Course Name: Cartography & Map

Interpretation
Course Code: GISc 3093

Cr.hr. 3 or 5 ECTS
Target Group: 3rd GIS Regular
Course objectives and competencies to be
achieved

On completion of this course, students will be able to:

 Have a basic understanding of the nature of cartography
and map Interpretation
 Gain an understanding of the purposes of cartography;
recognize the elements of cartographic representation, and
how maps work
 Understand the theory and principles of cartography and
their relationship to practice
 Create digital maps in formats reflecting the purpose,
content, and function of input data
 Apply GIS software to produce accurate, appropriate,
convincing, and create maps and graphics.
 Develop the skill to perform coordinate transformation
from one system to another
 Understand the significant types and characteristics of
thematic maps
 Use digital cartographic methods for exploring, critiquing,
confirming, and presenting geographical relationships.
 Increase their proficiency in visual and spatial literacy, data
visualization and presentation.
 Care more about maps and about creating maps of high-
quality design and accuracy
Unit One: Introduction

 Cartography is about maps

 It includes the art, science and technology of map
making, the use of maps as research tools and as
sources of information, and the study of maps as
historical documents and works of art.
 Map Interpretation is the way of understanding and
reading of maps with a meaningful spatial and non-
spatial data analysis produced by cartographers
 1.1 Definition of Cartography

Some of the most relevant definitions given by different

scholars and organizations are as follows;
 Science that studies
 geographical maps
 the methods
 processes of their compilation and
 reproduction. M. Shokalsky, V.A. Kamenetsky, 1930
 The science of making any map, embracing all phases
of work from surveying to map printing.

Cartographic Office of the United Nations Organization, 1949

Cont‟d

 Cartography ranged from the study of information,

collected by "surveyors" - using that word in its widest
observational sense - to the final reproduction of maps
and charts at any scale, on any subject and by any
means.

Cartography Subcommittee of the British National Committee for

Geography of the Royal Society, 1965

 The conception, the designing and the execution of the

map. Robinson
Cont‟d

 Cartography is the totality of investigation and

operations - scientific, artistic and technical - which
have as their aim the making of maps and as well as
the use of maps.
Commission on Cartographic Education of the International
Cartographic Association
 Cartography is the art, science and technology of
making maps together with their study as scientific
documents and works of art.

British Cartographic Society

Cont‟d

 Cartography is the theory, technique and practice of

map making and map use. Kolacny.
 The meaning of the term „cartography‟ has been
changed fundamentally since 1960.
 Before 1960 cartography was generally defined as
„manufacturing maps‟.
 After 1960,cartography was defined not only the
manufacturing of maps, but also their use is
regarded as belonging to the field of cartography
Cont‟d

 The change of the definition is due to two

factors:
1. The fact that the subject has moved in to the
field of communication science
2. The advent of the computers
 Therefore, Cartography nowadays is seen as
„the conveying of spatial information by means
of maps.‟
Cont‟d

 As a conclusion, it is said that as cartographers are to

map makers, geographers are to map readers.
 In other way, it is said that “Geographers know where
it is at” and “Cartographers show where it is at”
So, what do you understand about
cartography from the definitions given by
different scholars?
Scope of Cartography

 Scope refers to coverage‟s of cartography and what

filed of study are incorporated with cartography.
 A skilled cartographer not only will have mastered the
principle of map making but also will have a firm grasp
of:
• environmental sciences,
• understanding the cognitive process of thought and
• communication,
• be familiar with the other mapping sciences.
Cont‟d

 In its scope is viewed as the art, science and

technology of map making and map use, and the study
of maps in all its aspects.
Thus, there are four processes in cartography.
1. Collecting and selecting the data for mapping.
2. Manipulating and generalizing the data designing and
constructing the map.
3. Reading or reviewing the map.
4. Responding to, or interpreting the information
Cont‟d

 In order to master these processes, a cartographer

must be familiar with all mapping activities including
those associated with the other mapping science
(geodesy, surveying, photogrammetry, remote sensing
and geographic information).
 The map has provided two important functions:
1. It serves as a storage medium for information
which humanity needs;
2. It provides a picture of the world to help us
understanding the spatial patterns, relationships and
complexity of the environment in which we live
Cartographic Communication System and Process

 One of the most useful approaches to the study of

cartography is to view maps as a form of visual
communication with special-purpose language for
describing spatial relationships.

 The four main stages in cartographic process are:

1. data collection, organization, and manipulation;
2. map design and artwork preparation;
3. map production and
4. map reproduction
Schematic diagrams of map making process

Map design
and art work
preparation
2
Map
Data Production
collection, 3
organizing &
Mappin
manipulatio Map
g
n Reproduction
efficien
1 4
cy

Map
Map Storage Storage
(Digital) (Analogue)
1.1. Data Collection, Organization and Manipulation
of Data

Data must be collected from:

– existing maps,
– aerial photographs or
– satellite imagery,
– documents, e.g. legal descriptions of property
boundaries, historical documents, etc.,
– field work or
– questionnaire surveys.
Cont‟d

 The data must be organized and manipulated into a

form which is suitable for mapping
 This may involve aggregating data to some specified
set of spatial units, calculating percentages, densities
or other summary measures from the raw data.
1.2. Design and Preparation of Maps,
Charts, Plans and Graphs

 Many decisions go into the design of an effective map.

 These include the selection of the geographic features
and thematic attributes to be represented on the map,
projection type, map scale.
 A small scale map can show a large area but little detail
while a large scale map shows a smaller area but with
more detail.
Cont‟d

 Designing the map also includes consideration of how

the information will be symbolized.
 Do you show the data in color or not?
 Can you afford to reproduce the map in colour?
 Are the data qualitative or quantitative?
 Will you represent the data using point, line or area
symbols?
 How will you arrange the map itself as well as items
such as title blocks, legends, and scale symbols on the
page?
1.3. Map Production

 In the process of map development after designing the

actual map, cartographers should produce a single map
for check up.
 Before map is reproduced in the required quantity, the
quality of the map, whether the conventional signs and
symbols are used or not, producing a single map is
important.
 This is mainly important for correcting the human errors
done in the design step
Cont‟d

 If maps are reproduced in a required quantity with

out checking the errors at this stage, unnecessary
costs and time might be incurred.
 Eg. If scale is missed to put in the marginal
information, if blue color is used for vegetation type.
1.4. Map Reproduction

 How many copies of the map will be required?

 In some instances, distribution of maps in digital format
on tape, disk or CD-ROM is replacing or at least
reducing the need for printed maps.
 Finally, If cartography is a form of communication, the
measure of a good map is how well it conveys
information to its readers to enlighten, convince, or
persuade.
 Therefore, To ask "what is a good map?" is to ask how
well it communicates with its audience
Cartographic communication process
Cartography versus GIS

(a) GIS is a computer based information system which attempts

to capture, store, manipulate, analyze and display spatially
referenced and associated attribute data for solving complex
research, planning and management problems
(b) GIS is a system of hardware, software, data, and people
organizing, collecting, storing, analyzing and disseminating
information about the areas of the earth
(c ) GIS is an information technology which stores, analyses
and displays both spatial and non-spatial data
(d) GIS are specialized data bases that preserve location
identities of the information that they record.
Maps are :
- static
- difficult to update
- storage is a problem
- likely to fade, torn and shrink
- human to interpret the relationship between features
with static data shown on the map …
… where as GIS :
 makes maps dynamic
 displays map information interactively
 build the spatial relationship between features
 analyze to answer real-world problems
1.5 MAPS

 A map is defined as a representation of all or part of

the earth‟s surface on a plane surface with
conventional signs.
 The representation is drawn to a specific scale to show
distinctive aspects of the surface such as relief
features, settlements, land-use, communication
networks etc. from the reality.
 The word “map” may be traced to the Latin term,
mappa meaning “a sheet of cloth”
 a map is far smaller in size than the actual area of the
earth‟s surface pattern it represents.
 every map is drawn to scale which determines the
ratio between distances of two points on a map and
their corresponding distance on the ground.
 A cartographic representation without a scale should
not be called a map, better call it a diagram or sketch.
 A student of GIS should thoroughly understand the
implications of using a scale in order to visualize the
positions of objects marked on a map.
 Scales and their uses are, therefore, of prime
importance to the cartographer as well as to the GIS
Classification of Maps

 Maps are fundamentally constructed on a horizontal

plane and they exhibit a trait which belongs exclusively
to cartographic representations.
 The foundations of topographic map are provided by
their ground or aerial surveyors.
 Maps are characterized in respect of the principle with
reference to:
 Flattening (according to the laws of mathematical transformation);
 Reduction (a reduction ratio in proportion to reality, i.e., 1:10);
 Generalization (are reduced in content, standardized, build up on
a selection of detail, condensed, etc.)
 Enhancement (example, by addition of contour lines which are
not visible in nature).
Maps are classified based on three essential things.
(i) Based on Scale
(ii) Based on Purpose
(iii) Based on information they conveyed
(i) According to scale, maps may be classified as follows:
1) Cadastral Map
 Cadastral maps are used for demarcating the
boundaries of land properties, fields, gardens and
buildings (Rural or Urban Cadastre)
 Cadastral map is especially prepared and compiled by
the government agencies and is used for revenue and
tax purposes.
2. Topographical Maps
 It is prepared on large scale to show the general
surface features in detail, for example, natural
landscape as well as cultural landscape
 It doesn‟t show the boundaries of individual lands.
 It is very important tool for geographers and military
experts, because it depicts the topographical forms like
relief, drainage, swamp, forests etc.
3. Wall Maps
 maps are prepared for keen observation;
 It is generally drawn boldly;
 Its scale is larger than atlas maps but smaller than
topographical maps.
4. Atlas map

 Atlas maps are also called chorographical map

 It is drawn on a very small scale e.g, 1:2,000,000
 It provides highly generalized information of physical,
climatic and economic conditions of different regions of
the Earth.
2) According to purpose maps are broadly classified as
follows:
(1) Physical maps
(2) Cultural maps
1) Physical Maps
 Physical maps are those maps, which are specially
prepared for the natural product or God gifted things
such as heavenly body, soil, vegetation, relief etc.
Types of Physical maps

(a) Geological Maps

 This type of map is prepared to show the type of
rock, its occurrence and depositions.
 They are quite like topo-sheets which tell of the
geological structure of the region with the aid colour-
shades super imposed upon their respective location.
(b) Astronomical maps:
 Astronomical maps are prepared to show the heavenly
bodies and It may be shown on large or small scale.
(c) Relief maps
 They portray the relief features of the land by hatchers,
or columnar or by different shades or tints (green,
yellow, and brown) between the contour lines;
 It also show the drainage patterns there on.
 Relief map is also known as chorographic map.
 It indicates the slopes, river systems, mountains,
plateaus, plains etc.
(d) Climate maps:
 It is prepared to show the average weather condition of
a long period for example 30 years.
(e) Weather map:
 It is produced by meteorological offices.
 weather map is prepared to show the average condition
of temperature, pressure, wind and precipitation over a
short period of time.
(f) Soil map:
 It depicts the different soils of the area by
different shades or colors.
(g) Vegetation map:
 It is prepared to show the types and the distribution of
the various species of vegetation.
(h) Aeronautical charts:
 help to pilots as they represents the topographical
features of the land in multi color-contour lines are
shown in brown;
(i) Navigational Charts
 Their main emphasis is on coasts and coastal water; as
such they concentrate on those features which a sea-
sight commands.
 They also show the depth of the sea, its bottom relief
and its tides and currents.
 They show the cliffs along the shores with their heights
(2) Cultural maps

 Cultural maps are maps which reflect man made

features which come in to existence due to the
interaction of activities of human beings with nature.
Types of Cultural Maps
(a) Political maps:
 This type of map represents the boundaries between
different political units. It may be village, block, districts,
regions, countries or continents.
 As an example, the political map of Ethiopia shows the
distribution of regional state boundaries.
(b) Land use map:
 Using the human intervention, land is used for different
purpose.
 The nature and character of land-use are represented
by this type of map.
(c) Historical map:
 This type of map is prepared to show the past events.
(C) Military map: It is prepared to show the strategic
points, routs etc. for the convenience of military.
(d) Tourist map: A map that helps for tourists as a guide
where tourism sites located.
(e) Road map: Which represents different standards of
road on the map (Asphalt, all weather road, dry
weather road)
(f) Social maps: This type of map depicts, social
organism (tribes and races), their languages, religions
etc.
 (iii) Maps based on the information they
conveyed

(1) Thematic Maps

(2) General Maps
(1) Thematic Maps
 It shows a specific information that shows a single
entity
 Maps within this category usually have as their
background a simplified depiction of the topography.
 It is also called topical map or specific map maps as it
show information about one specific topic
 For example, soil map, land use map, population
distribution map etc.
(2) General Maps
 This type of map incorporate a variety of information.
 It is also called topographic maps
1.6 The Uses of Maps

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students will be able
to:
 Explain the major uses of maps;
 Read information from various of maps;
 Differentiate the ancient and modern use of
map.
Cont‟d

 During the ancient period, or the primitive

societies, simple maps are drawn in sand soil
to show the location of a water hole, river, an
excellent hunting ground and the way how to
get there.
 In this discussion we examine Map Uses from
the perspective of the generic task, such as
analysis, communication, exploration, etc
Modern use of maps

1. For Communication and Propaganda

 Many maps are produced to convey general
information about an area or thematic
information about any number of subjects.
 It is said as “ A single map worth's
thousands of words”
2. Navigation and Control
 Whether we move on land, at sea, or in the
air, we rely heavily on maps to plan our
routes and to maintain our course.
Cont‟d

3. Planning
 The obvious forms of planning that use maps
are urban planning and regional planning.
 Military operations rely heavily on maps whether
for the movement of vehicles and troops, the
assessment of enemy positions, or any number
of other possibilities.
 Maps are also helpful to identify the potential of
areas subject to hazards ( natural and man-
made)
Cont‟d

4. Storage of Information
 The topographic maps that are produced by
most countries are good examples of this type
of map use.
 Maps give standardize information deemed to
be important, such are boundaries,
hydrography, topography, road network and
place names etc.
 Fifty years old map may still be useful for the
examination of changes in topography and
hydrography and other information in
comparison to the current.
Cont‟d

In a general way maps are used for the following:

1. Identifying Position (location)
 A map gives the location or position of places or
features.
 The positions are usually given by the co-
ordinates of the place, either as the Cartesian
co-ordinates (x,y) in metres or as geographical
co-ordinates (latitude and longitude) in degrees,
minutes and seconds.
Cont‟d

 Example: The position of Mekelle town is 13º29'

North latitude, 39º28' East longitude
geographically.
2. Providing spatial relationships
 A map gives us the spatial relationship between
features
 Example, What province is the neighbor of
another province?
Where is the nearest railway station?
Cont‟d

3. Determining distance, Direction, Area

 We can measure the distance from Addis to arba
minch, determine the direction that Tigray is to
the north of Wollo, or calculate the size of the
Tigray region. But, there must be a scaled map.
Activity
 Discuss in group the uses of World map? And
what is the difference from a globe?
Maps and their limitations

 A photograph shows all objects in its view, but a map

is an abstraction of reality.
 The cartographer selects only the information that is
essential to fulfill the purpose of the map.
 Maps use symbols such as points, lines, area patterns
and colors to convey information.
 Any practical map shrinks Earth features down to a
manageable size by scale.
 Only a true globe would allow a similar conclusion for
any pair of points on its surface.
 In flat maps, most likely the scale will not be constant,
changing with direction and location.
 Maps portray only the information that has been chosen
to fit the use of the map.
 The information on maps is classified and simplified, to
make it easier to understand.
 All maps use sign to stand for elements of reality.
1.6Reading Contours and Relief

 Contour lines are the most common and accurate way of

showing relief on modern maps. A shoreline is a good example
of a contour line.
 Contour lines are lines drawn on a map joining places of the
same elevation above mean sea level. They give almost true
altitudes. They also indicate different slopes and land forms.
Figure: 2.23 Sketches of a hill with contour lines
Properties of Contour Lines

i. Contour lines are imaginary lines used on a map to

represent relief. Unlike the lines that represent rivers,
boundaries or coast lines, contours do not really exist on the
earth’s surface. The only contour line that exists both on the

map and in the field is the sea level.

ii. A set of contour lines is drawn at a fixed height interval.
For example in the Figure 2.23, contour lines are drawn at 50-
meter intervals. The difference in altitude between two
successive contour lines is known as vertical interval (V. I.) or
contour interval (C. I.). The V. I. helps us to find out the
heights of unnumbered contour lines.
iii. Contour lines cannot merge or cross one another on maps
except at vertical cliffs, waterfalls or over hanging cliffs. For
example, two or more contour lines run together and then
separate to represent the cliff shown in the figure below.

Contour lines showing a cliff

 The cliff in the preceding diagram is a vertical mountain
wall. It rises from 100 meters to 150 meters. The crossing of
contours occurs only in the case of an overhanging cliff.
Usually contours representing a cave under an overhanging cliff
are shown with pecked lines.

Figure: 2.25 An
overhanging cliff
iv. Contour lines never branch. If you see branching lines on a
map, they represent features such as rivers, roads, boundaries,
etc.
v. A contour line joins all points of the same altitude. For
example, an altitude of 250 m will be on the 250 m contour
line. The altitude of any point outside this line will be either
greater or less than 250 meters
Heights shown by contour lines
vi. Contour lines are always numbered in the direction
towards which altitude increases. These numbers can be
shown with or without breaking contour lines

Numbering of contours
vii. Contour lines indicate the nature of slopes. When
contour lines are far apart, they show gentle slopes.
But when contour lines are close together, they show
steep slopes

Contour-line
spacing indicating
slope steepness
viii. Contour lines can be printed with different thicknesses on
a map. This is especially helpful in mountainous areas where
altitudes may vary considerably from summits to valley floors.
In order to make the reading of contour maps easier, every fifth
or tenth contour line is printed thicker than the rest. Such
contour lines are called index contour lines, while the rest are
called regular contour lines.
Contour lines with a difference in thickness
ix. Contour lines can show different types of landforms, such
as mountains, hills, plateaus, depressions, valleys, spurs,
ridges, gorges, passes, plains, etc.
 Many of these relief features are readily recognized from the
shapes of their contour lines.
Landforms represented both diagrammatically and by contour lines
Landforms represented both diagrammatically and by contour lines
 Different Methods of Showing Altitudes on Contour
Maps

 Contour lines show altitude and relief on modern maps.

 However, they do not show the specific heights of
individual features such as mountain peaks, hilltops, valley
floors, towers, towns, roads or railways. Such heights are
indicated on maps, using the following methods:
a. Spot heights
 They are marked on the map with a dot followed by an
altitude number: Example: • 1940 meter
 They provide accurate altitudes for individual points, such as
those along a road, on a mountain top, or between contour
lines.
 Unlike contour lines, spot heights do not give a good visual
impression of the general relief.
 They exist only on maps.
b. Trigonometrical points
 They exist both on maps and in the field.
 They mostly mark features such as hilltops and mountain
peaks.
o On the ground, the relevant feature is permanently marked
with a pillar (concrete).
 On maps, they are shown with a small triangle enclosing a dot, followed
by the exact altitude in meters
c. Benchmarks
 They indicate precise heights along highways or railways.
 They are shown on stones, bricks or bronze plates on walls
of buildings and other convenient places.
 They are useful for road construction engineers and others
who wish to know the precise altitude of a main transport
network.
 Example: BM 1850.
1.7. Map Scale: Concept and Definitions

 Map scale is a method for expressing how map

distance compares to ground distance, or the distance
on the surface of the earth.
 A map's scale determines how features are
represented on the map,
 Map is a set of points, lines, and areas all defined both
by position with reference to a coordinate system and
by their non-spatial attributes.
 A map scale uses a dynamic ratio, 1:X, where 1
represents map distance and X represents distance on
the earth.
 Map and earth distance are always the same unit.
 For example, if you have a map scale of 1:63,360, one
unit of measure on the map represents 63,360 units of
the same measure in the real world.
 The main purpose of the scale is to bring either the
whole globe or a part of it on the convenient size of
paper.
 The selection of scale depends on various factors.
1. The size of the paper;
2. The amount and characters of details of information
to be shown;
3. The size of the area to be mapped.
 Scale can be metric or non-metric scales.
 Metric scale is represented in millimeter, centimeter,
meter and kilometer, where as non-metric scale
representation can be in miles, inches and feet system.
 Different country uses different system, e.g. Ethiopia
uses a metric system.
In a broad sense, scale can be divided into two
measurable ways, namely:
1. Linear scale
2. Areal scale
 Basic formulas of scale

 In reality, areal scale is not given on a map as only

linear scale is given as a standard because areal scale
can easily be found by squaring the linear scale
Example

 A sketch map with out any scale representation can not

be said scaled map rather non-scaled map.
Lesson Activity

Discuss the following activities in small groups:

1. Scale means ratio, proportion or relationship. Thus, Scale is
the ratio of the distances and areas shown on the map to the
corresponding distances and areas on the actual earth‟s
surface. Do you agree or disagree to this statement? Why?
2. Any sketch map drown by map makers can reflect the actual
measurement of the distance on the ground. Is this
statement correct? Why?
3. Every country uses only metric system to represent the
scale. Do you agree or disagree to this statement? Why?
1.8. Methods of Representing of Scale

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:
 List the three methods of representing scale;
 Differentiate among the three ways of
representing scale;
 Describe how verbal scale is represented ;
 Choose their preference of scale representing.
Methods of Representing of Scale

 The three ways of scale representations are:

(1) As an arithmetic ratio (the representative fraction),
(2) As a word statement, or
(3) As a graphic scale.
 As a remark, in a well projected map, many maps
include two or even all three types of scales.
1. Representative Fraction (R.F) scale

 This is a fraction in which the numerator always

assigned the number 1, denotes a unit of measure
(inch, centimeter, feet) on the map, and the
denominator denotes the number of identical units
(same as the map) of actual distance on the map.
 In other words, an R.F. is a ratio of MAP: LAND.
 A mixture of units cannot be used without changing the
numerical relationship between map and land.
 Representative Fraction may be shown as an actual
fraction (e.g. 1/25,000) or like a mathematical
proportion with a colon (as in 1:25,000).
 The R.F. is perhaps the best way of showing scale
since it avoids mentioning of any unit measurement.
 A large scale map is where the RF is relatively large.
An RF of 1:25,000 (1/25,000) is larger than an RF
of 1:1,000,000 (1/1,000,000).
2. Verbal Scale

 It is expressed in words, a relationship between a map

distance and a ground distance.
 This scale is sometimes called statement scale
 e.g. One inch to a mile
Six inches to a mile
Ten miles to an inch
N.B Don’t say one inch =(equal to) one mile
which obviously cannot be true.
3. Graphic Scale

 It is a pictorial representation of the scale.

 A graphic scale allows a distance measured on the map
to be translated directly into the correct earth distance
by comparing it to the scale.
 Graphic scale is drawn with several primary divisions
towards the right of zero one division with secondary
divisions marked to the left of the zero.
 2000m 6
0 2 8 kms

Secondary division Primary division

Activity
No Expression Ways of scale
representation
1 1/25,000

3 1:10,000

4 One centimeter to a kilometer

General Division of Scale

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

 List the three divisions of scale;
 Differentiate small scale from large scale;
 Compare the map of small scale from medium scale;
 Distinguish the detail of objects at different scale
divisions
Some remarks on scale division

 The smaller the denominator, the larger the scale.

 A large scale map covers a small area, and vice versa.
 As scale number becomes smaller, the simplification of
the content and graphic symbolization must be
increased.
 The larger the number represents the most generalized
and condensed appearance of the reality and the
smaller the number becomes or approaches to more
accurate of the physical features.
Large scale Medium scale Small and very small scale
1:2,000 >1:250,000

1:5,000 >1:50,000 1:1,000,000

1:10,000 1:100,000 1:2,500,000
Eg. For house Plans, 1:200,000
cadastral map, site
plan
1:250,000

1:25,000 -1:50,000 for large For medium scale For small scale maps &
scale topographic map Topographic map geographic maps
World map at very small scale
Activity

Name the division of scale to be used for the

following maps
1. City streets :_____________________
2. Building plan:____________________
3. World Map:______________________
4. Topographic map: ________________
5. Cadastral map:___________________
Conversion of scale

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:
 Convert from one form of scale into another;
 Recognize which conversion more easier and which is
difficult;
 Convert from linear scale in to areal scale,
1. Statement of scale to R.F

 It is to write the verbal scale as a fraction.

Remember that that 1 mile = 63,360 inches and
1km=100000cms
Example 1: Find out the R.F., when the statement scale is
1cm to 5kms.
Given: 1cm to 5kms.
 First change 5kms into centimeters to have the same
units.
 To do this multiply 5kms by 100,000cms (5  100,000
cms)
 Now leave out the units and put your answer as a ratio,
that is, 1:500,000 or 1/500,000 (R.F. scale)
 Example 2: Find out the R.F., when the scale is 1" to
8miles.
Given: One inch to eight miles (1" to 8miles).
Since the numerator is an inch, the denominator should
also be expressed in inches.
Now, 8 miles = 8 X 63,360 inches (since 1mile=63,360
inches)
= 506,880
Now leave out the units, the R.F will, therefore, be 1:
506,880 or 1/506,880
2. R.F scale to Statement

 Most verbal scales are either "one inch represents X

miles," or "one centimeter represents X kilometers."
Example 1: The R.F. of a map is 1:500,000. Find out
the statement scale in terms of inches and miles.
In terms of inches, here, 1" represents 500,000 inches
In terms of miles, here 1" represents 500,000
63,360 miles
= 7.89 miles
Hence, the required statement scale is 1" to 7.89 miles
Example 2: The R.F. of a map is 1:126,720. Find out the
statement scale in terms of inch to miles system.
Here 1 inch represents 126, 720 inches
Therefore, 1 inch represents 126,720
63360 miles
= 2 miles
Hence, the required statement scale is 1 inch to 2 miles
3. Statement of scale to Graphical scale

 We can use the verbal scale like a fraction to transform

the ground distance to map distance.
 Eample 1: Converting verbal scale of "1 cm to 14 km"
to a graphic scale.

 Example 2: Draw a graphical scale for 1" to 4 miles

4. RF to Graphic Scale

 Here the denominator must be changed in to ground

distance measurement unit, like Kms, miles
Example: convert an RF of 1:250,000 to a graphic scale
is:
5. Graphic Scale to RF

 Here we must take a measurement using ruler from the

bar scale to determine the map distance that
corresponds to a ground distance.

1 0 1 2 3 4 5

KILOMETERS
6. Graphic Scale to verbal scale

 We take measurements of one interval of the primary

division using ruler to represent the map distance
 For more convenient, it is better always to take ruler
measurement from “0” to the next tick mark. Example:
1cm represents 1kms

1 0 1 2 3 4 5

KILOMETERS
7. Linear scale into areal scale and vice versa

 From the graphical scale, R.F and statement scale,

once the linear scale is known, the areal scale can
easily be determined simply by squaring the linear
scale.
 Linear scale in the other way can be defined as the
square root of areal scale.
 Convert the following linear scales into areal scales.
 Linear scale (1/ 100,000), thus, areal scale =
(1/100,000) 2 = 1:10,000,000,000
Activity

1. Convert the following statements of scale into R.F.

a. 4cms to 1 km c. 2 inches to a mile
b. 1cm to 10kms d. One inch to 0.5 mile?
2. Draw graphic scales for the following scale representations
a. 2cm to 2 kms b. 1cm to 4km
c. 1:500,000
3. Calculate the areal scales for the following linear scale
a. 1cm to 5 kms b. 2cm to 1km c. 1/80,000
4. Find the linear scale from the following areal scale
a. 1cm2 to 900 km2 b. 4cm2 to 1km2
1.9. Map scale enlargement and reduction

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:
 Enlarge maps based on the given proportion;
 Reduce maps based on the given proportion;
 Know the formula used to enlarge and reduce a map;
 List the methods of enlargement and reduction of
maps.
Methods of Enlargement & Reduction

 The three methods used to enlarge or reduce maps

are:
1. Instrumental method
a) Panthograph b) Camera c) Eidograph
2. Cartographical method
a) The square method b) the similar triangle method
3. Photographical method
This is by the help of camera producing negative
The square method

 Measuring the size the square and enlarge it by the required

proportion

1: 100,000
(original map)

1: 50,000 (enlarged map)

Similar triangle method

Example: Enlarge 5:7 or reduce 5:2 ratio

Photographical method

 It is enlarging or reduction by the help of Camera,

using the negative.
Enlargement= Old scale X n times

Reduction= Old scale X 1/n times

 Example: Given that
Original scale = 1:100,000
Degree of enlargement = 2 times
The new scale = 2 X 1/100,000 = 1:50,000
 Example: Given that
Original scale = 1:25,000
Degree of reduction = 4 times
The new scale = 1 X 1 = 1____
4 25,000 100,000
Activity

1. A map with a scale of 1:25,000 covers an area of 25km by

35km agricultural plot; if the map is enlarged three times:
a) What will be the sides of the existing and the enlarged
map?
b) What will be the area of the existing and the enlarged
map?
c) What will be the scale of the enlarged map.
2. If the scale of the original map is 1:200,000, and you need to
reduce five times of the original map, what will be the scale of
the new map?
 Unit 2: Coordinate System and Map
Projections

Unit Learning Objectives

At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
– Define coordinate system;
– List the types of coordinate system;
– Find the position of an object in coordinate
system;
– Differentiate Cartesian coordinate system from
geographic coordinate system,
– Differentiate vertical and horizontal datum;
– Identify the grid reference of locations.
 Each set of numbers corresponds to exactly one
position in space, this system of assigned numbers is
called a coordinate system.
 For identifying each position in space uniquely, three
numbers are required; as space is three-dimensional
(these numbers correspond to length, width, and
height)
Types of coordinate System

The two types of coordinate system are:

 Geographical Coordinate System
 Cartesian Coordinate system
1. Geographical Coordinate System
 The geographical coordinate system measures
location from only two values, despite the fact that the
locations are described for a three-dimensional
surface.
 The two measures used in the geographic coordinate
system are called latitude and longitude
 The values for the points can have the following units of
measurement: decimal degrees (0), decimal minutes („),
and decimal seconds (").
 The prime meridian is the line of longitude that defines
the origin (zero degrees) for longitude coordinates
 One of the most commonly used prime meridian
locations is the line that passes through Greenwich,
England.
Geographical coordinates on the map shows longitude 80 degree East and
latitude 55 degree North
 Locations north of the equator have positive latitudes
that range from 0 to +90 degrees, while locations south
of the equator have negative latitudes that range from
0 to -90 degrees.
 Locations East of the prime meridian have positive
longitudes ranging from 0 to +180 degrees
 Locations west of the prime meridian have negative
longitudes ranging from 0 to -180 degrees
 At the equator, one degree of longitude is
approximately 111.321 kilometers, while at 60 degrees
of latitude, one degree of longitude is only 55.802 km
(this approximation is based on the Clarke 1866
spheroid).
 Coordinate system can be defined by either a sphere
or a spheroid approximation of the earth's shape.
 Because the earth is not perfectly round, a spheroid
can help maintain accuracy for a map, depending on
the location on the earth.
 A spheroid is an ellipsoid that is based on an ellipse,
whereas a sphere is based on a circle.
 The shape of the ellipse is determined by two radii. The
longer radius is called the semi-major axis, and the
shorter radius is called the semi-minor axis
 The shape of the ellipsoid is defined by its
i. semi-major axis (a)
ii. semi-minor axis (b)
iii. flattening (f)
iv. eccentricity (e)
F= (a-b)/a Where, a= 6,371,837m,
b=6,356,752.3142m
E2 = (a2-b2)a2
2. Cartesian Coordinate System

 The Cartesian Coordinate System, also known as the

rectangular coordinate system, consists of two
number scales, called the x-axis (at y = 0) and the y-
axis (at x = 0), that are perpendicular to each other.
 Cartesian coordinate system can be divided in to two
types namely:
 Two-dimensional Coordinate System and
 Three-dimensional Cartesian System
Examples of simple Cartesian coordinate system
with quadrant
 One of the rectangular systems used to determine the
position of an object in the surface of the Earth is the
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system.
 The Transverse Mercator projection is used, with the
cylinder in 60 positions.
 It creates 60 zones around the world. Positions are
measured using Eastings and Northings, measured in
meters, instead of Latitude and Longitude.
Universal Transverse Mercator Zones
4.2 Datum and Ellipsoid, Geoid

 Datum: Geodetic datum defines the reference systems

that describe the size and shape of the earth.
 Hundreds of different datum have been used to frame
position descriptions since the first estimates of the
earth's size were made by Aristotle.
 A datum is a set of values that defines the position of
the spheroid relative to the center of the earth (a point,
line, or surface used as a basis for measurement or
calculation in mapping or surveying)
 The datum provides a frame of reference for measuring
locations and defines the origin and orientation of
latitude and longitude lines.
 Some datums are global and intend to provide good
average accuracy around the world.
 A local datum aligns its spheroid to closely fit the
earth's surface in a particular area.
 For example Ethiopia uses the local Datum Adindan,
United States uses the North American Datum, in
Japan the Tokyo Datum, in some European countries
the European Datum, in Germany the Potsdam Datum
and the global datum World Geodetic System 84 (WGS
84)
 Datum can be two types: Horizontal Datum and Vertical
Datum.
1. Vertical Datum

 It is defined as a natural reference surface of the land

surface.
 It fits the mean sea level surface through out the area
of interest & provides the surface to which height
ground control measurements are referred.
 Examples are the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of
1929 (NGVD29) based on sea-level measurements
and leveling networks and the North American Vertical
Datum of 1988 (NAVD88) based on gravity
measurements.
 Vertical datum is used to fix a position, in a vertical
direction up and down, in the Z values.
 Vertical datum is a line, value or a set of value from
which height are measured.
2. Horizontal datum
 Horizontal Datum defines the relationship between the
physical earth and horizontal coordinates such as
latitude and longitude.
 Examples of horizontal datum include the North
American Datum of 1927 (NAD27) and the European
Datum 1950 (ED50)
 Horizontal datum is used to fix a position, in a horizontal
X and Y direction.
 It is also referred as geodetic datum or reference
datum.
Ellipsoid

 An ellipsoid is formed when an ellipse is rotated

about its minor axis.
 Note that ellipsoid and spheroid are being treated as
equivalent and interchangeable words.
 The ellipsoid may also be defined by its semi-major axis
b, and eccentricity e, which is given by:

Typical values of the parameters for an ellipsoid are:

a = 6378135.00m b = 6356750.52m
f = 1/298.26 e = 0.08181881066
A cross section of an ellipsoid
 Ellipsoid as a reference surface can be local or global.
 The local reference ellipsoids is important only fit to
earth‟s shape over a particular country or continent.
 Ethiopia uses the local ellipsoids called Clarke 1880.
 The World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) provide the
basic reference frame for GPS (Global Positioning
System) measurements.
Geoid

 The earth's surface is not uniform. Only a part of it, the

oceans, can be treated as reasonably uniform.
 The surface or topography of the land masses show
large vertical variations between mountains and valleys
which make it impossible to approximate the shape of
the earth with any reasonably simple mathematical
model.
 The zero surfaces to which elevations or heights are
referred is called a vertical datum.
Perspective view of the Geoid or Geoid undulations.
 The mean sea level (MSL) then is defined as the zero
elevation for a local or regional area.
 Geoid is the true zero surface for measuring elevations.
(a hypothetical surface of the Earth that would exist if a
cross section were taken at sea level).
 For practical purposes, we assume that at the coastline
the geoid and the MSL surfaces are essentially the
same.
 Nevertheless, as we move inland we measure heights
relative to the zero height at the coast, which in effect
means relative to mean sea level (MSL).
Reference Surfaces

 The physical surface of the Earth is complex shape and

in order to represent it on plane, it is necessary to move
from the physical surfaces to a mathematical one.
 In mapping three different surfaces are used:
1. A geometric or mathematical or Topographic
reference surface
2. The ellipsoid or spheroid, for measuring locations
3. Geoid reference or Vertical datum: for measuring
heights
The topography - the physical surface of the earth.
The Geoid - the level surface (also a physical reality).
The Ellipsoid - the mathematical surface for computations of
locations
Position shifts using different datums
Grid and Graticule, Grid Reference

 Graticules are always expressed in geographic

coordinates (latitude and longitude) while grids are
expressed in the native X and Y coordinates of the
coordinate system of the component.
 The graticule represents the projected positions of
selected meridians (lines with constant longitude ()
and parallels (lines with constant latitude ().
 In other words, the imaginary network of parallels and
meridians on the earth is known as graticule.
 The interval used for graticules are in Degrees,
Minutes, and Seconds
 A Grid is an object that stores spatial data in a locational
data format in which space is partitioned into square
cells and measured by meters.
 Each grid line is one of an even-interval selection of
measurement units.
 The north-south lines are called eastings and the east-
west lines are called northings.
Grid System Graticule System
 When any reference point is given on the map, always
take the easting number first and then the northing
second.

The square containing

point A, the normal
kilometre reference is
8254. This is the four
figure grid reference.
 For more precise location to with in 100 meters a six-
figure reference is needed.
 The six figure reference is called Normal National
Grid Reference (NNGR) and obtained by estimating
the tenth sub-divisions of each square on the 1:50,000-
scale map.
 On 1: 10,000 or 1:25,000 scale maps, for example, a
marginal strip is sub-divided in to 100 meter intervals.
Steps to assign a Normal National Grid Reference

1. Always refer to the south-west corner of the square in which the point
lies (if it lies on a printed line, follow this line until the south-west
corner is reached).
2. Write down the tens and units of the Eastings printed on the line
running vertically through the corner.
3. Estimate the tenths eastward by dividing the square vertically in to ten
parts, and add the figure to the previous one.
4. Write down tens and units of the northing printed on the line running
horizontally through the corner.
5. Estimate the tenths north ward by dividing the square horizontally in
to ten parts, and add the figure to the previous one.
6. Combine these two groups of figures. Always write the easting before
the northing.
Example
Activity: Find the NNGR of the five points?
MAP PROJECTION

 A map projection is any transformation between the

curved reference surface of the earth and the flat plane
of the map.
 Therefore map projection is a mathematical formula by
which we can transform Geographic coordinates
(latitude () and longitude () angles) in to Cartesian
projection coordinates (x and Y).
 X, Y map Projection = f (, )
Projection from a globe on to a cylindrical projection surface
 Representing the earth‟s surface in two dimensions
causes distortion in the shape, area, distance, or
direction of the data.
 Therefore, map projection is transforming its three-
dimensional surface to create a flat map sheet.
 The main reason for map projection is to minimize
the Scale distortion.
The creation of a map projection involves three steps in which
information is lost in each step:
 Selection of a model for the shape of the earth or round body
(choosing between a sphere or ellipsoid)
 Transform geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude)
to plane coordinates (easting and northing).
 Reduce the scale (in manual cartography this step came
second, in digital cartography it comes last)
Classification of Map Projection

1. Based on developable surface used (classes of

projection)
 Conical projection- On a conical surface
 Cylindrical projection- On a cylindrical surface
 Zenithal or Azimuthal or planar projection- On plane
surface
 Conventional projection-Using mathematical calculation
Projection based on developable surface
2. Based on preserved quantities (Properties of the
projection)
 Homolographic or equal area projection
 Orthomorphic or true shape projection
 Azimuthal or true bearing projections
3. Base on aspects or position tangent surfaces
 Polar
 Equatorial or normal
 oblique
 Transverse Cylindrical
Projection
Oblique Cylindrical Projection
Tangent Cylindrical Projection

Secant Cylindrical Projection

Conic Projection as Tangent and Secant
4. Based on the position of view point or light
 Gnomonic
 Stereographic
 Orthographic
Projection based on the source of light
5. Based on geometric shape
 Rectangular
 Circular
 Elliptical
 Butterfly shape
6. Based on the methods of construction
 Perspective projection
 Non-perspective projection
 Uses a source of light to project a globe's meridians
and parallels onto a developable surface.
 This technique is also known as the graphical
method.
 Perspective projections create a sense of depth, but
parallel lines appear to skew toward vanishing points
 Non-perspective uses mathematical calculations to
draw the graticules of latitudes and longitudes.
 This technique is also known as the mathematical
method.
 Non-perspective projections are more accurate than
perspective projections.
 They are created without a source of light or casting
shadows, and the intersecting lines are drawn without
reference to a source of light.
 Non-perspective projections can be modified to
achieve certain properties, such as true area, shape,
directions, and bearing
Unit 3. TOPOGRAPHIC MAPPING
Lesson Objectives

 Define a topographic map and state its uses.

 Describe how contour lines show the elevations,
shape, and slope of the land.
 Identify the meanings of some symbols and colors
used on topographic maps.
What is a topographic map?

 A topographic map, also known as a contour map, is

a map that shows the shape of the land using
contour line.
 It is a map that shows and elevation field, meaning
how high and low the ground is in relation to sea
level.
What are contour lines?

 Contour lines are lines that connect points that are of

the same elevation.
 They show the exact elevation, the shape of the
land, and the steepness of the land‟s slope.
 Contour lines never touch or cross.
What is a benchmark?

 A benchmark is a point where exact elevation is

known and is marked with a brass or aluminum
plate. It is marked BM on the map with the elevation
numbers given in feet.
 Benchmarks are useful to help determine contour
lines.
Other Topographic Terms

 Map scale – compares distances on the map with

distances on earth.
 Legend – explains symbols used on the map.
 Index contours – contour lines that are labeled to
help you find the contour interval.
What is a contour interval?

 A contour interval is the difference in elevation

between two contour lines that are side by side.
 Remember that a contour interval is not the distance
between the two lines – to get the distance you need
to use the map scale.
What if my contour lines are close together?

 If the contour lines are close together, then that

indicates that area has a steep slope.
What if my contour lines are far apart?

 If the contour lines are far apart, then that indicates

the land has a gentle slope (low slope).
What do the dark colored contour lines mean?

 The dark colored contour lines represent every fifth

contour line to make it easier to read the map.
What do depressions in the map look like?

 A depression, such as the inside of a dead volcano,

is represented by Hachure lines.
 Hachure lines are regular contour lines with small
segments sticking out from it.
 The first hachure line is at the same elevation as the
contour line before it.
More on Contour Lines

 Contour lines form V‟s that point upstream when

they cross a stream.
 It is important to remember that they point in the
opposite direction as the flow of water.
 What do the colors on the topographic map
represent?

 Blue lines/shapes - represent water features, such

as streams and lakes.
 Brown – contour lines
 Black – Roads, buildings, railroads, other man made
objects.
 Green – Woodland areas
 Red - Highways
 Now that I know what a topographic map is, how do
I read it?

 First determine the contour interval (the distance

between each contour line)
 Then determine the map scale (usually at the bottom of
the map)
 Identify any hills or depressions
 Use the legend to identify man made features.
4. THEMATIC MAPPING

 Thematic Mapping refers to the creation of maps that

focus on a specific theme or subject area, highlighting
spatial patterns, relationships, or data distributions
across a geographical area.
 Unlike general reference maps, which show natural and
man-made features (e.g., rivers, cities, roads), thematic
maps emphasize specific information tailored to a
particular purpose or audience.
Types of Thematic Maps

1. Choropleth Map
2. Dot Distribution Map
3. Isopleth/Contour Map
4. Cartogram
5. Flow Line
6. Proportional Symbol Map
1. Choropleth Map

 show differences in relative quantities with differences

in value or tint
 it uses shades or colors to represent data values across
predefined areas (e.g., population density by region).
 the ‘default’ mapping, especially for social data (e.g. census)
 most mapping tools produce choropleth maps
 easy produced in GIS, stats software
 should be used for ratio data and not absolute counts as most
spatial units are variable in size
Choropleth mapping

Step 1: Plotting of boundaries

Step 2: Calculation of ratios or percentages from statistics

Step 3: Choosing proper class interval

Step 4: Plot quantities using graded series of shadings

Limitations of choropleth

 Assumption that distribution of the phenomena over unit

area is uniform
 Inaccuracy caused by difference in sizes of units
 The choice of class interval affects the visual impression of
the map
2. Dot Distribution Map

 Uses dots to represent the occurrence or distribution of

a feature (e.g., disease outbreaks).
 showing differences in absolute quantities through size
differences
 It is most convenient method for representing absolute
quantities or numbers on a map.
 Each dot is taken to represent a certain quantity, and
therefore, the number of dots to be placed in an area,
political can be easily determined. Example A dot
might represent 1000 people
3. Isopleths Map

 This is using line symbols to portray a

continuous distribution such as temperature,
pressure or elevation etc.
 Isolines are lines that connect points of equal
numeric value, e.g. Isobar, Isohyets, contour
lines, Isotherms etc.
 Isopleths are not quite popular for showing
population distribution.
Isoline mapping

Step 1: exact location of control points

Step 2: determination of class interval

Step 3: interpolation of Isolines

Step 4: shading or coloring of the zones

4. Cartogram

 Distorts the size or shape of regions based on a specific

variable (e.g., GDP, electoral votes).

 A diagram highly abstracted on which locations or outlines

are distorted
 A small diagram on the face of a map showing quantitative
information.
 An abstracted and simplified map the base of which is not
true to scale.
 Unique representations of geographical space
 Have strong visual impact, attract reader attention
 Often concerned with magnitude and want to make
stronger impression than conventional choropleth or
isarithmic mapping
 Alter area sizes of countries to reflect their pop.
Sizes.
5. Proportional Symbol map

 As the name implies, these maps scale icons (most

often circles) according to the data they represent.
 Proportional symbol map also use a point symbol,
but the symbols have different sizes in proportion to
some quality that occurs at that point.
 The populations of different cities are frequently
depicted on graduated circle maps.
Proportional Symbol map
6. Flow line maps

 These types of maps represent the flow direction of

phenomena by giving different weight of the lines.
 Fore example, the flow direction of Main River, minor
rivers can be given different thickness of lines.
 Another good example can be the migration flow of
inhabitants
Flow line map
7. Graphs and Diagrams

 Graphs are generally drawn to show the relationship between

two variables, one of them being the number of students, or
amount of rainfall, or other to be shown is the time.
 This relationship can be graphically represented by the line
graph or bar graph.
 Moreover, diagrams like pyramid, proportional symbol maps
and cartogram are helpful to represent geographical data
graphically.
Line Graph
Bar Graph
Physical Condition of Stele in Geza Agumai
40 Stele Field
40

35

30
Number of Stele

25

20
12 14
15

10 6 6
5 2

0
NO_Stele

NO_Burried
NO_Fallen

NO_Brocken

NO_Errected
NO_Inclined

Physical Condition
Pie chart

Proportion of Students in Social Science

Departments at MU

5%
10% 25% Geography
History
English
Civics
30% 10% Amharic
Tigrigna
20%
Applications of Thematic Mapping

 Environmental Studies: Climate zones, natural

hazards, or deforestation.
 Urban Planning: Traffic flow, land use, housing
density.
 Public Health: Disease spread, vaccination rates.
 Economics: Income levels, unemployment rates.
 Political Science: Election results, voting patterns.
Classification of thematic map

 In some cases of thematic map application,

classification of data is necessary
1. Natural breaks
2. Equal interval
3. Equal area
4. Quartile
5. Standard deviation
1. Equal Interval

 It divides the range of data values into equal-sized

intervals.
 Data that is uniformly distributed across the range.
 Example: Dividing income levels into intervals like $0–
$10,000, $10,001–$20,000, etc.
 Easy to understand and interpret.
 Can result in classes with no data if the data is not evenly
distributed.
Equal Interval

1000

800
Population Density (persons/sqkm)

Class 1
600

400

200

0 Thematic Mapping
Equal Interval
35

30

25

20

Frequency
15

10

0
2 6 10 30 50 70 90 150 250 350 450 600 800 1000 3000 5000

Thematic Mapping
2. Quantile Classification

 It divides data into classes containing an equal number of

data points.
 Data that is evenly distributed but might have extreme
values.
 Example: Dividing population data so each class contains
25% of the regions.
 Ensures a balanced representation of data points in each
class.
 May group very different values together if the data
distribution is uneven
Quartile measurement

Class 5
1000 Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4

800
Population Density (persons/sqkm)

600

400

200

0
 35

30

25

20

Frequency
15

10

0
2 6 10 30 50 70 90 150 250 350 450 600 800 1000 3000 5000
3. Natural Breaks (Jenks Method)

 It identifies natural groupings in data by minimizing

variance within classes and maximizing variance between
classes.
 Data with uneven distributions or clusters of similar values.
 Mapping elevation levels where natural groupings occur.
 Creates meaningful groups based on the data's inherent
patterns.
 Can be difficult to compare maps if different datasets are
used.
Natural Breaks

1000

Class 1 Class 2
800
Population Density (persons/sqkm)

600

400

200

0
 35

30

25

20

Frequency
15

10

0
2 6 10 30 50 70 90 150 250 350 450 600 800 1000 3000 5000
4. Standard Deviation

 It classifies data based on how much they deviate from the

mean value.
 Data with a normal (bell-shaped) distribution.
 Example: Analyzing income levels relative to the average
income in a region.
 Highlights how data diverges from the average.
 May not work well for non-normally distributed data
Standard Deviation

0 - 1 Std
1000

-1 Std - 0

800
Population Density (persons/sqkm)

Mean
600

400

Mean = 291.3
SD = 1947.1
200

0
 35
Mean +1 Std +2
30

25

20

Frequency
15

10

0
2 6 10 30 50 70 90 150 250 350 450 600 800 1000 3000 5000

Mean = 291.3
SD = 1947.1
5. Manual Classification

 It allows the user to manually set class boundaries.

 When the user has expert knowledge about the data or
wants to emphasize specific thresholds.
 Example: Highlighting flood risk zones at specific water
levels.
 Provides full control over classification.
 Can introduce bias or inconsistency if not done carefully
6. Geometrical Interval

 It creates class intervals based on a geometric

progression.
 Data with a wide range of values and a skewed
distribution.
 Example: Population density maps in urban versus rural
areas.
 Balances variation in data distribution.
 May be less intuitive for users unfamiliar with geometric
progression
Choosing the Right Technique

 Equal Interval: Good for evenly distributed data.

 Quantile: Ensures equal representation of data
points.
 Natural Breaks: Best for clustered data.
 Standard Deviation: Highlights deviations from the
mean.
 Manual: Custom classification for expert-driven
analysis.
 Geometrical Interval: Handles skewed data
effectively.
Unit 5. Cartographic Data Representations & Generalization

 Once geographic features and data have been selected,

generalized and classified for the map, it is necessary to
choose the appropriate graphic representation or symbols for
the information.
 Visual variables include symbol, size, shape, orientation,
pattern (texture), hue (colour), and colour value (brightness
and lightness).
 When a data set is large, it is not practical to assign a unique
symbol to each data record.
 Therefore, for mapping it is essential that data is classified or
grouped.
 Before classifying or grouping data, it is necessary to
determine whether the data are qualitative or quantitative, and
the level of measurement.
 The basic concept of cartographic generalization is important
in map making that any cartographer to know and apply.
 The classification method chosen should adequately describe
the phenomenon being mapped, and at the same time
facilitate the cartographic display of spatial patterns.
1. Mapping Quantitative and Qualitative Data

 Cartographers and geographers use symbols on maps to

represent various geographic phenomena involving location,
distance, volume, movement, function, process, correlation,
etc.
 These phenomena can be classified into four basic categories:
point (non-dimensional data), line (one-dimensional data),
area (two-dimensional data), and volume (three-dimensional
data).
 The geographical data must be represented on maps by only
three basic symbol types: point, line, and area.
 Before assigning map symbology, it is important to have a
good understanding of the data set to be mapped.
 The distribution of a data set can be explored by calculating
descriptive statistics such as mean, mode, median, range, and
standard deviation.
 Quantitative data are data that contain attributes indicating
differences in amount and can be expressed as numerical
values.
 Quantitative data included in this category are ordinal,
interval, and ratio.
 Moreover, qualitative data are data that are grouped in classes
according to differences in type or quality.
 Qualitative data have no numerical values attached.
 Nominal data comes under this category.
 Sometimes ordinal data may also be considered qualitative, if
no numerical values are involved
1. Ordinal data

 Ordinal data provide information about rank or hierarchy, in

other words, relative values.
 In ordinal data, therefore, it is possible to describe one item
as larger or smaller than another, or as low, medium, or high.
 However, it is not possible to measure the differences
between ordinal data, because there are no specific
numerical values attached to them.
Examples of Ordinal Data as point, line & area map
2. Interval Data

 The information can be arranged along a scale using a

standard unit.
 It is possible to calculate the distance or difference between
ranks, which must be expressed in terms of a standard unit.
 For example, a temperature scale uses degrees (°F or °C) as a
standard unit of measurement; between 20° and 35° there is a
difference of 15°.
 As shown by this example of interval data, it cannot be said
that 35° is 1.75 times warmer than 20°, because the scale on
which temperature is measured is arbitrary.
 Interval data, as illustrated, have no natural zero.
3. Ratio Data

 Ratio data are the same as interval data, except there is a

natural zero; therefore, it is possible to express data as ratios.
 Physical measurements of height, weight, and length are
examples of ratio variables.
 With this type of data, it is meaningful to state that a
measurement is twice that of another.
 In some literature and statistical computer programs, no
distinction is made between interval and ratio data, calling
them both continuous data.
4. Nominal Data

 Nominal data are discrete and are classed according to type

or quality.
 For example, a line could represent either a road or river, and
a land use polygon could be residential, commercial, or a
recreational area.
 Nominal data are often labeled with numbers or letters, but
these labels do not imply ranking.
 Nominal data can be shown as point, line and area
symbology.
Examples of Nominal Data as point, line & area map
2. Elements and Controls of Cartographic Generalization

 Cartographic generalization may be defined as a set of

proceedings applied for construction and visualization of
models.
 Cartographic generalization depend on the cartographer’s
knowledge about the requirements and the desired scale.
 Generalization entails information loss, but one should try to
preserve the essence of the contents of the original map.
Elements of Cartographic Generalization

 Generalization has a long history in cartography as an art of

creating maps for different scale and purpose.
 Cartographic generalization is the process of selecting and
representing information of a map in a way that adapts to the
scale of the display medium of the map.
 Every map has, to some extent, been generalized to match the
criteria of display.
 Generalization is meant to be context specific
Types of Generalization

 The two types of generalization are distinguished as graphic

and conceptual generalization.
 Graphic generalization is characterized by simplification,
enlargement, displacement, merging and selection.
 Conceptual generalization is also characterized by the
processes of merging and selection, and in addition
comprises symbolization and enhancement.
 The difference between graphic & conceptualize
generalization is that the process linked to graphic
generalization mostly deal with geometric component of
geospatial data, while those processes mainly linked to
conceptual generalization mainly affect the attribute
component.
 None of these processes affects the symbology. Dots stay
dots, dashes remain dashes, and patches stay patches.
Graphic generalization
Conceptual Generalization
a) Selection

 Map generalization can take many forms, and is designed to

reduce the complexities of the real world by strategically
reducing additional and unnecessary details. One way that
geospatial data can be reduced is through the selection
process.
 The cartographer can select and retain certain elements that
he/she deems the most necessary or appropriate. In this
method, the most important elements stand out while lesser
elements are left out entirely.
 For example, a directional map between two points may
have lesser and un-traveled roadways omitted as not to
confuse the map-reader
(b) Simplification

 Simplification is a technique where shapes of retained

features are altered to enhance visibility and reduce
complexity.
 Smaller scale maps have more simplified features than larger
scale maps because they simply exhibit more area.
 An example of simplification is to scale and remove points
along an area.
(c) Combination or merging

 A mountain chain may be isolated into several smaller ridges

and peaks with intermittent forest in the natural environment,
but shown as a contiguous chain on the map, as determined
by scale.
(d) Smoothing
 Smoothing is also a process that the mapmaker can employ to
reduce the angularity of line work.
 Smoothing is yet another way of simplifying the map
features, but involves several other characteristics of
generalization that lead into feature displacement and
locational shifting.
 Simplification, sometimes called smoothing, should reduce
the complexity of the map.
 An example of smoothing would be for a jagged roadway,
cut through a mountain, to be smoothed out so that the
angular turns and transitions appear much more fluid and
natural.
(e) Enhancement

 Enhancement is also a method that can be employed by the

cartographer to illuminate specific elements that aid in map
reading.
 As many of the aforementioned generalizing methods focus
on the reduction and omission of detail, the enhancement
method concentrates on the addition of detail.
 Example is showing by contour lines for elevation of relief
features.
(f) Symbolization

 Symbolization denotes that the relationship between the

symbol & the space it represents changes.
 After cartographers apply classification, simplification, and
exaggeration to features selected for mapping, they are ready
to translate these features to graphic marks on the map. We
call this process symbolization.
Controls of cartographic Generalization

 Cartographers don’t have complete control over the processes

of generalization.
 Generalization is also guided by a number of external forces.
 The following factors affect the generalization process:
 map purpose & conditions of use,
 quality and quantity of available data,
 map scale
 graphic limits.
(a) Map Purpose and conditions of use

 Before beginning to produce a map, a cartographer must

think of the purpose of the map and the condition of use.
 For example, is it designed to provide a great deal of general
geographic information or to show the structure of a
particular distribution?
(b) Map Scale
 The scale of the finished map also has a major impact on the
amount of generalization that will be used.
 The smaller the scale, the more the generalization will
usually be required.
 At large scales, most of the generalizations is the
classification and symbolization.
(c) Quality and quantity of data
 The quality and quantity of data available to cartographers
also greatly affect the generalization process.
 The more reliable and precise the data, the more detail is
available for presentation.
 One of the most difficult tasks for cartographers is to
indicate to map readers the quality of the data used.
 On large scale maps, cartographers often include a reliable
diagram, which shows the relative accuracy of various parts
of the map.
 The quantity of data available has a great impact on the
generalization process.
 If not enough information is available, cartographers should
either make the map at a smaller, more generalized scale or
not make it at all.
(d) Graphic limits

 We can break these factors in to two groups: (1) technical

limits set by the cartographer’s tools and (2) perceptual limits
of the human eye.
 We create symbols by combining the basic graphic elements:
point, line and area marks.
 Our ability to form symbol from these elements is subject to
three types of limitation: physical, physiological and
psychological.
 Physical limits are imposed on the graphic elements by the
equipment, materials and skills available to the map maker.
 Physiological and Psychological limits are imposed by the
map user’s perceptions and reactions to the primary visual
variables.
 The visual variables are shape, size, orientation, hue, value
(chroma) and texture.
GIS and Automated Generalization
 As GIS came up in the last century and the demand for
producing maps automatically increased, automated
generalization became an important issue for National
Mapping Agencies (NMAs) and other data providers.
End
Lab Exercises

Exercise 1. Geo-referencing of scanned topographic maps

Exercise 2. Map Projections using ArcGIS: e.g. Changing Map
projections from UTM to GCS considering transformation
parameters
Exercise 3. Design topographic maps using ArcGIS Desktop software
Exercise 4. Differentiate between different categories of Thematic
Maps
Exercise 5. Practice classification and symbolization methods for
different geographical data
Exercise 6. Representation of spatial and attribute data via dot
density, graduated symbols and graduated colors.