Surface Roughness

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VEHICLE BODY ENGINEERING

1/20/2016 Complied & Edited by Velmurugan Sivaraman
Terms used to describe early vehicle body styles
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Berlina Rarely used before the First World War. A

closed luxury car with small windows which allowed
the occupants to see without being seen.
Cab A term taken directly from the days of the horse-

drawn carriages. Used to describe an enclosed vehicle
which carried two passengers, while the driver was
situated in front of this compartment and unprotected.
Cabriolet Used towards the end of the period.

Describes a car with a collapsible hood and seating
two or four people.
Coupé A vehicle divided by a fixed or movable glass

partition, behind the front seat. The driver’s position
was only partially protected by the roof whilst the rear
compartment was totally enclosed and very luxurious.
Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016
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Coupé cabriolet or double cabriolet A long

vehicle having the front part designed as a
coupé and the rear part designed as a
cabriolet. There were often two supplementary
seats.
Coupé chauffeur A coupé with the driving

position completely covered by an extension of
the rear roof.
Coupé de ville A coupé having the driving

position completely open.
Coupé limousine A vehicle having a totally

enclosed rear compartment and the front
driving position closed on the sides only.
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Double Berlina A longer version of the Berlina but

having the driving position separated from the
rear part of the vehicle.
Double landaulet A longer version of the landaulet.

It had two permanent seats plus two occasional
seats in the rear and a driving position in front.
Double phaeton A phaeton which had two double

seats including the driver’s seat.
Double tunneau A longer version of the tonneau in

which the front seats were completely separated
from the rear seats.
Landau A cabriolet limousine having only the roof

behind the rear windows collapsible.
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Landaulet or landaulette A small landau having

only two seats in the closed collapsible roof
portion.
Limousine A longer version of the coupé with

double side windows in the rear compartment.
Limousine chauffeur A limousine with an

extended rear roof to cover the driving position
Phaeton A term from the days of the horse-

drawn carriage. In early motoring it was used to
describe a lightweight car with large spoked
wheels, one double seat and usually a hood.
Runabout An open sporting type of vehicle with

simple bodywork and two seats only.

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Tonneau An open vehicle having a front bench seat and a

semi-circular rear seat which was built into the rear doors.
Glass saloon A large closed vehicle similar to a double

Berlina but with enlarged windows.
Saloon A vehicle having the driving seat inside the enclosed

car but not separated from the rear seat by a partition.
Torpedo A long sports vehicle having its hood attached to

the windscreen.
Victoria Another term derived from the era of horses. The

Victoria was a long, luxurious vehicle with a separate driving
position and a large rear seat. It was equipped with hoods
and side screens.
Wagon saloon A particularly luxurious saloon used for

official purposes.
Basic Feature of an Automobile
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• Progress of civilization is intimately connected with the means of transportation

• A self-propelled vehicle used for transportation of goods & passengers on land is
called Automobile or Automotive / Motor Vehicle
• An automobile is comprised of a chassis & body
• Chassis is made up of a frame supporting ; body / power unit / transmission system
/ control system
• A chassis frame is supported by wheels & tyres through suspension system and
axles
• The power delivered by power unit ( engine ) is transmitted through clutch or fluid
coupling, transmission system, and axle to the wheels
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• Automobile is propelled on road due to friction between the tire and road surface
• Various sub - systems of the automobile are properly designed & held together for
efficient functioning individually & as well as whole unit.
• The body and suspension provides protection & comfort
• Automobile has its limitations in regard to load, speed & distance it can travel

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General Classification of Automobiles
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Automobiles can be classified from various point of view of considerations like;

Use : Motorcycle, car, Bus, …
Capacity : LCV, M&HCV, …
Make : Ashok Leyland, Maruti, Hyundai, Tata, Honda, Bajaj, …
Model : Zen,..
Fuel : Petrol, Diesel, CNG, …
Wheels : Two, three, four, ...
Drive : Left hand drive, Right hand drive, Front wheel drive, ...
Transmission : Conventional (Manual), Automatic …

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Construction :
 Unitized body construction
 Various body sections are used as structural strength member to help support
& stiffen the entire unit
 All sections are welded together to form an unit.
 this eliminates the need of heavy chassis frame
 Separate Body & Chassis construction
 The frame is constructed as a separate unit and body is bolted to it at various
points
 The frame must be quite rigid, since the suspension system, engine and body
depends upon the frame to support and keep all units in alignment
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Types of Vehicle :
• Single-unit Vehicles or load carriers
• Conventional four wheel types with two axle design
• Front axle is a steering non-driving axle
• Rear axle is driving axle
• Articulated Vehicles
• Three - wheelers with single steering wheel in front & rear axle as driving axle
• It can turn around its own tail with greater handling ability
• A coupling mechanism between semi trailer and tractor in most cases designed for
automatic connection
• Heavy
Compiled & Edited TractorSivaraman
By Velmurugan Vehicles 1/20/2016
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• Heavy Tractor Vehicles

• More heavy load tractors or independent tractor vehicles
• Commonly operate in pair either in tandem or as puller or pusher
• Uses number of axles & wheels as drive wheels or otherwise
• Load per axle can be reduced which protects tyres from overloading and road surface
from damage
• Wheel axles are called “live” if drive and called “dead” if non-drive
• A live axle supports the payload & driving tractive effort while dead axle supports load
only

Car body details – The motor car
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o The passenger car is used for transportation of one to seven passengers in sitting
position and accommodates their luggage.
o Space is provided for engine, transmission, steering, suspension, braking systems,
etc.
o It is designed for safety, comfort and economy
Car broadly classified on Body Style as :

a) Closed cars ; Saloon, Coupe, …
b) Open cars ; Sports, Convertible, …
c) Special Styles ; Estate, Station Wagon, …

Car body Construction
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Identification & Functions of Body Pressings

o In a separate body and chassis construction
o Chassis resists bending & twisting loads
o Body provides only functional needs
o Separate body & chassis type of construction is being superseded by the integral or
mono-construction system
o In integral construction the frame members become an integral part of the body

Car body Construction
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Car body assemblies

Car body terminology
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Car body terminology
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Body Components
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1. Outer Body Components

2. Weather Strips
3. Glass and Mirrors
4. Movable Parts
5. Windshield Wiper
6. Vehicle Lighting and Signalling

Vehicle classification
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Distinctive groups of passenger vehicle bodies include

the following
o Small-bodied mass-produced vehicles

o Medium-bodied mass-produced vehicles
o Large-bodied mass-produced vehicles
o Modified mass-produced bodywork to give a
standard production model a more distinctive
appearance
o Specially built vehicles using the major components of
mass-produced models
o High-quality coach-built limousines (hand made)
o Sports and GT bodywork (mass-produced)
o Specially coach-built sports cars (hand made).
Vehicle classification - Styling forms
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Saloon The most popular style for passenger vehicles is the two-door or four-
door saloon. It has
a fully enclosed, fixed-roof body for four or more people. This body style also
has a separate luggage or boot compartment
Hatchback This body style is identified by its characteristics sloping rear

tailgate, which is classed as one of the three or five doors. With the rear seats
down there is no division between the passenger and luggage compartments
and this increases the luggage carrying capacity of the vehicle
Estate This type of vehicle is styled so that the roof extends to the rear to give
more luggage space, especially when the rear seats are lowered
Sports coupé and coupé A sports coupé is a two-seater sports car with a fixed
roof and a high performance engine. A coupé is a two-door, fixed roof, high-
performance vehicle with similar styling but with two extra seats at the rear,
and is sometimes referred to as a ‘2-plus-2’
Vehicle classification - Styling forms
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Convertible or cabriolet This can have either two or four doors. It has a soft-top folding roof (hood)
and wind-up windows, together with fully enclosed or open bodywork
Sports This is a two-seater vehicle with a high performance engine and a folding or removable
roof (hood)
Limousine This vehicle is characterized by its extended length, a high roofline to allow better
headroom for seating five passengers comfortably behind the driver, a high-quality finish and
luxurious interiors

The evolution of design
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The planning, design, engineering and

development of a new motor car is an extremely
complex process. With approximately 15 000
separate parts, the car is the most complicated
piece of equipment built using mass production
methods.
Computer-aided design (CAD) Computer-

assisted design work, basically using graphics.
Computer-aided engineering (CAE) All computer

aided activities with respect to technical data
processing, from idea to preparation for
production, integrated in an optimum way.
The evolution of design
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Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)

Preparation of production and analysis of
production processes.
Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) All

computer-aided activities from idea to serial
production.

Stages of the design process
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The various stages of the design process

are as follows
o Vehicle styling, ergonomics and safety

o Production of scale and full-size models
o Engine performance and testing
o Wind tunnel testing
o Prototype production
o Prototype testing
o Body engineering for production

Vehicle styling, ergonomics and safety
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Vehicle styling
The automotive stylist needs to be a
combination of artist, inventor, craftsman and
engineer, with the ability to conceive new and
imaginative ideas and to bring these ideas to
economic reality by using up-to-date techniques
and facilities.
He must have a complete understanding of the

vehicle and its functions, and a thorough
knowledge of the materials available, the costs
involved, the capabilities of the production
machinery, the sources of supply and the
directions of worldwide changes.
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Vehicle styling
His responsibilities include the conception,
detail, design and development of all new
products, both visual and mechanical. This
includes the exterior form, all applied facias, the
complete interior, controls, instrumentation,
seating, and the colours and textures of
everything visible outside and inside the vehicle.

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Ergonomics
Ergonomics is a fundamental component of the process

of vehicle design. It is the consideration of human
factors in the efficient layout of controls in the driver’s
environment. In the design of instrument panels, factors
such as the driver’s reach zones and his field of vision,
together with international standards, all have to be
considered.
Legal standards include material performance in relation

to energy absorption and deformation under impact.
The vision and reach zones are geometrically defined,
and allow for the elimination of instrument reflections in
the windshield.

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Ergonomics
Basic elements affecting the driver’s

relationship to the instrument panel
controls, instruments, steering wheel,
pedals, seats and other vital elements in
the car are positioned for initial evaluation
using the ‘Manikin’, which is a two- and
three-dimensional measuring tool
developed as a result of numerous
anthropometric surveys and representing
the human figure. Changes are recorded
until the designer is satisfied that an
optimum layout has been achieved.

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Safety
Every car should be designed with the following crash safety
principles in mind
o The impact from a collision is absorbed gradually by
controlled deformation of the outer parts of the car body.
o The passenger area is kept intact as long as possible.
o The interior is designed to reduce the risk of injury.
Primary or active safety
This refers to the features designed into the vehicle which
reduce the possibility of an accident. These include primary
design elements such as dual-circuit braking systems, anti-
lock braking systems, high aerodynamic stability and efficient
bad-weather equipment, together with features that make
the driver’s environment safer, such as efficient through
ventilation, orthopaedic seating, improved all-round vision,
easy to read instruments and ergonomic controls.
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Secondary or passive safety

If a crash does happen, secondary safety design should protect the passengers by
o Making sure that, in the event of an accident, the occupants stay inside the car
o Minimizing the magnitude and duration of the deceleration to which they are
subjected
o Restraining the occupants so that they are not injured by secondary impacts
within the car, and, if they do strike parts of the inside of the vehicle, making
sure that there is sufficient padding to prevent serious injury
o Designing the outside of the vehicle so that the least possible injury is caused
to pedestrians and others who may come into contact with the outside of the
vehicle.
There are also engineering features such as impact energy-absorbing steering
columns, head restraints, bumpers, anti-burst door locks, and self aligning steering
wheels. Anti-burst door locks are to prevent unrestrained occupants from falling
out of the vehicle, especially during roll-over. The chances of survival are much
reduced if the occupant is thrown out.
Production of scale and full-size models
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Scale models
Once the initial designs have been accepted, scale models are
produced for wind tunnel testing to determine the aerodynamic
values of such a design. These models are usually constructed of
wood and clay to allow for modifications to be made easily. At the
same time, design engineering personnel construct models of
alternative interiors so that locations of instruments can be
determined.

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Scale models
A ¼ or ⅜ scale model is produced from the stylist’s drawings to enable the stylist designer to
evaluate the three-dimensional aspect of the vehicle. These scale models can look convincingly
real. The clay surfaces are covered with thin coloured plastic sheet which closely resembles
genuine painted metal. Bumpers, door handles and trim strips are all cleverly made-up dummies,
and the windows are made of Plexiglass. The scale models are examined critically and tested.
Changes to the design can be made at this stage.

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Full-size models
A full-size clay model is begun when
the scale model has been
satisfactorily modified. It is
constructed in a similar way to the
scale model but uses a metal, wood
and plastic frame called a buck. The
clay is placed on to the framework by
professional model makers, who
create the final outside shape of the
body to an accuracy of 0.375 mm.
The high standard of finish and detail
results in an exact replica of the
future full-size vehicle.
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Full-size models
This replica is then evaluated by the
styling management and submitted
to top management for their
approval. The accurate life-size
model is used for further wind tunnel
testing and also to provide
measurements for the engineering
and production departments. A
scanner, linked to a computer, passes
over the entire body and records
each and every dimension. These are
stored and can be produced on an
automatic drafting machine.
Engine performance and testing
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Engine performance and testing

Development engineers prepare to test an engine in a
computer-linked test cell to establish the optimum settings
for best performance, economy and emission levels. With
the increasing emphasis on performance with economy,
computers are used to obtain the best possible compromise.
They are also used to monitor and control prolonged engine

testing to establish reliability characteristics. If current
engines and transmissions are to be used for a new model, a
programme of refining and adapting for the new installation
has to be initiated.
However, if a completely new engine, transmission or

driveline configuration is to be adopted, development work
must be well in hand by this time.
Aerodynamics and wind tunnel testing
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Aerodynamics is an experimental science whose aim is the study of the

relative motions of a solid body and the surrounding air. Its application
to the design of a car body constitutes one of the chief lines of the
search for energy economy in motor vehicles.
In order to move over flat ground, a car must overcome two forces
o Resistance to tyre tread motion, which varies with the coefficient of

tyre friction over the ground and with the vehicle’s mass.
o Aerodynamic resistance, which depends on the shape of the car, on
its frontal area, on the density of the air and on the square of the
speed.
An aerodynamic or streamlined body allows faster running for the same

consumption of energy, or lower consumption for the same speed.
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Research for the ideal shape is done on reduced-scale models of the

vehicle. The models are placed in a wind tunnel, an experimental
installation producing wind of a certain quality and fitted with the
means for measuring the various forces due to the action of the wind
on the model or the vehicle. Moreover, at a given cruising speed, the
more streamlined vehicle has more power left available for
acceleration: this is a safety factor.
The design of a motor car body must, however, remain compatible

with imperatives of production, of overall measurements and of inside
spaciousness. It is also a matter of style, for the coachwork must be
attractive to the public. This makes it impossible to apply the laws of
aerodynamics literally. The evolution of the motor car nevertheless
tends towards a gradual reduction in aerodynamic resistance.

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Aerodynamic drag
The force which opposes the forward movement of an automobile is aerodynamic drag, in which air rubs
against the exterior vehicle surfaces and forms disturbances about the body, thereby retarding forward
movement. Aerodynamic drag increases with speed; thus if the speed of a vehicle is doubled, the
corresponding engine power must be increased by eight times. Engineers express the magnitude of
aerodynamic drag using the drag coefficient Cd. The coefficient expresses the aerodynamic efficiency of
the vehicle: the smaller the value of the coefficient, the smaller the aerodynamic drag.
Over the years, the value of Cd has been reduced roughly as follows:
1910 0.95 1960 0.40
1920 0.82 1970 0.36
1930 0.56 1980 0.30
1940 0.45 1990 0.22
1950 0.42 1993 0.20

Prototype production
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The new model now enters the prototype phase. The mock-ups give
way to the first genuine road going vehicle, produced with the aid of
accurate drawings and without complex tooling and machinery.
The prototype must accurately reproduce the exact shape,

construction and assembly conditions of the final production body it
represents if it is to be of any value in illustrating possible
manufacturing problems and accurate test data. The process begins
with the issue of drawing office instructions to the experimental
prototype workshop.

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Details of skin panels and other large

pressings are provided in the form of
tracings or as photographic
reproductions of the master body drafts.
As the various detailed parts are made,
by either simple press tools or traditional
hand methods, they are spot welded
into minor assemblies or subassemblies;
these later become part of a major
assembly to form the completed vehicle
body.

Prototype testing
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Prototype testing
Whilst still in the prototype stage, the new car has to

face a number of arduous tests. For these tests a
mobile laboratory is connected to the vehicle by a
cable, which transmits signals from various sensors on
the vehicle back to the on-board computer for
collation and analysis. The prototype will also be
placed on a computer-linked simulated rig to monitor,
through controlled vibrations, the stresses and strains
experienced by the driveline, suspension and body.

Prototype testing
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Prototype testing
Crash testing is undertaken to establish that the vehicle

will suffer the minimum of damage or distortion in the
event of an impact and that the occupants are safely
installed within the strong passenger compartment or
safety cell. The basic crash test is a frontal crash at 30
mile/h (48 km/h) into a fixed barrier set perpendicularly
to the car’s longitudinal axis.
The collision is termed 100 per cent overlap, as the

complete front of the car strikes the barrier and there is
no offset. The main requirement is that the steering
wheel must not be moved back by more than 120 mm (5
in), but there is no requirement to measure the force to
which the occupants will be subject in collision.

Prototype testing
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Prototype testing
Extensive durability tests are undertaken on a

variety of road surfaces in all conditions. Vehicles
are also run through water tests and subjected to
extreme climatic temperature changes to confirm
their durability. The final stages are now being
reached; mechanical specifications, trim levels,
engine options, body styles and the feature lists are
confirmed.

Body engineering for production
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The body engineering responsibilities are to
simulate the styling model and overall
requirements laid down by the management in
terms of drawings and specification. The
engineering structures are designed for
production, at a given date, at the lowest
possible tooling cost and to a high standard of
quality and reliability.
As competition between the major car

manufacturers increases, so does the need for
lighter and more effective body structures. Until
recently the choice of section, size and metal
gauges was based upon previous experience.

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However, methods have now been evolved which
allow engineers to solve problems with complicated
geometry on a graphical display computer which can
be constructed to resemble a body shape. The
stiffness and stress can then be computed from its
geometry, and calculations made of the load bearing
of the structures using finite-element methods. With
the final specifications approved, the new car is ready
for production. At this stage an initial batch of cars is
built (a pilot run) to ensure that the plant facilities and
the workforce are ready for the start of full production.
When the production line begins to turn out the brand
new model, every stage of production is carefully
scrutinized to ensure quality in all the vehicles to be
built.
Regulations
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Regulations
The governments in most countries

have some form of regulations
covering vehicle safety. These
regulations are aimed at giving both
the occupants of the vehicle
protection in the case of an accident,
and ensuring that pedestrians and
cyclists are not subject to unnecessary
injury if they come into contact with a
car. The regulations are in most cases
very minimal.
Front impact test
Frontal impact takes place at 64 kph

(40 mph) when a car strikes a
deformable barrier that is offset. This
test is similar to many road accidents
where one car hits another car, or
another object, offset to one side.
Regulations
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Regulations
Side impact test
This is similar to accidents

where the car is hit by
another on the side. The
impact takes place at 50 kph
(30 mph) when a trolley with
a deformable front is towed
into the driver’s side of the
car to simulate a side-on
crash.

Regulations
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Regulations
Pole test
In this test, the car being tested is propelled

sideways at 29 kph (18 mph) into a rigid pole.
The pole is relatively narrow, like a telegraph
pole of lamp post, so there is major
penetration into the side of the car. In an
impact without the head protecting airbag, a
driver’s head could hit the pole with sufficient
force to cause a fatal head injury.

Regulations
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Regulations
Pedestrian impact test
A series of tests are carried out to

replicate accidents involving child and
adult pedestrians where impact occurs
at 40 kph (25 mph) – maximum speed
in build up areas in France. Impact
sites are then assessed and rated fair,
weak and poor.

Methods of construction
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The steel body can be divided into two main types
Those which are mounted on a separate chassis frame, and those

in which the underframe or floor forms an integral part of the
body.
The construction of today’s mass-produced motor car has

changed almost completely from the composite, that is
conventional separate chassis and body, to the integral or mono
unit. This change is the result of the need to reduce body.
o Composite construction (conventional separate chassis)

o Integral (mono or unity) construction
o Semi-integral methods of construction
o Glass fibre composite construction
o Galvanized body shell clad entirely with composite skin
panels
o Variations in body shape

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Composite construction (conventional separate chassis)
The chassis and body are built as two separate units.

The body is then assembled on to the chassis with
mounting brackets, which have rubber-bushed bolts to
hold the body to the rigid chassis. These flexible
mountings allow the body to move slightly when the
car is in motion.
This means that the car can be dismantled into the two
units of the body and chassis. The chassis assembly is
built up of engine, wheels, springs and transmission.
On to this assembly is added the body, which has been
preassembled in units to form a complete body shell.
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Integral (mono or unity) construction
Integral body construction employs the same principles of

design that have been used for years in the aircraft industry.
The main aim is to strengthen without unnecessary weight, and
the construction does not employ a conventional separate
chassis frame for attachment of suspension, engine and other
chassis and transmission components.
The major difference between composite and integral

construction is hence the design and construction of the floor.
In integral bodies the floor pan area is generally called the

underbody. The underbody is made up of formed floor
sections, channels, boxed sections, formed rails and numerous
reinforcements. In most integral underbodies a suspension
member is incorporated in both the front and rear of the body
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Semi-integral methods of
construction
In some forms of integral or

mono assemblies, the entire front
end or subframe forward of the
bulkhead is joined to the cowl
assembly with bolts. With this
construction, the bolts can be
easily removed and the entire
front (or in some cases rear)
subframe can be replaced as one
assembly in the event of
extensive damage.

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Glass fibre composite construction
This method of producing complex shapes involves applying layers of

glass fibre and resin in a prepared mould. After hardening, a strong
moulding is produced with a smooth outer surface requiring little
maintenance. Among the many shapes available in this composite
material are lorry cabs, bus front canopies, container vehicles, and the
bodies of cars.
This allows the panels to be bolted directly to the supporting square-

section steel tube armatures located on the main chassis frame. The inner
body, which rests directly on the chassis frame and which forms the base
for all internal trim equipment, is a complex GRP moulding.
The windscreen aperture is moulded as a part of the inner body, and

incorporates steel reinforcing hoops which are braced directly to the
chassis. The boot compartment is also a separate hand- laid GRP
moulding, as are the doors and some of the other panels. Most of the
body panels are secured by self-tapping bolts which offer very positive
location and a useful saving in assembly time.
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Galvanized body shell clad entirely with composite skin panels
Renault have designed a high-rise car which has a skeletal steel body
shell, clad entirely with composite panels. After assembly the complete
body shell is immersed in a bath of molten zinc, which applies an all-over
6.5 micron (millionth of a metre) coating. The process gives anti-rust
protection, while the chemical reaction causes a molecular change in the
steel which strengthens it. Lighter-guage steel can therefore be used
without sacrificing strength, resulting in a substantial weight saving even
with the zinc added.
Skin panels are formed in reinforced polyester sheet, made of equal parts
of resin, fibreglass and mineral filler. The panels are joined to the
galvanized frame and doors by rivets or bonding as appropriate. The
one-piece high-rise tailgate is fabricated entirely from polyester with
internal steel reinforcements. Damage to panels through impact shocks is
contained locally and absorbed through destruction of the material, unlike
the steel sheet which transmits deformation. Accident damage and
consequent repair costs are thus reduced.
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Variations in body shape
Among the motor car manufacturers there are variations

in constructional methods which result in different body
types and styles. Four types of body shell – a saloon with a
boot, a hatchback, an estate car and a light van.
Figure on the right shows a coach-built limousine of

extremely high quality, built on a Rolls-Royce Silver Spirit
chassis by the coach-builders Hooper & Co. This vehicle
has been designed for the use of heads of state and
world-ranking VIPs.

Basic body construction
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A typical four-door saloon body can be likened

to a hollow tube with holes cut in the sides. The
bulkhead towards the front and rear completes
the box-like form and assists in providing
torsional stability. The roof, even if it has to
accommodate a sunshine roof, is usually a quite
straightforward and stable structure; the curved
shape of the roof panel prevents lozenging
(going out of alignment in a diamond shape).

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The floor is a complete panel from front to

rear when assembled, and is usually fitted
with integral straightening ribs to prevent
lozenging. With its bottom sides or sill
panels, wheel arches, cross members and
heelboard, it is the strongest part of the
whole body.

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The rear bulkhead, mainly in the form of

a rear squab panel, is again a very stable
structure.
However, the scuttle or forward bulkhead

is a complex structure in a private motor
car. Owing to the awkward shape of the
scuttle and the accommodation required
for much of the vehicle’s equipment, it
requires careful designing to obtain
sufficient strength.

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Body sides with thin pillars, large

windows and door openings are
inherently weak, requiring reinforcing
with radiusing corners to the apertures
to give them sufficient constructional
strength.
The problems are basically the same:

o to maintain strength and stability,
o a good standard of finish and
o ease of production.

Structure of the body shell – Main floor unit
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Figure in the right shows the build-up details of a

four door saloon, from the main floor assembly to
the complete shell assembly.
Unit (1), Main floor unit
The main floor commencing at the front, comprises a

toeboard or pedal panel, although in some cases this
may become a part of the scuttle or bulkhead. Apart
from providing a rest for the front passengers’ feet, it
seals off the engine and gearbox from the body and
connects the scuttle to the main floor.

Structure of the body shell – Main centre floor panel & Access Holes
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Unit (2), Main centre floor panel
The main centre floor panel should be

sufficiently reinforced to carry the weight of the
front seats and passengers.
Unit (3), Access Holes
It may be necessary to have a tunnel running

the length of the floor in the centre to clear the
transmission system from the engine to the rear
axle, and holes may have to be cut into the
floor to allow access to the gearbox, oil filler,
and dipstick, in which case removable panels or
large grommets would be fitted in these access
holes.
Structure of the body shell – Bottom Sills
69
Unit (4), Bottom Sills (RH & LH)
The front end of the main floor is fixed to

the toeboard panel and the sides of the
main centre floor are strengthened by the
bottom sills and / or some form of side
members which provide the necessary
longitudinal strength.
The transverse strength is provided by the

cross members. The floor panel itself
prevents lozenging, and the joints between
side members and cross members are
designed to resist torsional stresses.
Structure of the body shell – Rear seat heelboard
70
Unit (5), Rear seat heelboard
The rear end of the floor is stiffened

transversely by the rear seat heelboard.
This heelboard also stiffens the front edges
of the rear seat panel. In addition it often
provides the retaining lip for the rear seat
cushion, which is usually made detachable
from the body. The heelboard, together
with the rear panel and rear squab panel,
forms the platform for the rear seat.

Structure of the body shell – Rear seat panel
71
Unit (6), Rear seat panel
The rear seat panel is reinforced or swaged if

necessary to gain enough strength to support
the rear passengers. Usually the rear seat panel
has to be raised to provide sufficient clearance
for the deflection of the rear axle differential
housing. The front edge of the rear seat panel
is stiffened by the rear seat heelboard, and the
rear edge of the seat panel is stiffened by the
rear squab panel. The rear squab panel
completes this unit and provides the rear
bulkhead across the car. It seals off the boot or
luggage compartment from the main body or
passenger compartment.

Structure of the body shell – Boot floor, Cross member, Wheel arch panel
72
Unit (7), Boot floor

The boot floor, which extends from the back of the
rear squab panel to the extreme back of the body,
completes the floor unit. In addition to the luggage,
the spare wheel has to be accommodated here.
Unit (8), Cross Member

The front edge of the boot floor is reinforced by the
rear squab panel and the rear end by a cross
member of some form. The sides of the floor are
stiffened by vertical boot side panels at the rear,
while the wheel arch panels complete the floor
structure by joining the rear end of the main floor
and its side members.
Unit (9), Wheel arch panel (RH & LH)

The wheel arch panels (9) themselves seal the rear
road wheels from the body.
Structure of the body shell – Rear squabs
73
Unit (10), Rear squabs
In general the floor unit is made up from a

series of panels with suitable cross
members or reinforcements. The edges of
the panels are stiffened either by flanging
reinforcing members, or by joining to the
adjacent panels. The boot framing is joined
at the back to the rear end of the boot
floor, at the sides to the boot side panels
and at the top to the shelf panel behind
the rear squab.

Structure of the body shell – Boot lit lock striking plate
74
Unit (11), Boot lit lock striking plate
It has to be sufficiently strong at the point

where the boot lid hinges are fitted to
carry the weight of the boot lid when this
is opened. Surrounding the boot lid
opening there is a gutter to carry away
rain and water to prevent it entering the
boot; opposite the hinges, provision is
made for the boot lid lock striking plate to
be fixed.

Structure of the body shell – Roof structure, Canopy rail, Cantrial, A-post
75
From the forward edge of the boot, the next

unit is the back light and roof structure (Unit
12), and this extends to the top of the
windscreen or canopy rail (Unit 13). The roof is
usually connected to the body side frames,
which comprise longitudinal rails or stringers
and a pair of cantrails (LH & RH) which form
the door openings (Unit 14). Provision in the
roof should be made for the interior lights
and wiring and also the fixing of the interior
trimming. The scuttle and windscreen unit,
including the front standing pillar or A-post
(LH & RH) (Unit 15), provides the front
bulkhead and seals the engine from the
passenger compartment.
Structure of the body shell – Scuttle
76
Unit (16), Scuttle
Accommodation has to be made for the

instrumentation of the car, the wiring,
radio, windscreen wipers and driving cable,
demisters and ducting, steering column
support, handbrake support and pedals.
The scuttle is a complicated structure

which needs to be very strong. When the
front door is hinged at the forward edge,
provision has to be made in the front pillar
for the door hinges, door check and
courtesy light switches.
Structure of the body shell – Centre standing pillar (BC-Post)
77
Unit (17), Centre standing pillar (BC – post)
The centre standing pillar or BC-post (LH &

RH) is fixed to the side members of the
main floor unit and supports the cantrails
of the roof unit. It provides a shut face for
the front door, a position for the door lock
striking plate and buffers or dovetail, and
also a hinge face for the rear door; as with
the front standing pillar, provision is made
for the door hinges and door check.

Structure of the body shell – Rear standing pillar (D–post)
78
Unit (18), Rear standing pillar (D – post)
The rear standing pillar or D-post (LH&

RH) provides the shut face for the rear end
of the floor side members at the bottom,
whilst the top is fixed to the roof cantrails
and forms the front of the quarters.

Structure of the body shell – Quarter panels
79
Unit (19), Quarter Panels
The quarters (19) are the areas of the body

sides between the rear standing pillars and
the back light and boot. If the body is a
six-light saloon there will be a quarter
window here with its necessary
surrounding framing, but in the case of a
four-light saloon this portion will be more
simply constructed.
Apart from the doors, bonnet, boot lid and

front wings this completes the structure of
the average body shell.
Identification of body pressings – Major body panels
80
The passenger-carrying compartment of car

is called the body, and to it is attached all the
doors, wings and such parts required to form
a complete body shell assembly.
Major body panels
1. Roof panel
2. Bonnet panel
3. Boot lid
4. Front wing
5. Radiator grille
6. Front bumper bar
7. Headlamps
8. Side lamps
9. Sill panel
10. Front door
11. Rear door
12. Centre pillar
13. Rear quarter panel
14. Rear bumper bar
Identification of major body pressings – Body shell assembly
81
Outer construction
This can be likened to the skin of the 9. Roof panel assembly
body, and is usually considered as that 10. Roof bow assembly
portion of a panel or panels which is 11. Bulkhead brace assembly
visible from the outside of the car. 12. Rear quarter centre assembly
Inner construction (Back window)
This is considered as all the brackets, 13. Back window upper rail panel
races and panel assemblies that are assembly
used to give the car strength (Figure in 14. Rear-end upper panel assembly
right). In some cases the entire panels 15. Radiator panel complete assembly
are inner construction on one make of 16. Centre pillar (BC-post)
car and a combination of inner and 17. D-post
outer on another. 18. Rear quarter assembly
1 Underbody assembly 19. Sill panel
2 Boy side frame assembly 20. Front side member assembly
3 Wind screen upper rail assembly 21. Rear wheel arch assembly
4 Cowl and dash panel assembly 22. Main floor assembly
5 Front wheel house complete panel 23. Front valance complete assembly
6 Instrument panel assembly
7 Cowl side lower brace
8 Front body hinge pillar (A-post)
Identification of major body pressings
Front-end assembly including cowl or dash panel
82
The front-end assembly is made up from

the two front side member assemblies Complete front-end assemblies
which are designed to carry the weight of
the engine, suspension, steering gear and 1. Head lamp panel RH & LH
2. Front cross member closing panel
radiator. 3. Front cross member
4. Bonnet lock panel
The suspension system used will affect the 5. Headlamp panel reinforcement RH & LH
6. Front wing corner piece RH & LH
design of the panels, but whatever system 7. Bonnet frame extension
is used the loads must be transmitted to the 8. Bonnet skin
wing valances and on to the body panels. 9. Bonnet frame
10. Dash panel
The front cross member assembly braces 11. Scuttle panel
the front of the car and carries the radiator 12. Front bulkhead
and headlamp units. 13. Chassis leg reinforcement RH & LH
14. Front inner wing RH & LH
15. Front chassis leg RH & LH
The side valance assemblies form a housing 16. Subframe mounting RH & LH
for the wheels, a mating edge for the 17. Front wheel arch RH & LH
18. Front wing RH & LH
bonnet and a strong box section for 19. Battery tray
attachment of front wings. Both the side 20. Chassis leg gusset RH & LH
frames and valance assemblies are 21. Bumper mounting reinforcement RH & LH
22. Chassis leg extension RH & LH
connected to the cowl or dash panel, The 23. A-post rear reinforcement RH & LH
front-end assembly is attached to the main 24. A-post front reinforcement RH & LH
floor at the toe panel.
83
The cowl or dash panel forms the front

bulkhead of the body and is usually formed Complete front-end assemblies
by joining smaller panels (the cowl upper
panel and the cowl side panel) by welds to 1. Head lamp panel RH & LH
form an integral unit. 3. Front cross member
5. Headlamp panel reinforcement RH & LH
In some cases the windscreen frame is 6. Front wing corner piece RH & LH
integral with the cowl panel. The cowl 7. Bonnet frame extension
extends upwards around the entire 8. Bonnet skin
9. Bonnet frame
windscreen opening so that the upper edge 10. Dash panel
of the cowl panel forms the front edge of 11. Scuttle panel
the roof panel. 12. Front bulkhead
13. Chassis leg reinforcement RH & LH
14. Front inner wing RH & LH
In this case the windscreen pillars, i.e. the 15. Front chassis leg RH & LH
16. Subframe mounting RH & LH
narrow sloping construction at either side 17. Front wheel arch RH & LH
of the windscreen opening, are merely part 18. Front wing RH & LH
of the cowl panel. In other constructions, 19. Battery tray
20. Chassis leg gusset RH & LH
only a portion of the windscreen pillar is 21. Bumper mounting reinforcement RH & LH
formed as part of the cowl. 22. Chassis leg extension RH & LH
23. A-post rear reinforcement RH & LH
24. A-post front reinforcement RH & LH

84
The cowl is sometimes called the fire wall

because it is the partition between the Complete front-end assemblies
passenger and engine compartments, and
openings in the cowl accommodate the 1. Head lamp panel RH & LH
necessary controls, wiring and tubing that 3. Front cross member
extend from one compartment to the other. 4. Bonnet lock panel
6. Front wing corner piece RH & LH
The instrument panel, which is usually 7. Bonnet frame extension
considered as part of the cowl panel 8. Bonnet skin
9. Bonnet frame
although it is a complex panel in itself, 10. Dash panel
provides a mounting for the instruments 11. Scuttle panel
necessary to check the performance of the 12. Front bulkhead
vehicle during operation. Cowl panels 14. Front inner wing RH & LH
usually have both inner and outer 15. Front chassis leg RH & LH
construction, but in certain constructions 17. Front wheel arch RH & LH
only the upper portion of the cowl around 18. Front wing RH & LH
the windscreen is visible. 19. Battery tray
21. Bumper mounting reinforcement RH & LH
On many vehicles the front door hinge 22. Chassis leg extension RH & LH
pillar is also an integral part of the cowl. 23. A-post rear reinforcement RH & LH

Front side member assembly
85
Front side member assembly

Complete front-end assemblies
This is an integral part of the 1. Head lamp panel RH & LH

front-end assembly; it connects 3. Front cross member
the front wing valances to the 5. Headlamp panel reinforcement RH & LH
cowl or dash assembly. It is 6.
7.
Front wing corner piece RH & LH
Bonnet frame extension
designed to strengthen the front 8. Bonnet skin
9. Bonnet frame
end; it is part of the crumple 10. Dash panel
11. Scuttle panel
zone, giving lateral strength on 12. Front bulkhead
impact and absorbing energy by 13.
14.
Chassis leg reinforcement RH & LH
Front inner wing RH & LH
deformation during a collision. It 15. Front chassis leg RH & LH
also helps to support the engine 17. Front wheel arch RH & LH
and suspension units. 19. Battery tray

A-post assembly
86
A-post assembly
This is an integral part of the body 1. Head lamp panel RH & LH

side frame. It is connected to the 3. Front cross member
front end assembly and forms the 5. Headlamp panel reinforcement RH & LH
front door pillar or hinge post. It is 6.
7.
Front wing corner piece RH & LH
Bonnet frame extension
designed to carry the weight of 8. Bonnet skin
9. Bonnet frame
the front door and helps to 10. Dash panel
11. Scuttle panel
strengthen the front bulkhead 12. Front bulkhead
assembly. 13.
14.
Chassis leg reinforcement RH & LH
Front inner wing RH & LH
17. Front wheel arch RH & LH
19. Battery tray

Main floor assembly
87
Main floor assembly

This is the passenger-carrying section of the
main floor. It runs backwards from the toe
panel to the heelboard or back seat
assembly. It is strengthened to carry the
two front seats, and in some cases may
have a transmission tunnel running through
its centre. Strength is built into the floor by
Main floor assemblies & boot floor assemblies
the transmission tunnel acting like an 1. Reinforced parking brake lever
inverted channel section. 2. Cross member assembly backbone
3. Reinforcement assembly backbone
4. Bracket A-frame LH
The body sill panels provide extra 5. Bracket A-frame RH
reinforcement in the form of lateral 6. Pan front floor
strength. Transverse strength is provided by 7. Cross member assembly front floor front RH
8. Cross member assembly front floor rear RH
box sections at right angles to the 9. Cross member assembly front floor rear LH
transmission tunnel, generally in the areas 10. Cross member assembly front floor front LH
11. Reinforcement seat belt side LH / RH
of the front seat and in front of the rear 12. Bracket anti zipper
seat. The remaining areas of flat floor are 13. Sill front floor side inner LH / RH
ribbed below the seats and in the foot wells 14. Reinforcement side member front floor LH / RH
15. Side member front floor LH / RH
to add stiffness.
Boot floor assembly
88
Boot floor assembly

This is a section of the floor between
the seat panel and the extreme back of
the boot. It is strengthened by the use
of cross members to carry the rear seat
passengers.
This area forms the rear bulkhead Main floor assemblies & boot floor assemblies
between the two rear wheel arches, 1. Reinforced parking brake lever
2. Cross member assembly backbone
forming the rear seat panel or 3. Reinforcement assembly backbone
heelboard, and in a saloon body shell 4. Bracket A-frame LH
5. Bracket A-frame RH
can incorporate back seat supports and 6. Pan front floor
parcel shelf. The boot floor is also 7. Cross member assembly front floor front RH
8. Cross member assembly front floor rear RH
strengthened to become the luggage 9. Cross member assembly front floor rear LH
compartment, carrying the spare wheel 10. Cross member assembly front floor front LH
and petrol tank. At the extreme back it 12. Bracket anti zipper
becomes the panel on to which the 13. Sill front floor side inner LH / RH
14. Reinforcement side member front floor LH / RH
door or tailgate closes. 15. Side member front floor LH / RH

Complete underbody assembly
89
Complete underbody assembly

This is commonly called the floor pan
assembly, and is usually composed of
several smaller panels welded together to
form a single floor unit. All floor panels
are reinforced on the underside by
stiffening members or cross members.
Most floor pans are irregular in shape for Main floor assemblies & boot floor assemblies
1. Reinforced parking brake lever
several reasons. They are formed with 2. Cross member assembly backbone
indentations or heavily swaged areas to 3. Reinforcement assembly backbone
4. Bracket A-frame LH
strengthen the floor sections between the 5. Bracket A-frame RH
cross members, and foot room for the 6. Pan front floor
7. Cross member assembly front floor front RH
passengers is often provided by these 8. Cross member assembly front floor rear RH
recessed areas in the floor. 9. Cross member assembly front floor rear LH
10. Cross member assembly front floor front LH
Figure in the right shows a complete 12. Bracket anti zipper
13. Sill front floor side inner LH / RH
underbody assembly. 14. Reinforcement side member front floor LH / RH
15. Side member front floor LH / RH

Body side frame assembly
90
Body side frame assembly

Body side assemblies, roof, BC-post, front and rear door of a hatchback
On a four-door saloon this incorporates the A-post, 1.

2.
Panel outer rear door
Panel inner rear door
the BC-post, the D-post and the rear quarter section. 3.
4.
Panel outer front door
5. Panel hood
6. Panel cowl top inner
The side frames reinforce the floor pan along the sill 7. Panel cowl top outer
8. Panel assembly dash
sections. The hinge pillar or A-post extends forward 9. Reinforcement radiator side RH
to meet the dash panel and front bulkhead to 10.
11.
Stay hood lock
Cross member front end
provide strength at this point. 12.
13.
Reinforcement radiator side LH
Bar front end upper
14. Bulkhead front pillar lower
15. Bulkhead front pillar side sill
The centre pillars or BC-posts connect the body sills 16. Bracket cross member front
17. Bracket cross member
to the roof cantrails. They are usually assembled as 18. Reinforcement pillar front inner lower
19. Pillar front inner lower
box sections using a top-hat section and flat plate. 20. Side member front
These are the flanges which form the attachments for 21.
22.
Panel front fender
Pan front floor
the door weather seals and provide the four door 23.
24.
Reinforcement front pillar lower
Extension upper frame outer
openings. 25.
26.
Side structure
Renforcement. front pillar centre
27. Pillar front inner upper
28. Rail roof side inner
The D-post and rear quarter section is integral with 29. Rail roof front
30. Pillar centre inner
the rear wheel arch and can include a rear quarter 31. Pillar centre outer
window. 32.
33.
Pillar rear inner
Rail roof rear
34. Panel roof

Roof panel
91
Roof panel
The roof panel is one of the largest of all major 1.

2.
body panels, and it is also one of the simplest in 3.
4.
construction. The area which the roof covers 5.
6.
Panel hood
Panel cowl top inner
varies between different makes and models of 7.
8.
Panel cowl top outer
Panel assembly dash
cars. On some cars, the roof panel ends at the 9.
10.
Reinforcement radiator side RH
Stay hood lock
windscreen. 11.
12.
13. Bar front end upper
14. Bulkhead front pillar lower
On others it extends downwards around the 15.
16.
Bulkhead front pillar side sill
Bracket cross member front
windscreen so that the windscreen opening is 17.
18.
Bracket cross member
Reinforcement pillar front inner lower
actually in the roof. On some cars the roof ends 19.
20.
Pillar front inner lower
Side member front
above the rear window, while on others it 21.
22.
Panel front fender
Pan front floor
extends downwards so that the rear window 23.
24.
opening is in the lower rear roof. When this is the 25.
26.
Side structure
case the roof panel forms the top panel around 27.
28.
Pillar front inner upper
Rail roof side inner
the rear boot opening. 29.
30.
Rail roof front
Pillar centre inner
31. Pillar centre outer
32. Pillar rear inner
33. Rail roof rear
34. Panel roof

Roof panel
92
Roof panel
Some special body designs incorporate different 1.

2.
methods of rear window construction, which 3.

4.
affects the roof panel; this is particularly true for 5.

6.
Panel hood
estate cars, hatchbacks and hardtop 7.

8.
Panel assembly dash
convertibles. 9.
10.
Stay hood lock
11. Cross member front end
12. Reinforcement radiator side LH
Alternatively the top is joined to the rear quarter 13.

14.
Bar front end upper
Bulkhead front pillar lower
panel by another smaller panel which is part of 15.

16.
the roof assembly. The stiffness of the roof is built 17.

18.
in by the curvature given to it by the forming 19.

20.
Side member front
presses, while the reinforcements, consisting of 21.

22.
Panel front fender
Pan front floor
small metal strips placed crosswise to the roof at 23.

24.
intervals along the inside surface, serve to stiffen 25.

26.
Side structure
the front and rear edges of the windscreen and 27.

28.
rear window frames. In some designs the roof 29.

30.
Rail roof front
Pillar centre inner
panel may have a sliding roof built in or a flip-up 31.

32.
Pillar centre outer
Pillar rear inner
detachable sunroof incorporated. 33.

34.
Rail roof rear
Panel roof

Rear quarter panel or tonneau assembly
93
Rear quarter panel or tonneau

assembly
1. Panel outer rear door

2. Panel inner rear door
3. Panel outer front door
This is integral with the side frame assembly and 4.
5.
Panel hood
has both inner and outer construction. The inner 6.
7.
construction comprises the rear wheel arch and 8.
9.
Panel assembly dash
the rear seat heelboard assembly. 10.
11.
Stay hood lock
13. Bar front end upper
This provides the support for the rear seat squab 14.
15.
in a saloon car; if the vehicle is a hatchback or 16.
17.
estate car, the two back seats will fold flat and 18.
19.
the seat squabs will not need support. This area 20.
21.
Side member front
Panel front fender
is known as the rear bulkhead of the car; it gives 22.
23.
Pan front floor
additional transverse strength between the 24.
25.
Side structure
wheel arch sections and provides support for the 26.
27.
rear seat. The rear bulkhead also acts as a 28.
29.
Rail roof front
partition between the luggage and passenger 30.
31.
Pillar centre inner
Pillar centre outer
compartments. 32.
33.
Pillar rear inner
Rail roof rear
34. Panel roof

Rear wheel arch assembly
94
Rear wheel arch assembly

1. Panel outer rear door
This assembly is constructed as an 2.

3.
4.
integral part of the inner 5.
6.
Panel hood
construction of the rear quarter

7. Panel cowl top outer
9. Reinforcement radiator side RH
panel. It is usually a two-piece 10.

11.
12.
Stay hood lock
construction comprising the wheel 13.
14.
Bar front end upper
arch and the quarter panel, which

15. Bulkhead front pillar side sill
16. Bracket cross member front
are welded together 18.

19.
20.
Side member front
21. Panel front fender
22. Pan front floor
23. Reinforcement front pillar lower
24. Extension upper frame outer
25. Side structure
26. Renforcement. front pillar centre
28. Rail roof side inner
29. Rail roof front
30. Pillar centre inner
31. Pillar centre outer
33. Rail roof rear
34. Panel roof

Wings
95
Wings
A wing is a part of the body which covers the
1. Head lamp panel RH & LH
wheel. Apart from covering the suspension 2. Front cross member closing panel
construction, the wing prevents water and 3. Front cross member
mud from being thrown up on to the body 4. Bonnet lock panel
by the wheels. 6. Front wing corner piece RH & LH
7. Bonnet frame extension
The front wings (or the fender assembly) are 8. Bonnet skin
9. Bonnet frame
usually attached to the wing valance of the 10. Dash panel
front end assembly by means of a flange the 11. Scuttle panel
length of the wing, which is turned inwards 12. Front bulkhead
from the outer surface and secured by either 14. Front inner wing RH & LH
welding or bolts. 15. Front chassis leg RH & LH
Adjustment for the front wing is usually 18. Front wing RH & LH
provided for by slotting the bolt holes so that 19. Battery tray
the wing can be moved either forwards or 20. Chassis leg gusset RH & LH
backwards by loosening the attaching bolts.

Wings
96
Wings
This adjustment cannot be made if the wing
1. Head lamp panel RH & LH
is welded to the main body structure. In some 2. Front cross member closing panel
models the headlights and sidelights are 3. Front cross member
recessed into the front wing and fastened in 4. Bonnet lock panel
place by flanges and reinforcement rims on 6. Front wing corner piece RH & LH
the wing. 7. Bonnet frame extension
8. Bonnet skin
9. Bonnet frame
Any trim or chrome which appears on the 10. Dash panel
side of the wing is usually held in place by 11. Scuttle panel
special clips or fasteners which allows easy 12. Front bulkhead
removal of the trim. 14. Front inner wing RH & LH
The unsupported edges of the wing are 16. Subframe mounting RH & LH
swaged edges known as beads. The bead is 18. Front wing RH & LH
merely a flange which is turned inwards on 19. Battery tray
some cars and then up to form a U-section 20. Chassis leg gusset RH & LH
with a rounded bottom.

Wings
97
Wings
It not only gives strength but prevents cracks
developing in the edges of the wing due to 1. Head lamp panel RH & LH
vibration, and it provides a smooth finished 2. Front cross member closing panel
3. Front cross member
appearance to the edge of the wing. In 4. Bonnet lock panel
general the rear wing is an integral part of 5. Headlamp panel reinforcement RH & LH
the body side frame assembly and rear 6. Front wing corner piece RH & LH
quarter panel. 8. Bonnet skin
9. Bonnet frame
When the wing forms an integral part of the 10. Dash panel
11. Scuttle panel
quarter panel, the inner construction is used 12. Front bulkhead
to form part of the housing around the wheel 13. Chassis leg reinforcement RH & LH
arch. The wheel arch is welded to the rear 14. Front inner wing RH & LH
floor section and is totally concealed by the 16. Subframe mounting RH & LH
rear quarter panel, while the outer side of the 17. Front wheel arch RH & LH
wheel arch is usually attached to the quarter 18. Front wing RH & LH
19. Battery tray
panel around the wheel opening.
This assembly prevents road dirt being 22. Chassis leg extension RH & LH
thrown upwards between the outer panel 23. A-post rear reinforcement RH & LH
and inner panel construction.
Doors
98
Doors
Several types of door are used on each vehicle built, 1. Panel outer rear door
although the construction of the various doors is similar 3. Panel outer front door
regardless of the location of the door on the vehicle, as 4.
5.
Panel hood
indicated on Figure in the right side. 6. Panel cowl top inner
The door is composed of two main panels, an outer and 9.
10.
Stay hood lock
an inner panel, both being of all-steel construction. The 11. Cross member front end
door derives most of its strength from the inner panel 13. Bar front end upper
since this is constructed mainly to act as a frame for the 14.
15.
door. 16. Bracket cross member front
18. Reinforcement pillar front inner lower
The outer panel flanges over the inner panel around all its 19.
20.
Side member front
edges to form a single unit, which is then spot welded or, 21. Panel front fender
22. Pan front floor
in some cases, bonded with adhesives to the frame. The 23. Reinforcement front pillar lower
inner panel has holes or apertures for the attachment of 24.
25.
Side structure
door trim. The trim consists of the window regulator 26. Renforcement. front pillar centre
assembly and the door locking mechanism. These 28. Rail roof side inner
assemblies are installed through the large apertures in the 29.
30.
Rail roof front
Pillar centre inner
middle of the inner panel. 31. Pillar centre outer
33. Rail roof rear
34. Panel roof

Doors
99
Doors
Most of the thickness of the door is due to the depth of 1. Panel outer rear door
the inner panel which is necessary to accommodate the 3. Panel outer front door
door catch and window mechanism. The inner panel 4.
5.
Panel hood
forms the lock pillar and also the hinge pillar section of the 6. Panel cowl top inner
door. 8. Panel assembly dash
9. Reinforcement radiator side RH
10. Stay hood lock
Small reinforcement angles are usually used between the 11. Cross member front end
outer and inner panel, both where the lock is inserted 13. Bar front end upper
through the door and where the hinges are attached to 14.
15.
the door. The outer panel is either provided with an 16. Bracket cross member front
opening through which the outside door handle 18. Reinforcement pillar front inner lower
protrudes, or is recessed to give a more streamlined effect 19.
20.
Side member front
and so to create better aerodynamics. 21. Panel front fender
22. Pan front floor
23. Reinforcement front pillar lower
The upper portion of the door has a large opening which 24.
25.
Side structure
is closed by glass. The glass is held rigidly by the window 26. Renforcement. front pillar centre
regulator assembly, and when raised it slides in a channel 28. Rail roof side inner
in the opening between the outer and inner panels in the 29.
30.
Rail roof front
Pillar centre inner
upper portion of the door. When fully closed the window 31. Pillar centre outer
seats tightly in this channel, effectively sealing out the 33. Rail roof rear
weather. 34. Panel roof

Boot lid or tailgate
100
Boot lid or tailgate

This is really another door which allows access to the luggage
compartment in the rear of the car. A boot lid is composed of an
outer and an inner panel. These panels are spot welded along their
flanged edges to form a single unit in the same manner as an
ordinary door.
The hatchback and estate car have a rear window built into the boot
lid, which is then known as a tailgate. Some manufacturers use
external hinges, while others use concealed hinges attached to the
inner panel only. A catch is provided at the lower rear edge of the
boot lid or tailgate and is controlled by an external handle or locking
mechanism. This mechanism may be concealed from the eye under
a moulding or some type of trim.
In some models there is no handle or external locking mechanism;

instead the hinges are spring loaded or use gas-filled piston
supports, so that when the lid is unlocked internally it automatically
rises and is held in the open position by these mechanisms.

Bonnet
101
Bonnet
The bonnet is the panel which covers the 1. Head lamp panel RH & LH
engine compartment where this is situated 2. Front cross member closing panel
at the front of the vehicle, or the boot 3. Front cross member
compartment of a rear-engine vehicle. 5. Headlamp panel reinforcement RH & LH
Several kinds of bonnets are in use on 6. Front wing corner piece RH & LH
different makes of cars. The bonnet consists 7. Bonnet frame extension
8. Bonnet skin
of an outer panel and an inner 9. Bonnet frame
reinforcement constructed in the H or 10. Dash panel
11. Scuttle panel
cruciform pattern, which is spot welded to 12. Front bulkhead
the outer skin panel at the flanged edges of 13. Chassis leg reinforcement RH & LH
the panels. 14. Front inner wing RH & LH
The reinforcement is basically a top-hat 17. Front wheel arch RH & LH
section, to give rigidity to the bonnet. In 18. Front wing RH & LH
19. Battery tray
some cases the outer panel is bonded to 20. Chassis leg gusset RH & LH
the inner panel using epoxy resins. This 21. Bumper mounting reinforcement RH & LH
system avoids the dimpling effect on the 23. A-post rear reinforcement RH & LH
outer surface of the bonnet skin which 24. A-post front reinforcement RH & LH
occurs in spot welding.
Bonnet
102
Bonnet
Early models used a jointed type of bonnet 1. Head lamp panel RH & LH
which was held in place by bolts through the 2. Front cross member closing panel
centre section of the top of the bonnet into 3. Front cross member
the body of the cowl and into the radiator.A 5. Headlamp panel reinforcement RH & LH
pianotype hinge was used where the bonnet 6. Front wing corner piece RH & LH
hinged both at the centre and at the side. 8. Bonnet skin
9. Bonnet frame
The most commonly used bonnet on later 10. Dash panel
11. Scuttle panel
constructions is known as the mono or one- 12. Front bulkhead
piece type, and can be opened by a variety 13. Chassis leg reinforcement RH & LH
of methods. On some types it is hinged at 14. Front inner wing RH & LH
the front so that the rear end swings up 16. Subframe mounting RH & LH
when the bonnet is open. Others are 17. Front wheel arch RH & LH
designed so that they can be opened from 19. Battery tray
either side, or unlatched from both sides 20. Chassis leg gusset RH & LH
and removed altogether. Most bonnets, 21. Bumper mounting reinforcement RH & LH
however, are of the alligator pattern, which 23. A-post rear reinforcement RH & LH
is hinged at the rear so that the front end 24. A-post front reinforcement RH & LH
swings up when opened.
Bonnet
103
Bonnet
The type of bonnet catch mechanism 1. Head lamp panel RH & LH
depends on the type of bonnet used. When 2. Front cross member closing panel
a bonnet opens from the rear the catch 3. Front cross member
mechanism is also at the rear. When it 5. Headlamp panel reinforcement RH & LH
opens from either side the combination 6. Front wing corner piece RH & LH
hinge and catch are provided at each side. 8. Bonnet skin
The alligator bonnets have their catches at 9. Bonnet frame
the front, and in most cases the catches are 10. Dash panel
11. Scuttle panel
controlled from inside the car. 12. Front bulkhead
Bonnets are quite large, and to make 14. Front inner wing RH & LH
opening easier the hinges are usually 16. Subframe mounting RH & LH
counterbalanced by means of tension or 17. Front wheel arch RH & LH
torsion springs. Where smaller bonnets are 19. Battery tray
used the hinges are not counterbalanced 20. Chassis leg gusset RH & LH
and the bonnet is held in place by a bonnet 21. Bumper mounting reinforcement RH & LH
stay from the side of the wing to the bonnet. 23. A-post rear reinforcement RH & LH
Adjustment of the bonnet position is 24. A-post front reinforcement RH & LH
sometimes possible by moving the hinges.
Comparative terms in common use by British,
American and European car manufacturers
104
As manufacturers use differing terms for the various body panel assemblies and individual panels,
difficulties may arise when identifying specific panels. The following are the terms in most
common use:
Bonnet, hood Quarter panel, tonneau assembly
Boot lid, deck lid, trunk lid, tailgate Roof, turret
Cantrail, roof side rail, drip rail Roof lining, headlining
Centre pillar, BC-post Sill panel, rocker panel
Courtesy light, interior light Squab, seat back
Cowl, scuttle, bulkhead, fire wall Underbody, floor pan assembly
Dash panel, facia panel Valance of front wing, fender side shield
Door opening plates, scuff plates Vent window, flipper window
Door skin, outside door panel Waist rail, belt rail
Face bar, bumper bar Wheel arch, wheel house
Front pillar, A-post, windscreen pillar Light, Windscreen, windshield
window Wing, fender.
Body Components
105

a. Bumpers
b. Grilles
c. Sill Covers and Side Airdams
d. Outer Moldings
e. Spoilers
2. Weather Strips
4. Movable Parts
5. Windshield Wiper

Body Components - Outer Body Components
106
a. Bumpers
Bumpers were usually chrome plated or rolled and formed
stainless steel leafs, the main function being aesthetic
enrichment and protecting the car body against small
impacts.
Basic design concepts
o Front and rear end of vehicles should be able to absorb
energy
o The stiffness of body parts committed to energy
absorption should increase as the passengers cabin is
neared.
o The properties of traditional bumper leafs are
completely opposite to those required, as they collapse
in bending, with only low levels of energy absorbed
107
a. Bumpers
Design criteria and materials
The design specifications are related to:

• Impact, for contact with pendulum or barrier and fitting areas.
• Dynamic stress, where openings and notches can weaken the
bumper.
• Thermal and mechanical stress in proximity of hot parts (eg.
engine, exhaust system).
• Abrasion or break for ground contact, against ramps or
platforms
Size is related to material choice: for polyolefin (polypropylene, Schematic section of high absorption
front end:
polypropylene with EPDM) the recommended outer skin is 3÷3.5 A) flexible skin
mm, if a support metal blade exists; 3.5 mm, if a plastic boxing is B) B) supporting bar
welded to the outer skin; 4.0 mm if the bumper is self supporting. C) foam insert
D) Absorbing / damping device
Plastic boxing requires at least 3 mm thickness.
108
a. Bumpers
Mission of the Bumpers
o Aesthetics
o Overall body protection in parking impact (up to
a speed of 4 km/h)
o Energy absorption and controlled transfer of
stress to body frame, when impacted at 15 km/h
o Aerodynamics
o Friendly contact (or absence of injury) in case of
pedestrian’s impact
o Support of winches or tow hooks for off-road
vehicles

109
a. Bumpers
Design specifications of Bumpers
o Aesthetics
Bumper shape, gaps with respect to adjacent parts (lamps,
fenders, radiator grille, bonnet), color, roughness (skin grain)
are properties relevant to the aesthetics of the vehicle and are
therefore modeled and specified by the styling center.
o Overall body protection in parking impact (up to a
speed of 4 km/h)
Bumpers, both front and rear, must enable permanent
functional damage to the vehicle to be avoided when impacted
by a pendulum of mass equal to the vehicle curb weight, in
three different transverse position and at a height of 445 mm
from the ground. The vehicle should be tested in three load
conditions (curb weight, three people and full load). Pendulum
impact speed is 4 km/h or 2.5 km/h, depending on the impact
position.

110
a. Bumpers
o Energy absorption and controlled transfer of stress to
body frame, when impacted at 15 km/h
Most of road crashes are at low impact speed; if the equivalent
barrier speed is higher than 8÷10 km/h, it is usual that the
damage to those cars not equipped with special devices is
relevant and the cost of repair is high. This is due to structural
deformation even in the body main frame (for instance, front
rails and engine compartment). As a consequence, repair
requires not only replacement of the part, but even the
complete removal of the power train and accessories in order
to reshape or replace the deformed body frames. Also, it must
be remembered that parts reshaped by stretching, hammering
and welding no longer exhibit their original strength.

111
a. Bumpers
o Aerodynamics
Bumpers perform two main aerodynamic tasks: the first, as a
body shape part influencing both drag and lift, the second, as
flow conveyors or extractors both for the engine compartment
and underbody.
o Friendly contact (or absence of injury) in case of
pedestrian’s impact
Specific regulations have been proposed in this area; as a result
car manufacturers are forced to develop front bumper design
and softness that can achieve a good score in such a rating.
o Support of winches or tow hooks for off-road vehicles

112
b. Grilles
The main technical goal for a radiator grille is air flow control
through an adequate intake duct, between the radiator grille
and radiators (usually the air conditioning condenser is
coupled with the engine cooling radiator)
Design specifications
Aesthetics and performance are the principal targets: flow
effectiveness (not only in terms of pressure losses and flow
rate, but also noise, recirculation and water ingress); resistance
to small impact stress, snow loading and contact with external
bodies; resistance to chemical agent deterioration, UV rays,
thermal variations; resistance to painting and chrome coating
radii according to international safety standards.

113
b. Grilles
Design criteria of Grilles
For a radiator grille, the most important performance
parameters are: the incident angle of blades referred to
the local air flow vector, blades shape (profile, distance
between clamps, thickness, length), radii and frame design,
influenced by dynamic stresses (aerodynamic pressure,
vibrations, small impacts) as well as by the air flow
channelling task. Together with the structural strength of
grilles, it is very important to keep the air intake energy
loss as small as possible and therefore optimize grille
profiles.

114
The main purpose being to protect the lower body side

(rocker panels and doors) from corrosion caused by
abrasion due to stones, salt and mud projected from the
wheels. At that time, body sheets were never zinc coated
and therefore abrasion of paint layers could expose steel
sheets to rapid rusting and deterioration, mostly in
countries affected by icy winter climate and widespread
salt spraying on roads to contrast icing.

115
Other advantages of sill covers include the opportunity to

model more freely the lower body side, usually
conditioned by the forming process of the upper side and
by its size, improved protection of door opening from
dust, mud and powder, and possible influence on vehicle
aerodynamic properties.
Nevertheless sill covers are additional components in any

case, therefore increasing costs, investments and weight
(from 2 to 4 kg per car).

116

Materials & Technology
Manufacturing of sill covers commonly uses high pressure
thermoplastic injection or reaction injection of polyurethane resin
filled with short glass fiber.
The most used thermoplastics are
1. Blend of Polycarbonate and ABS

2. Polybutylenterephtalate PBT and
3. Polypropylene with EPDM.
Originally most sill covers were black, whereas later some began to
be body colored. In recent years, body colored sill covers have
become predominant. Mounting is made on the painted body
using plastic snaps such as pine-tree clips and self threading screws
with plastic inserts.
117
Design Specifications
The main technical properties of these

components are
o Amount of sill surface covered and therefore
protected
o Position, type and number of fasteners
o Absence of interference with jigs and fixtures
used to lift the vehicle
o Mechanical strength and environment
resistance
o When possible, aerodynamic performance.

118
d. Outer Moldings
These components fall into two main families: the first relates to
shielding of aesthetic defects such as unsatisfactory sheet joints, the
second is designed to protect body painted sheets from small impacts.
The first family includes roof moldings, typically constant section and
small size if compared to molding length. The second includes doors
and body side moldings, constant section or shaped.
In the case of roof moldings, the superposition of side outer panel and
roof panel, whatever the assembly process used, could put in evidence
the trimmed sheets, requiring protection against corrosion and
waterproof sealing.
In the case of doors, moldings supply a local protection against little

damage occurring in parking operations (for instance, due to door
opening contact) or in narrow entrance maneuvers.

119
d. Outer Moldings
Materials, production and assembly process
A. Roof moldings
The most used families are:
i. PVC molding with glass fiber insert.
ii. PVC molding with metal insert.
iii. Metal profile (aluminum, inox steel).
iv. Thermoplastic rubber molding with metal insert.
Both plastic and metal moldings can be fitted protruding or drowned.
B. Side and door moldings

The most common families are:
i. PVC molding with metal insert.
ii. PVC molding with glass fiber insert.
iii. Polypropylene.
iv. PC/ABS.
PVC moldings are usually mass colored, but Polypropylene or PC/ABS body
colored moldings are the most diffused.
120
d. Outer Moldings
Molding specifications
Moldings and impact guards should be:
1. Perfectly fittable to surfaces and housing designed for their
insertion made by material which are resilient even at low
temperatures, scratch resistant, non aggressive, and resistant to
chemicals, to UV rays, and corrosion;
2. without metal sharp edges, responsible for marking or direct
metal-to-metal contact with panels, in order to avoid body
corrosion;
3. featuring preloaded elastic fasteners with additional semistructural
adhesive, when required in order to avoid beating and vibrations
while traveling.
Sometimes, moldings are fitted by bonding only; in this case, bi-
adhesives are used overall, with some additional semistructural
bonding, preferably at each molding end, to fix the molding while
curing and to avoid peeling , the most critical type of stress for
adhesives. Anyway it is recommended to add mechanical fasteners at
both molding ends.
121
e. Spoilers
On bumpers, some front spoilers, fully integrated in the car
front end, have been shown.
Rear spoilers are not usually integrated with body parts,

unless small size and their shape allows integration; usually
rear spoilers are add-on devices, fitted to the body mainly for
aerodynamic purposes.
In many cases, mostly when mounted at the rear end of the

roof or on the liftgate upper cross-member, the
aerodynamics task is mixed with the intention to create a
sporty image and the requirement to protect rear passenger
area from sun rays.

122
e. Spoilers
Specifications and delivery tests
In addition to the legal requirements concerning the outer surface

shape (minimum radius 2.5 mm) and the usual environment resistance
of plastic components, spoilers must comply with a number of
performance criteria typical for their mission, including:
1. Overall resistance to maximum dynamic loads;

2. Attachment stiffness, including supporting metal sheets
contribution to flexibility;
3. Yield strength and fatigue resistance of fasteners in repeated
decklid or tailgate operations;
4. Geometrical body fitting quality in contact areas;
5. Absence of permanent mark or deformation in contact areas;
6. Resistance in decklid misuse testing;
7. Absence of beats and vibrations on rough roads.

Body Components
123

2. Weather Strips
a. Mission and Delivery Criteria
b. Door Weather Strips
c. Liftgate and Trunk Lid Weather
Strips
d. Hood Seals
e. Opening Roof Seals
f. Glass Seals
4. Movable Parts
5. Windshield Wiper
Body Components
124

2. Weather Strips
a. Windshield
b. Door Windows
c. Quarter Glass
d. Back Window
e. External Mirrors
f. Inside Mirrors
4. Movable Parts
5. Windshield Wiper

Body Components
125

2. Weather Strips
4. Movable Parts
a. Side Doors
b. Sliding Doors
c. Trunk Lid, Liftgate, Tailgate
d. Twin Rear Doors
e. Hood
f. Sunroofs
g. Window Glass Regulators
5. Windshield Wiper
Body Interiors
126
1. Restraint Systems
2. Dashboard
3. Interior Trims
4. Seats
5. Air Conditioning

Body Interiors
127
a. Safety Belts
i. General Issues
ii. Seat Belt Anchorages
iii. Analysis of Seat Belts Components
b. Air-Bag
i. General Issues
ii. Components of the Air-Bag System
iii. Air-Bag Typologies
iv. Simulation Model
2. Dashboard
3. Interior Trims
4. Seats
5. Air Conditioning
Body Interiors
128
2. Dashboard
a. Cockpit
b. Dashboard
c. Console
3. Interior Trims
4. Seats
5. Air Conditioning

Body Interiors
129
2. Dashboard
3. Interior Trims
a. Pillars and Interior Valence Panels
b. Door Panels
c. Parcel-Trays
d. Headliners
4. Seats
5. Air Conditioning

Body Interiors
130
2. Dashboard
3. Interior Trims
4. Seats
a. Front Seats
b. Rear Seats
c. Child Seats
5. Air Conditioning

Body Interiors
131
2. Dashboard
3. Interior Trims
4. Seats
5. Air Conditioning
a. Heater
b. Control Groups
c. Air Conditioning
d. Air Distribution in the Cockpit
e. Design Criteria
f. Innovative Trends

To be continued… … …
132

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1

VEHICLE BODY ENGINEERING

Berlina Rarely used before the First World War. A

Cab A term taken directly from the days of the horse-

Cabriolet Used towards the end of the period.

Coupé A vehicle divided by a fixed or movable glass

Coupé cabriolet or double cabriolet A long

Coupé chauffeur A coupé with the driving

Coupé de ville A coupé having the driving

Coupé limousine A vehicle having a totally

Double Berlina A longer version of the Berlina but

Double landaulet A longer version of the landaulet.

Double phaeton A phaeton which had two double

Double tunneau A longer version of the tonneau in

Landau A cabriolet limousine having only the roof

Landaulet or landaulette A small landau having

Limousine A longer version of the coupé with

Limousine chauffeur A limousine with an

Phaeton A term from the days of the horse-

Runabout An open sporting type of vehicle with

Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016

Tonneau An open vehicle having a front bench seat and a

Glass saloon A large closed vehicle similar to a double

Saloon A vehicle having the driving seat inside the enclosed

Torpedo A long sports vehicle having its hood attached to

Victoria Another term derived from the era of horses. The

Wagon saloon A particularly luxurious saloon used for

Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016

• Progress of civilization is intimately connected with the means of transportation

Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016

Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016

Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016

Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016

Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016

Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016

Automobiles can be classified from various point of view of considerations like;

Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016

• Heavy Tractor Vehicles

Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016

Car broadly classified on Body Style as :

Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016

Identification & Functions of Body Pressings

Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016

Car body assemblies

Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016

Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016

Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016

1. Outer Body Components

Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016

Distinctive groups of passenger vehicle bodies include

o Small-bodied mass-produced vehicles

Hatchback This body style is identified by its characteristics sloping rear

Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016

The planning, design, engineering and

Computer-aided design (CAD) Computer-

Computer-aided engineering (CAE) All computer

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)

Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) All

Compiled & Edited By Velmurugan Sivaraman 1/20/2016