The Psychological Effects of Instagram Use on

Male and Female High School Students

Claire Brinster
Independent Research G/T
27 May 2019

Advisor: Dr. Nicholas Bowman

Instructor: E. Leila Chawkat
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INSTAGRAM ON H.S. STUDENTS Brinster 1

Abstract
This paper will discuss the psychological effects of social media use on high school
students, specifically evaluating how the impact of social media use varies between male and
female teens. A survey was distributed to students at Glenelg High School to gather information
about social media accounts, behavior on Instagram, integration of social media into one’s life,
and psychological well-being. The results indicated that male Instagram users have a
significantly higher correlation between passive use on Instagram and increased psychological
well-being (environmental control, positive relations, autonomy, and self-acceptance). While
these results contradict those of larger-scale studies in the field of social media psychology, the
suggestion of limiting passive behavior online and finding a balance between social media and
real-life interactions is still applicable to high school students today.

Table of Contents

Introduction…………………………….….…………..Page 2

Review of Literature………………………….……….Page 2

Data Collection……………………….…………….…Page 7

Rationale………………………………………………Page 7

Data……………………………………………………Page 9

Analysis………………….………………….………..Page 12

Conclusion……………………………………………Page 14

Conclusions..…………….….……….……....………..Page 15

References…………………..…………….…..……....Page 16
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INSTAGRAM ON H.S. STUDENTS Brinster 2

Introduction

Social media has come to play an important role in the lives of young people, particularly

high school students (Lenhart, 2016a). Many teens continue to acquire and use social media;

72% of U.S. teens use Instagram, and 69% of U.S. teens use Snapchat (Anderson & Jiang, 2018).

The increased use of social networks among teenagers has resulted in a new dynamic of social

interaction which has implications for communications, social development, psychological well-

being, and mental health, among other things (Weinstein, 2017). Sex-based, evolved behaviors

and social psychology affect the ways in which males and females utilize and are affected by

social media (Veissière & Stendel, 2018). While social media is a new addition to the world of

technology, booming in popularity within the past decade, the recent proliferation of social

media use among high school students has prompted extensive research about the psychological

impacts of social media use among this population. This study aims to examine the relationship

between social media use and psychological well-being in high school students, with a focus on

the differences in online experiences and psychological effects between males and females. The

study suggests that passive behavior online should be limited, especially in female Instagram

users.

Review of Literature

The Rise of Social Media

Social media use has recently risen among young people, particularly high school

students, and demands a study of the impact of social networking. Since 2012, a majority of

teens (81%) report using social media, and the percent of teens who use social media multiple

times a day, even multiple times an hour, has increased from 34% to 70% (Rideout & Robb,
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INSTAGRAM ON H.S. STUDENTS Brinster 3

2018; Smith & Anderson, 2018). While social networking has existed for as long as humans

have communicated, modern social networking, driven by online connections and “likes,” is a

new method for maintaining friendships, building relationships, and staying in touch with other

people. Face-to-face contact remains important, but “for many teens, texting is the dominant way

that they communicate on a day-to-day basis with their friends” (Lenhart, 2016a). Teens are also

“incorporating a number of other devices, communication platforms and online venues into their

interactions with friends” (Lenhart, 2016a). Teens are spending more time with technology and

engaging in online interactions rather than being present in real-life social situations; about half

(54%) report being distracted by and using social media when with friends (Rideout & Robb,

2018).

However, despite the rapid increase and proliferation of online social behavior since

2012, there has been mixed evidence regarding a corresponding increase in the amount of

negative interactions which teens report having online. Only about 25% of users feel that social

media has a negative influence on their mood and self-esteem; more teens feel that social media

plays a positive role in their well-being by making them less lonely, more confident, and less

depressed rather than playing a negative role by causing more loneliness, less confidence, and

more depression (Rideout & Robb, 2018). There is also conflicting evidence regarding the

impact of social media. Some studies show that engaging in social media on cell-phones is

highly correlated with cell-phone addiction, a phenomenon which is associated with negative

effects like anxiety, stress, sleep disturbance, and depression (De-Sola Gutiérrez, Rodríguez de

Fonseca, & Rubio, 2016; Roberts, Yaya, & Manolis, 2014). Other studies suggest that extensive

social media use, especially behaviors which expand one’s social network and require

considerable self-presentation, is correlated with more positive self-views like increased self-
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INSTAGRAM ON H.S. STUDENTS Brinster 4

esteem and narcissism (Gentile et al., 2012). The conflicting results of studies on the impact of

social media use often employ different tools or measures to quantify or examine online

behavior; many studies use the time spent online as the main measure of social media behavior.

The growing body of research regarding social media use and its effects on mental health

emphasizes that time spent online is no longer the most important method to measure online

behavior and thus the influence of social media on psychological well-being (Clark, Algoe, &

Green, 2018). Recent studies (Clark, Algoe, & Green, 2018; Escobar-Viera et al., 2018;

Weinstein, 2017) reveal that additional factors, like the nature of online interactions and the

effects of social media use on relationships, must be examined as critical components of social

media use.

Evaluating Social Media Behavior

Behavior on social networking sites is nuanced and requires evaluation of multiple

factors of behavior and interaction to effectively grasp how an individual uses social media. The

effect of social media on an individual’s life cannot be measured by only asking the time spent

on social media: the types of behaviors online are a much more reliable indicator as risk factors

for depression, anxiety, and isolation (Weinstein, 2017). Social browsing and passive filtering of

social media content, passive behaviors which involve scrolling through social media feeds

without directly interacting with others, can result in immediate reduction of psychological well-

being (Weinstein, 2017). Other passive behaviors, like viewing images or videos and reading

discussions, are associated with increased symptoms of depression (Escobar-Viera et al., 2018).

Additional studies reveal that engaging in social comparison online is linked with negative

repercussions; however, “social network sites benefit their users when they are used to make
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INSTAGRAM ON H.S. STUDENTS Brinster 5

meaningful social connections” (Clark, Algoe, & Green, 2018). A study by Escobar-Viera et al.

in 2018 found that “each one-point increase in active SMU [social media use] was associated

with a 15 percent decrease in odds of reporting severe depressive symptoms” while “each one-

point increase in passive SMU was associated with a 44 percent increase in odds of reporting

severe depressive symptoms” (Escobar-Viera et al., 2018). The passive behaviors that were

evaluated in that study and in the present study include reading discussions, reading

comments/reviews, and watching videos or viewing pictures; the active behaviors evaluated in

that study and in the present study include liking/favoriting/voting, sharing others’ content,

commenting on or responding to someone else’s content, and posting one’s own content

(Escobar-Viera et al., 2018). By making use of survey questions and tools which ask for details

about the nature of online interactions (creating and posting content, scrolling through feeds

without interacting with others, directly communicating with others, etc.), researchers and

psychologists can begin to understand the dynamic relationship between online social

networking and psychological well-being.

Sex-Based Differences in Social Behavior

Males and females use social media sites in different ways and for varying motivations as

a result of psychological differences rooted in evolution and biology. Evolutionary psychology

and social neuroscience show that females are more pro-social and more proficient at social

cognition than men (Veissière & Stendel, 2018). Over the course of human evolution, females

and males have acquired sex-based social traits which influence social behavior. Women tend to

spend more time on their cell-phones and view cell phones as a means of communication and

fostering social connections, while males view cell phones more as a source of entertainment
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INSTAGRAM ON H.S. STUDENTS Brinster 6

(Roberts, Yaya, & Manolis, 2014; Bergagna & Tartaglia, 2018). As a result, females are more

susceptible to cell-phone addiction and create close ties to the relationships cultivated through

social media, whereas males are less interested in the social contact of cell-phones and spend

more time on gaming and more diverse activities (De-Sola Gutiérrez, Rodríguez de Fonseca, &

Rubio, 2016). Some studies have found that “the magnitude of association between social media

use and depressive symptoms [is] larger for girls than for boys” (Kelly et al., 2019). Overall,

females tend to exhibit more symptoms of smartphone addiction as well as more psychological

effects stemming from cell-phone and social media use; these effects include depression,

insomnia, anxiety, and stress (De-Sola Gutiérrez, Rodríguez de Fonseca, & Rubio, 2016).

Personality types, like neuroticism and agreeableness, are also more predictive of the impact of

social media on psychological factors for females as compared to males (De-Sola Gutiérrez,

Rodríguez de Fonseca, & Rubio, 2016). Overall, the current body of knowledge suggests that

females tend to use social media and are affected by social media more than their male

counterparts. The present study examines the differences in how males and females are

psychologically affected by social media use and various types of online behavior.

The Rise of Instagram

Instagram is becoming one of the most popular social networking sites among high

school students. In a 2018 Pew Research Center study of U.S. teens aged 13-17, 72% of

respondents report using Instagram and 69% of respondents report using Snapchat while only

51% of respondents report using Facebook (Anderson & Jiang, 2018). The rise of Instagram and

Snapchat and the decline of Facebook use among teenagers can be observed by comparing this

data to the data from a 2014-2015 study also conducted by the Pew Research Center. This study
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INSTAGRAM ON H.S. STUDENTS Brinster 7

found that 71% of teens used Facebook, 52% of teens used Instagram, and 41% of teens used

Snapchat (Lenhart, 2016b). Because Facebook has been the most dominant and popular social

networking site for many years and Instagram has only recently become popular, multiple tools

for research have been developed to study behavior on Facebook (Siergerson & Cheng, 2018).

However, high school students in 2019 are more active on Instagram rather than Facebook, so

Instagram was chosen as the main social networking site used to evaluate behavior on social

media. Some of the tools developed for studying behavior on Facebook are specific to only

Facebook; however, others, like the Social Media Use Integration Scale (SMUIS), were

developed to be adaptable to multiple social networks, like Facebook and Instagram (Siegerson

& Cheng, 2018). Therefore, the SMUIS was chosen to study behavior on Instagram among

students at Glenelg High School.

Data Collection

I. Rationale

This survey was distributed to high school students to determine patterns of social media

behavior and the relationship between this behavior and psychological well-being. A

questionnaire was sent out via Canvas, the high school grading system available to all students,

giving a link to the survey as well as a brief description of the survey and research topic. There

were 105 respondents to the survey; two responses were not included in the data analysis

because the gender question was not answered. This survey research method is most appropriate

for the topic of social media use and psychological well-being among high school students

because it generates primary data that comes directly from the responses of students. Mixed

method research was also employed as aspects of the survey asked for both quantitative and
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INSTAGRAM ON H.S. STUDENTS Brinster 8

qualitative data to give the most comprehensive analysis of students’ social media activity and

well-being.

The Social Media Use Integration Scale (SMUIS), developed by Michael Jenkins-

Guarnieri, Stephen Wright, and Brian Johnson, was used to assess integration of social media

into one’s life. This scale was picked as it was evaluated by a literature review as having strong

validity in multiple aspects for measuring social media integration in a concise, 10-item scale

which assesses integration in two ways: social integration and emotional connection (SIEC) and

integration into social routines (ISR) (Sigerson & Cheng, 2018).Validity of the internal structure

was established with testing and statistical analysis; convergent validity was established by

comparing scores of the SMUIS and the Facebook Use Intensity Scale (Sigerson & Cheng,

2018). Test-retest reliability was also determined through testing and analysis (Sigerson &

Cheng, 2018). Each question of the SMUIS has a Likert-scale response from 1 (strongly

disagree) to 6 (strongly disagree). An individual’s final score is calculated using the arithmetic

mean of responses to the ten questions in the SMUIS set; a final score ranges from 1 (no

integration) to 6 (more integration of social media into one’s life).

A passive and active use scale was used to assess the nature of social media use among

respondents, with six items evaluating the amount of time one spends engaging in passive

behaviors, like viewing images or watching videos, and active behaviors, like responding to and

posting content. The passive/active use scale was measured with a Likert-scale from 1 (never

engages in behavior) to 6 (engages in behavior multiple times a day), with options in between 1

and 6 for frequency of behavior. The score for passive use was calculated by finding the

arithmetic mean of the responses about passive use with a score ranging from 1 (never engages

in behavior) to 6 (engages in behavior multiple times a day). The same process was completed to
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INSTAGRAM ON H.S. STUDENTS Brinster 9

calculate a score for active use. Both the SMUIS and the passive/active scale were used to assess

social media behavior in an attempt to capture some of the nuances of individual use, rather than

relying on questions about time spent on social media, which have been proven to be insufficient

measures for understanding social media behavior.

Psychological well-being was assessed using the 18-item Ryff Psychological Well-being

scale, which is composed of 18 Likert-scale questions assessing six factors of psychological

well-being: environmental control, positive relations, autonomy, personal growth, self-

acceptance, and purpose. The final score for each factor ranges from a 1 (no strength in that area

of psychological well-being) to a 7 (fully developed and psychologically well in that area); this

score is calculated for each factor by averaging the response to the three items assessing a factor

of psychological well-being. Six factors of psychological well-being were measured:

environmental mastery, positive relations, autonomy, personal growth, self-acceptance, and

purpose. The total psychological well-being score ranged from 1 (low psychological well-being)

to 7 (high psychological well-being); this score was calculated by averaging all responses to the

psychological well-being questions.

II. Data
Group Integration SIEC ISR Passive Use Active Use

Females (n=76) Mean: 3.22 2.62 4.11 3.58 2.54

SD: 1.42 1.47 2.18 1.55 1.11

Males (n=27) Mean: 1.68 1.31 2.22 2.43 1.75

SD: 1.96 1.67 2.52 1.81 1.17

Instagram Users Mean: 3.62 2.95 4.62 3.95 2.75

(n=85) SD: 1.51 1.50 1.79 1.35 1.06

Non-Instagram Mean: 0 0 0 1 1
Users (n=18) SD: 0 0 0 0 0
 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INSTAGRAM ON H.S. STUDENTS Brinster 10

All Respondents Mean: 2.83 2.29 3.64 3.28 2.33

(n=103) SD: 1.95 1.76 2.41 1.70 1.18
Figure 1. Social Media Behavior among Respondents. Data is reported as the mean and standard
deviation for each sub-category of respondents. SIEC: Social Integration and Emotional
Connection. ISR: Integration into Social Routines. SD: Standard Deviation.

Group Environmental Positive Autonomy Personal Self-Acceptance Purpose Total

Mastery Relations Growth Psychological
Well-Being

Females Mean: 4.32 5.04 4.53 5.72 4.69 5.40 4.95

(n=76) SD: 1.11 1.30 1.13 0.94 1.45 0.92 0.84

Males Mean: 4.00 4.84 4.56 6.11 4.77 5.12 4.96

(n=27) SD: 1.24 1.31 1.42 0.62 1.39 1.12 0.79

Instagram Mean: 4.29 5.00 4.51 5.71 4.65 5.36 4.92

Users SD: 1.36 1.32 1.26 0.93 1.52 1.05 0.87
(n=85)

Non- Mean: 4.65 5.20 4.52 5.85 5.06 5.54 5.13

Instagram SD: 1.20 1.14 1.00 0.76 0.90 0.57 0.59
Users
(n=18)

All Mean: 4.33 4.99 4.55 5.82 4.71 5.32 4.95

Respondents SD: 1.35 1.30 1.22 0.88 1.44 0.98 0.83
(n=103)
Figure 2. Psychological Well-Being scores. Overall Psychological Well-Being is divided into
six subcategories which are averaged for the total well-being score. Data is averaged for each
group.

Group Passive Use Passive Passive Passive Passive Use and Passive Use and
and Use and Use and Use and Self-Acceptance Purpose
Environment Positive Autonomy Personal
al Control Relations Growth

All Instagram r: -0.17 -0.10 -0.16 -0.05 -0.18 0.08

 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INSTAGRAM ON H.S. STUDENTS Brinster 11

Users (n=85) CI: -0.36 to -0.30 to -0.35 to -0.25 to -0.37 to 0.02 -0.13 to 0.28
0.04 0.11 0.05 0.16

Female r: -0.06 -0.16 -0.06 0.03 -0.05 0.11

Instagram Users
(n=67) CI: -0.30 to -0.39 to -0.30 to -0.21 to -0.29 to 0.19 -0.14 to 0.34
0.18 0.09 0.18 0.27

Male Instagram r: 0.74 0.69 0.65 0.29 0.93 0.46

Users (n=18)

CI: 0.42 to 0.33 to 0.26 to -0.20 to 0.82 to 0.97 -0.01 to 0.76

0.90 0.87 0.86 0.67
Figure 3. Correlation coefficient (r) between the two listed variables. CI is the confidence
interval around the correlation coefficient calculated with 95% confidence.

Group Integration Integration Integration Integration Integration and Integration and

and and and and Self-Acceptance Purpose
Environment Positive Autonomy Personal
al Control Relations Growth

All Instagram r: 0.10 -0.10 -0.05 0.03 -0.10 0.10

Users (n=85)
CI: -0.10 to -0.30 to -0.25 to -0.17 to -0.30 to 0.11 -0.10 to 0.30
0.30 0.11 0.16 0.23

Female r: 0.14 -0.07 -0.07 0.17 0.04 0.14

Instagram Users
(n=67) CI: -0.11 to -0.31 to -0.31 to -0.08 to -0.20 to 0.28 -0.11 to 0.37
0.37 0.18 0.18 0.40

Male Instagram r: -0.40 0.06 -0.60 -0.20 -0.43 0.15

Users (n=18)

CI: -0.73 to -0.42 to -0.83 to - -0.61 to -0.75 to 0.05 -0.34 to 0.58

0.08 0.51 0.18 0.29
Figure 4. Correlation coefficient (r) between the two variables. CI is the confidence interval
around the correlation coefficient calculated with 95% confidence.
 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INSTAGRAM ON H.S. STUDENTS Brinster 12

Group Time and Time and Time and Time and Time and Time Time Time
Environme Positive Autonomy Self- Personal and and and ISR
ntal Control Relations Acceptan Growth Purpose SIEC
ce

All Social r: -0.08 -0.06 -0.19 -0.17 -0.12 0.06 0.41 0.52
Media Users
(n=85)
CI: -0.29 to -0.27 to -0.39 to -0.37 to -0.32 to -0.16 to 0.22 0.34 to
0.14 0.16 0.02 0.04 0.10 0.27 to 0.66
0.57
Figure 5. Correlation coefficient (r) between the two variables. CI is the confidence interval
around the correlation coefficient calculated with 95% confidence. Time refers to the self-
reported time spent on social media. SIEC is Social Integration and Emotional Connection. ISR
is Integration into Social Routines.

III. Analysis

A statistical analysis of the results of the survey reveals that non-Instagram users as a

group have similar psychological well-being score as compared with Instagram users (scores of

4.92 and 5.13, respectively); these scores fall within each other’s standard deviation, so they are

not statistically different. However, the sample size for non-Instagram users (n=18) was much

smaller than the sample size for Instagram users (n=85). Larger sample sizes for both groups

should be obtained to effectively evaluate differences between these two groups, as this finding

is contradicted by research which shows that social media users as a whole have reduced

psychological well-being as compared to non-social media users (Clark, Algoe, & Green, 2018).

Larger studies that gather data on a larger range of demographics and items assessing

individuality, like personality tests and mental health profiles, could examine more specific

characteristics of social media users and analyze the differences between users and non-users.

As a whole, the male group of Instagram users had a significantly higher correlation

between passive use and measures of psychological well-being as compared to female Instagram
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INSTAGRAM ON H.S. STUDENTS Brinster 13

users, specifically with environmental control (r=0.74), positive relations (r=0.69), autonomy

(r=0.65), and personal growth (r=0.93). Each of these correlations fell outside of the female

subsample confidence interval, making the differences between the correlations significant.

These correlations were all moderately positive, indicating that as the amount of passive social

media behaviors increase, the subcategory of psychological well-being shows higher

development and strength within that individual; however, it is important to remember that

correlation does not imply causation. These findings contradict most studies on passive and

active use which show that increased passive behavior on social media sites is correlated with

increased symptoms of depression and other factors of reduced mental health (Escobar-Viera, et

al., 2018). Future studies could examine more factors that could affect psychological well-being,

like personality traits, social networks, and family relations, especially among the male

population. The male group of Instagram users was also smaller than the female group of

Instagram users (n=27 and n=67, respectively). To gather more accurate data to compare the

social media behaviors between the two groups, larger sample sizes which consist of equal

amounts of males and females could be tested. The group of male Instagram users could also be

linked by other factors, like personality, which separates them from their non-Instagram

counterparts. 66% of all male respondents use Instagram, whereas 87% of all female respondents

use Instagram. Therefore, based on the demographics of this study and the findings of other

studies, one could conclude that male Instagram use is less of a social norm as compared with

female social media use, indicating that those males who do choose to use social media may be

linked by other personality types or social tendencies. The results could then be explained by the

fact that males with these communicative traits who choose to use Instagram receive more social
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INSTAGRAM ON H.S. STUDENTS Brinster 14

benefits and connection from their social media use as compared to females, who utilize

Instagram as a social tool which has become a norm among high school girls (Lenhart, 2016a).

A limitation of this study was the available sample of respondents. The survey was sent

via Canvas, a student grading system, and students voluntarily answered the questionnaire. More

females (n=76) responded to the survey than males (n=27). Because larger studies of teen social

media users have found that females use social media at higher rates than males (Lenhart,

2016b), male students may have decided not to respond to the survey because of a lack of

interest or involvement in social media. As a result, the sample had a disproportionate amount of

females, which could lead to skewed data, as discussed above.

IV. Conclusion

The findings present new knowledge about social media usage in male and female

Instagram users, giving information that could be expanded in future studies. Male Instagram

users had much stronger correlations between passive use and measures of psychological well-

being as compared to female Instagram users, which contradicts findings of other studies (Clark,

Algoe, Green, 2018; Escobar-Viera et al., 2018). Females tend to show more innate social

tendencies which are intensified by the availability and proliferation of social media, and males

tend to use social media for utilitarian needs and business networking (Roberts, Yaya, &

Manolis, 2014). Therefore, the anomaly of simply being a teenage, male Instagram user may

indicate that there are other factors, like personality traits or communicative tendencies, which

influence social media acquisition and use; these factors could influence the effect of passive

behavior and cause passive behavior to positively affect psychological well-being. Female

Instagram users may not possess these personality traits or characteristics, as research reveals
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INSTAGRAM ON H.S. STUDENTS Brinster 15

that social media acquisition in females is more popular than in males, and thus be affected

differently or negatively by passive behavior on Instagram. These findings are supported by

studies which have found that female social media users are more susceptible than males to

depression, anxiety, and other negative psychological effects stemming from social media use

(Clark, Algoe, & Green, 2018; De-Sola Gutiérrez, Rodríguez de Fonseca, & Rubio, 2016; Kelly

et al., 2019; Roberts, Yaya, & Manolis, 2014). The findings of this study contribute to the field

of social media psychology and give a foundation for further research into the sex-based

differences of social media use and behavior. The suggestion of limiting passive behavior online

and on Instagram still remains for high school students, particularly for females.

Conclusions

Social media provides access to information and communication, yet it can also force

comparisons and give opportunities for unhealthy habits to be reinforced by other online

presences. These interactions can manifest as psychological influences and repercussions for

social media users. It is important for researchers to determine where the tipping point is for

healthy, helpful social media use and which behaviors help mediate the negative effects of social

media use. People can use smartphones to enhance social connections and can try to use them to

engage in healthy social behaviors like cultivating genuine relationships and sharing in the

success of others. Understanding which behaviors or personality traits play a bigger role in

reducing psychological well-being can help teenagers control their social media use and create

healthy online habits as social media continues to play a bigger role in the lives of teens.
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INSTAGRAM ON H.S. STUDENTS Brinster 16

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