodes. They are 180 degrees apart on the Earth’s
circumference.

Fig. 1.4: Earth as a Sphere.

19
Block - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Fundamentals of Cartography

In ancient times, it was believed that Earth is flat and universe is Earth centric.
All celestial bodies rotate around the Earth. With passage of time, the origin of
solar system as well as universe were known to us. Around 500BC,
Pythagoras mentioned that the Earth is spherical in shape. But for the first
time, Eratosthenes (240BC) calculated the circumference of the Earth which
comes close to our modern calculation. For this purpose, he studied the
angles of sun rays at Syene (known as Aswan today) and Alexandria, both in
Egypt. Syene is near to Tropic of Cancer. He found that the sun is vertical at
noon on summer solstice and there was no shadow on the wall of the well. On
the same day, a tall tower was casting a shadow of 7º 12' at noon at
Alexandria (Fig. 1.5). Alexandria is925 km (5000 stadia) away in northerly
direction from Syene. Eratosthenes divided 360º by 7º 12'and found it to be
50. In another words, the distance between these two places (925 km; 1
stadia=0.185 km) is 1/50th of the circumference of the Earth. So, he multiplied
925 by 50 and got 46250 km. It is the circumference of the Earth. His unit of
computing more than 2250 years before from now was not very precise, but
still, it is very near to the actual one computed by modern methods– about
40075 km.

Fig. 1.5: Measurement of Earth’s Dimension by Eratosthenes.

With further advancement of our knowledge in the field of science and

mathematics, it was found that is Earth is not like a perfect sphere. Since the
radius of the Earth from poles is smaller than that of the equatorial, the shape
of the Earth was described as ellipsoid.

1.4.2 Earth as a Ellipsoid

The concept of sphere is based on the circular shape a body. Circle and
sphere are geometrical shape with complete uniformity and smoothness.
Later on, we came to know fact that the radius of the Earth from pole and
equator is not equal. Equatorial radius is 6378.1 km whereas that of polar is
6356.8 km. Hence, this shape is termed as ellipsoid. An ellipse is oval in
shape and it is explained by two radii. The longer radius (equatorial ‘a’) is

20
Unit - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Introduction to Cartography

called as semi-major axis and the shorter radius (polar ‘b’) is termed as semi-
minor axis.

The amount of polar flattening is determined by the ratio, F = (a-b)/a. The

ellipse is a two-dimensional feature. If the ellipsoid is rotated along ‘b’
axis(semi-minor axis), an ellipsoid is created (Fig 1.6).

Fig. 1.6: Circle, Ellipse and Ellipsoid.

The equatorial radius is bigger than the polar radius. It happens due to long
term effects of Earth’s rotation and centrifugal force. Earth is spinning with
higher velocity at equator than higher latitudes. That is why, equatorial bulges
is higher. The same reason is applicable for flattening at the poles where
effective velocity is very low. We know that our surrounding is not as smooth
as a geometrical shape we have read in our science and geometry books.
The surface is irregular with lots of ups and downs in the altitude. Varying
relief is found in our own observations from our surroundings. It becomes
more apparent when we compare different land features like mountain,
plateau and plain. Therefore, the shape of the Earth is said to be geoid which
includes every sort of irregularities found on the surface.

1.4.3 Earth as a Geoid

Geoid refers to an imagined sea level surface that is wavy or irregular in
character that correlates with the Earth's gravitational field. Generally, it
matches with sea level. Since the gravity of the Earth is towards the centre of
the Earth, the gravity field is always perpendicular to it. The variations in size,
shape and rock mass distribution of the Earth cause slight variation of gravity.
Hence, the line of geoid and ellipsoid differ from each other (Fig. 1.7).These
variations control the shape of the water bodies of the Earth. In the absence
of relief on the Earth’s surface, there would be complete conformity and
similarity between geoid and spheroid. As mentioned above, the centrifugal
force is greater on/nearby equator while the gravitational force is
comparatively less. Contrary to it, at poles/nearby, the gravity is relatively
more in comparison to that at the equator. The gravitational pull is about half
percent less at equator than that at poles.

21
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Cartography
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Fig. 1.7: Earth as a Geoid.

(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:APN2002-figure201.png)

1.4.4 Earth’s Rotation and Time

We know that the Earth rotates once in every 24 hours on its axis. One
rotation is equal to 360º. If we divide 360º by 24 hours, it comes to 15º in one
hour. In one hour, there are 60 minutes. 60 when divided by 15 is equal to 4
minutes. That means, one degree of angular distance is covered in 4 minutes
through rotation. Since the equatorial circumference of the Earth is around
40075 km, its one rotation takes 24 hours. Therefore, its velocity is around
1670 km per hour. The length of 60º north or south latitude is approximately
half of the equatorial length. The 60º latitude also completes its rotation in 24
hours, hence the velocity along this latitude is half of the equatorial velocity.
The velocity is reduced to 660 km per hour along Arctic or Antarctic circle.

The date and time of any country is determined by the appearance of the
Sun. For this purpose, a standard meridian/longitude is decided. Its decision
is taken on the basis meridian passing through the middle of the country. But
that must be divisible completely by 7º and 30'. If it is not divisible, any other
meridian is selected which is nearby the central meridian. Based on it, the
standard time of the country is determined. Many countries with large east
west extension have more than one time zone. The determination of date and
time is done from International Date Line. Eastern located places have time
ahead in comparison to the western location. As mentioned above, their time
is ahead or behind by 4 minutes per degree of longitude.

SAQ 3
a) What is geoid?
b) In an hour, Earth rotates how many degrees of angular distance?

1.5 REPRESENTING THE EARTH: SCALES

AND CONTENT
The representation of the Earth surface on paper is based on certain
proportion. That proportion is called scale of the map. Map scale is defined as
“relationship between a distance on map and the corresponding distance on
the Earth”. For this, identify any two distinct points/places on the map as well

22
Unit - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Introduction to Cartography

as the same on the ground. Measure both distances – map (in centimetre)
and ground (in km). Get the ratio between the same. It becomes the scale of
that map. It is expressed as:

When any map is prepared, it occupies certain area. That area represents the
same of which map is prepared. Hence, there is a fixed ratio between the two.
It is done so, because the real area is much bigger than the paper, we do
have to draw map. Area represented may be very small like your village/town,
tehsil, district, state country or entire Earth. On the same piece of paper, a
world map may be drawn. On the basis of these facts, it is quite obvious that
details of information included on the map and the area incorporated have
certain limits. Hence, three factors are there to take into account for the same:

 The size of area to be represented.

 The size of the paper available.

 The details to be shown on the map.

Based on these three points, two types of maps could be prepared. They are
(a) small scale maps and (b) large scale maps.

(a) Small Scale Maps are those maps on which only less details are shown
because of the larger areal coverage. Since, area is very big and paper
is small, more details presentation has a big hurdle. It is not possible to
show many details. Atlas maps or maps given in your books are
examples of small-scale maps.

(b) Large Scale Maps are those maps in which areal coverage is small and
it is possible to show more details. Therefore, most of the important
features are shown on this type of map. A cadastral map or topographic
maps are examples of large-scale map.

Both large and small maps are subjective and comparative which is
ascertained on the basis of details available and areal coverage. For
example, in general a wall map has greater details in comparison to atlas
map. But if you compare the wall map with topographic map, the reverse is
the case. Topographic map has very large details than the wall map.
Topographic map becomes small scale map with reference to cadastral map
because cadastral map has comparatively more details than topographic
map. So, between these two, topographic map is small-scale map and
cadastral map is large-scale map. When you compare your house plan map
and cadastral map, the situation changes completely. Between these two,
cadastral map is small-scale map while your house plan map is large scale
map. Example of cadastral map is shown at Fig. 1.8.

You must be very well aware that the increase in the ground distance
decrease the characteristics of the scale of the map. That means, the map is
said to be of small scale. When the ground distance is decreased, the scale of

23
Block - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Fundamentals of Cartography

the map is said to be of large scale. Therefore, there is a negative relationship

between the map distance and the scale of the map.

Fig.1.8: Cadastral Map of Village –Bhagwanpur of Dhenkanal District, Odisha.

(Source: http://bhunakshaodisha.nic.in:8080/bhunaksha/)

1.5.1 Methods of Scale Representation

When we draw map of any area, we show the scale on the map. Scales are
represented by three ways:

 Statement Scale
 Linear or Graphical Scale
 Representative Fraction (R.F.)

A) Statement Scale
This scale is represented by a statement. The statement is about the
relationship between map and ground distance as explained before about
scale. For example, 1 cm = 1 km. It means one cm map distance is equal to
one km on the ground. It is very simple to state and be placed put on the map.
It is non-flexible as the statement remains the same and is of no use once the
map is reduced or enlarged while reproducing. On map, written 1 cm = 1 km
remains the same when the map was initially drawn. When the map is
reduced, one cm distance will become less than one cm. in the same way,
when it is enlarged, one cm on map will be bigger than one cm. Hence, it is
good enough when the original map always of same size and no reduction or
enlargement is done.

B) Linear/Graphical Scale
This scale is represented by drawing line or graph divided into major and
minor divisions. These divisions and subdivisions are generally shaded
alternately by black colour for visually looking good and impressive. Divisions
and subdivisions are at equal distances and their values are marked along for
reading and understanding. Distance on the graphical scale has certain
relationship with the ground distance of the represented area on the map. In
general, first primary division on the left side on the scale is subdivided into

24
Unit - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Introduction to Cartography

secondary subdivisions. Though, simple linear/graphical scale is given on the

map, but it has different types as well like comparative scale and diagonal
scale.

C) Representative Fraction
Representative Fraction (RF) is a ratio between the map distance and
corresponding ground distance without any specific unit mentioned thereof. It
is evident that the unit of length you take for map distance, the same unit of
length is applicable to ground distance. For example, if you are measuring the
map distance in centimeter, the ground distance is also in centimeter
equivalent to the value mentioned in the RF. It could be applicable to
millimetre, inch or feet as well. It is expressed as:

The numerator is always expressed as one (1) and remains constant which
denotes map distance. The denominator always representative of ground
distance. Denominator varies as it is dependent upon the area covered on the
map. When the area covered in the map is large, a larger denominator will be
there. Larger denominator signifies smaller details about the features
presented on the map. On the other hand, when the area covered is smaller,
denominator will be smaller and greater details about the features is possible
to show on the map.

Suppose you have two maps of which RFs are (1) 1:50,000 and
(2)1:1,000,000 respectively. Here, with respect to first RF, one unit of map
distance is equivalent to 50,000 units on the ground; or one centimeter on
map equal to half a kilometre on the ground (1km = 100,000 cm). With
respect to second RF, one unit length on map distance is equivalent to
1,000,000 unit length on the ground; or one centimeter on map = 10 km on
ground. It is obvious that you are utilizing the same map distance (one cm) for
both maps but on map one, only half a km ground distance is covered while
on map two, 10 km length is shown. In other words, 20 times {10 km (map
two) ÷ 0.5 km (map one) = 20 times} detailed information is possible to
represent on map one in comparison to map two.

1.5.2 Conversion of Scales

All the three scales mentioned above are interchangeable. You must have
seen and read topographical sheets very well. You also must be remembering
that all these scales are given on these sheets. All of them represent the
same but in different ways. Hence, they could be converted very well and in
an easy manner.

Statement Scale to Representative Fraction

Let us take an example:

Example 1: Convert the statement scale of 1 cm is equal to 10 km into RF.

Solution: You know that in one km, there are 1000 meters and there are
100 cm and in one meter.

25
Block - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Fundamentals of Cartography

Therefore, if you convert 10 km into centimeter,

It is: 10x1000x100 = 10,00,000 cm.

Hence, RF is 1:1,000,000. This is the converted RF.

These unites are in cm. When we finally convert it into RF, the unit is removed
so that it becomes unit less figure.

Representative Fraction to Statement Scale

Let us take an example:

Example 2: Convert the given RF 1:1,000,000 into statement scale.

Solution: In Metric Unit

1:1,000.000 means one unit length on the map is equal to 1,000,000 units
length on the ground.

Suppose, you are taking the Metric Unit of measurement into consideration.

Then, 1 cm on map is equal to 1,000,000 cm on the ground. You know that in

one km, there are 100,000 cm. Hence, divide the given ground distance in the
RF by 100,000. You will get the statement scale in metric unit.

1,000,000 ÷ 100,000 = 10 km. Therefore, statement scale is one cm on map

represents 10 km on the ground; this is you answer.

Solution: In British Unit

In British Unit; inch, feet, yard, etc., are considered.

According to given RF, one inch length on map is equal to 1,000,000 inch
length on the ground.

You also must be knowing that:

In one foot, there are 12 inches
In one yard is equal to 3 yards
In one mile, there are 1760 yard
Now, you can find out the total number of inches in one mile by multiplying
them, like:
One mile = 12x3x1760=63,360 inches
Therefore, 1,000,000 ÷ 63,360 = 15.782 Miles; this is your answer.

SAQ4
a) Define scale of a map.
b) Which of the following map scales is best in every situation?
i) Representative Fraction ii) Statement Scale iii) Linear Scale
iv) Comparative Scale

26
Unit - 1 Introduction to Cartography
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.6 LABORATORY EXERCISES
Let us now perform the laboratory exercises. The following laboratory
exercises will enhance the skills in construction of map scales. You are
required to complete all the exercises given in the laboratory and submit the
same to the counsellor/lab instructor as per the given instructions. It is
expected that after completion of these exercises, you will gain hands-on
experience and skills in understanding map scales. The following two
exercises are based on map scales dealing with the Construction of Map
Scales-Plain and Comparative (Exercise 1) and Construction of Map
Scales –Diagonal (Exercise 2).
Requirements: To perform this exercise, you need the following materials/
tools.
 Ruler or scale
 Pencil/Pen
 Sharpener and Eraser
 Divider
 Protector
 Set-squares
 Scientific Calculator
 Drawing Sheets or White Sheets

Precaution and General Information

 Distance value mentioned on the scale should be in round figure. For

examples 10, 20, 30 or 100, 200, 300 meter/km/miles, etc.
 The length of graphical scale depends upon the size of paper you have. For
ordinary book or notebook, 4 to 6 inches or 10 to 15 cm is ideal but for when
you are preparing on A3 size paper/drawing sheet, the length may be
increased conveniently.
 The divisions of scale are always uniform and of equal size. The leftmost
division is usually used for subdivisions. Drawing of scale is scientific and it
should be very precise.
 The values on the scale is generally written above the graphical presentation
but the divisions/ subdivisions along with the units of the values.
 Usually, graphical scale is drawn by at least two parallel lines and a third
one drawn from the centre. Alternate divisions and subdivisions are
blackened for a clear presentation.
 It is also mentioned that the pen or pencil for drawing the scale has to be
sharp for appropriate drawing.
Simple scales are those which show one or two units through divisions and
subdivisions/secondary divisions. This scale consists of a line divided into a
number of equal primary divisions. First division is divided into smaller parts. At the
end of the first division, zero (0) is marked. From zero, values of
subdivisions/secondary divisions keep on increasing leftward. For primary
divisions, the values keep on increasing rightward. Conventionally these values are
written on top of the scale and their units are also written at the two ends.

27
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Cartography
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

EXERCISE-1

CONSTRUCTION OF MAP SCALE-

PLAIN AND COMPARATIVE
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Expected Learning Outcomes
1.2 Construction of Plain Scale
1.3 Construction of Comparative Scale
1.4 Practical Exercises

1.1 INTRODUCTION
You have learnt the concept, meaning and use of map scales. Now, you will
carry out laboratory exercises on construction of map scales. The graphical
map scales include plain, comparative and diagonal scales.

In this Exercise-1, you will perform the construction of plain and comparative
map scales. As we know that scale is represented by a ratio of map distance
to the ground distance. Let us now start to learn the method of construction of
map scales.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After working through this Exercise, you will be able to:
 Understand the method of construction of graphical map scales;
 Construct a plain map scale; and
 Draw a comparative map scale.

1.2 CONSTRUCTION OF PLAIN SCALE

Exercise 1.1: The RF of a map is 1:50,000. Construct a simple scale to read
km and secondary divisions in multiple of 100 meters.

Solution:
Before constructing the scale, you need to find out that how much linear map
distance is representing how much ground distance.

 R.F. mentioned in the example is 1:50,000.

28
Unit - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Introduction to Cartography

 Since, the question is asking to show km and meter, you should consider
the R.F. in metric units of measurement. Hence, 1 cm on map is showing
50,000 cm on the ground.

 If 50,000 cm is converted into km, it comes to 0.5 km (because 1 km =

100,000 cm). In other words, 2 cm on map will be equal to 1 km on the
ground.

 According to the size of the paper you are drawing the scale, select an
appropriate line. Let us take a line of 12 cm, equal to 6 km on the ground.

 Divide the line into six equal divisions. These are the primary divisions.

 As mentioned in the precaution and general information above, prepare

the scale as given below (Fig. 1.1).

 Finally, the graphic scale is to be displayed in the below format. This scale
represents for RF 1:50,000 in kilometres. Here, primary divisions are
shown in kilometres and secondary divisions are represented in meters.

Fig. 1.1: A Simple Scale.

1.3 CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVE SCALE

Exercise 1.2: The RF of a map is 1:150,000. Construct a scale to compare
miles and kms.

Solution:

In comparative scale, there are two scales with different units of measurement
for comparison. In this scale, R.F. remains the same for both scales.
Comparative scale helps in comparing the two units of measurement
graphically. It is necessary that the origin (zero) of both scales should be from
the same point so that the remaining lengths are easily compared.

Calculation-I:

 As explained above, R.F. 1:150,000 means 1 cm on map represents 1.5

km on ground (Metric units of measurement).

 To represent 20 km, you need to take a line of 13.333 cm (20 ÷ 1.5).

 Take a line of 13.333 cm and divide it into 5 equal parts; each part will
represents 4 km.

 Subdivide the first division into 5 parts; each part will represent one km.

29
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Cartography
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Calculation-II:
 In British unit, it would be 1 inch represents 150,000 inches on the
ground. Hence, 150,000 ÷63360 = 2.3674 miles of the ground (Because
63360 inches is equal to one mile)
 To represent 12 miles, you need to take a line of 5.069 inches (12 ÷
2.3674).
 Take a line of 5.069 inches and divide it into four equal parts; each part
will shows three miles.
 Both the kilometre and mile scales are put one over the other, where the
zero points of both the scales must coincide with each other.
 Finally, the comparative scale is to be displayed in the below given format
(Fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.2: Comparative Scale.

1.4 PRACTICAL EXERCISES

Exercise 1: Construct a plain scale to show 100 kilometre for RF 1:1,000,000.

Exercise 2: The RF of a map is 1:250,000. Construct a simple scale to read

km and secondary divisions in multiple of 100 meters.

Exercise 3: Construct a comparative scale to show yards and meters. The

RF is 1:25,000.

Exercise 4: Draw a comparative scale to show kilometres and miles when the
RF is 1:1,000,000.

30
Unit - 1 Introduction to Cartography
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

EXERCISE-2

CONSTRUCTION OF MAP
SCALE-DIAGONAL
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Expected Learning Outcomes
2.2 Construction of Diagonal Scale
2.3 Practical Exercises

2.1 INTRODUCTION
You have learnt the construction of plain and comparative map scales in the
previous Exercise-1.

The ordinary scale has only primary and secondary divisions but tertiary
division is not possible for the ordinary scale to read precisely. Primary
divisions are complete figures, secondary division is first figure after the
dismal point, but tertiary reading is second place after the dismal. The
diagonal scales help us to depict precise length up to second place after the
dismal. For reading of meter, centimeter and millimetre; or kilometer,
hectometer and decameter; or yard, feet and inch; or mile, furlong and yard
can be read from the same scale. It has the beauty of representing all up to
three units read at a time with complete precision.

In this Exercise-2, you will perform the construction of diagonal map scales.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After working through this Exercise, you shall be able to:
 Understand the method of construction of graphical map scales;
 Construct diagonal map scale.

2.2 CONSTRUCTION OF DIAGONAL SCALE

Exercise 2.1: The RF of a map is 1:50,000. Construct a scale to read
3.56km. (3 kilometer 50 hectometer and 6 decameter).

Solution:
 As explained earlier, 1 cm on map represents 0.5 km on the ground, or 2
cm on map will represent 1 km on the ground.

31
Block - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Fundamentals of Cartography

 To represent 5 km on the ground, a line of 10 cm will be required.

 Take line of 10 cm and divide it into five parts equally. Each part will show
1 km.
 At the end of first division, put zero as the beginning of the distance
measurement.
 Take an appropriate width with scale to make a rectangular figure and
divide the rectangle as mentioned above.
 Subdivide the first division of the rectangle into 10 parts; both vertically
and horizontally. Extend the horizontal and vertical lines for entire
rectangle.
 Put your scale on the zero at the down point and set the scale to first
tertiary division of the first division diagonally and draw the line precisely.
Repeat the same with all other divisions. Now your diagonal scale is final.
 To read 3.56 km, take the first figure 3 from written main division. Now you
need to take 5thsubdivision of the first division on the horizontal axis. Next
you have to go to the 6th tertiary division on vertical axis of first
subdivision. The meeting point is marked as “M” on the figure. Hence, M-
N line is representing 3.56 km length on the ground.

The diagonal scale showing 3.56 km is given in Fig 1.3.

Fig. 1.3: Diagonal Scale.

2.3 PRACTICAL EXERCISES

Exercise 1: Construct a diagonal scale for RF 1:100,000 to show 3 kilometres
1 hectometres 20 meters.
Exercise 2: The RF of a map is 1:50,000. Construct a scale to read 4.26 km.
(4 kilometer 20 hectometer and 6 decameter).

32
Unit - 1 Introduction to Cartography
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.7 SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied:
 Cartography is a study of making map and it has evolved through time. It
is both art and science for representing different aspects pertaining to
certain area or space. It involves preparing maps, charts, models or
globes and their designing, formatting, symbolizing, editing and ultimately
finalizing them for better visual understanding the space.
 Cartography is concerned with acquiring information about a certain
area/space of which a map is to be prepared on a piece of paper/ flat
surface. It provides a way of visualisation of the area/space and helps in
making mental map. Therefore, it has immense scope to use it in our
enhancing arena of knowledge and research.
 Cartography has evolved a lot since time immemorial to the present day. It
has happened with the development of technological knowhow and it is
still improving very drastically with passage of time.
 Transforming three-dimensional object into two-dimensional flat surface
has many limitations and impediments. In spite of the best efforts, it
cannot be represented truly, it is a great challenge. Historically, Earth has
been compared as sphere-like, apple-like, pears-like or geoid (Earth-like).
Hence, representation of Earth surface on two-dimensional surface has
certain compromises – with area, shape, direction – we have to agree.
 Map scale and it three representation methods.
 The construction of three different map scales such as plain, comparative
and diagonal in laboratory exercises is given as Exercise 1 and Exercise 2.

1.8 ANSWERS
Short-Answer Questions (SAQ)
1. a) Map making technique

b) Three periods
c) (iii)
2. Perceiving about the concerned area and representing the same on the
map
3. a) Like-Earth b) 15
4. a) Ration between map distance and ground distance;
b) (iii) Linear

1.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Khullar, D.R. (2015). Essentials of Practical Geography. Jalandhar: New
Academic Publishing Co.
2. Madan, P.L. (1997).Indian Cartography: A Historical Perspective. New
Delhi: Manohar
33
Block - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Fundamentals of Cartography

3. Misra, R.P. & Ramesh, A. (1969/1986). Fundamentals of Cartography.

New Delhi: McMillan.
4. Monkhouse, F.J. and Wilkinson, H.R. (1971). Maps and Diagrams.
London: Methuen & Co Ltd.
5. Peterson, G.N. (2009). GIS Cartography: A Guide to Effective Map
Design. Roca Raton: CRC Press.
6. Robinson, A.H., Morrison, J.L., Muehrcke, P.C., Kimmerling, A.J. &
Gupltill, S.C. (eds.) (1995). Elements of Cartography. New York: Wiley
and Johnson.
7. Sarkar, A. (2008). Practical Geography: A Systematic Approach. Kolkata:
Orient Black Swan.
8. Sharma, J.P. (2013). Prayogik Bhugool (Hindi Medium). Meerut: Rastogi
Publications.
9. Singh, G. (2004). Map Work and Practical Geography. Delhi: Vikas
Publication House.
10. Singh, L. R. & Singh, R.P.B. (1979/2003). Elements of Practical
Geography. Delhi: Kalyani Publishers.
11. Singh, L.R. and Singh, R. (1979). Map Work and Practical Geography.
Allahabad: Central Book Depot.
12. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00maplinks/early/roman300s/roma
n300s.html
13. https://dl0.creation.com/articles/p121/c12138/Mercators-original-1569-
map.jpg
14. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:APN2002-figure201.png
15. http://bhunakshaodisha.nic.in:8080/bhunaksha/

34