OLIVE: From birth to

packaging
General description

The origin of the Olive Oil (Olea europaea L. is believed to come from South
Caucasus (12,000 BC), although many consider a purely Mediterranean plant. This,
in fact, has set itself very well in the Mediterranean basin. Cultivated olives belong
to the vast family of oleaceae, which includes 30 species (among them we mention
Ligustrum, Syringa and Fraxinus); The species is subdivided into two subspecies, the
cultivated olive (Olea europaea sativa) and the oleaster (Olea europaea oleaster).

Olive tree is an evergreen small tree that grows up to 8–15 m tall with thorny
branches. The leaves are opposite, 4–10 cm long and 1–3 cm wide. The leaves have
a dark greyish-green color above and are pale with whitish scales below. The small
white flowers, with calyx and corolla divided into four parts, two stamens and bifid
stigma, are mostly on the last year's wood, in racemes coming up from the axils of
the leaves. The fruit is a small drupe 1–2 cm long, thinner-fleshed and smaller in wild
plants than in orchard cultivars. In 2008 total harvested area was over 10 500 000
ha, 95.5 percent of which was concentrated in ten countries surrounding the
Mediterranean Sea (FAO, 2011). Spain, Italy and Greece are the main producers of
virgin oil followed by Tunisia, Syria, Turkey and Morocco. About 90 percent of the
world production of olive fruit is for oil extraction, the remaining 10 percent for
table olives. The world cultivated area of olives in 2009 was over 9.2 million ha with
an average yield of 2.1 tonne/ha (FAO, 2011). Figure 1 shows the evolution of olive
production over the last decades in the main countries. European Union countries
produce 78 percent and consume 68 percent of the world's olive oil. Olive trees
have been sparsely planted for centuries, without irrigation, on marginal lands in
Mediterranean climate conditions because of their high resistance to drought, lime
and salinity. Typical densities of traditional groves are between 50 and 100 tree/ha
with trees severely pruned to stimulate vegetative growth and renewal of the
fruiting surface, and the soil periodically tilled. Fruit yields are low, ranging from less
than 1 up to 5 tonne/ha of olives. Although traditional groves vary in cultivar
composition, tree density, training system, degree of mechanization and chemical
inputs, they are still the most widespread production system and a landmark of
Mediterranean landscapes. Intensive orchards have a density of between 200 and
550 tree/ha, which translates into a higher fraction of intercepted radiation that
leads to higher productivity per unit land area than traditional systems, particularly
during the first 10 years of production. Trees are trained to a single trunk for
mechanical harvesting and the soil is often managed by temporary or permanent
grass cover to reduce erosion. In areas of annual rainfall higher than 600 mm,
production can be maintained with good water-holding capacity. However, irrigation
plays an important role in the drier areas, and/or for soils with limited water
storage. Elsewhere, irrigation plays an important role to stabilizing yields in the
years of low rainfall. Irrigation is becoming common in the intensive orchards as it
allows early onset of production (from the second to forth year after planting), high
yields (averages up to 10-15 tonne/ha) under optimal conditions and less variability
because of alternate bearing.

Most of the world's olive area is composed of the two systems described above.
However, in the last 15 years very high density, hedgerow type, olive orchards (from
1 000 to 2 000 tree ha) have been developed to further reduce harvesting costs using
over-the tree harvesting machines. Because of the higher ETc demand of the dense
canopies and the low soil volume available for each tree, irrigation is needed. Average
yields can be quite high (5-15 tonne/ha) and may average 10-14 tonne/ha over a 10-
year period, but there are questions about the sustainability of high yields in the long
term, and about the adaptation of many cultivars to this production system. The area
devoted to these super-intensive plantations is about 100 000 ha worldwide.
Phenological Stages - Alternative Production

Important to identify in the olive are the phenological stages and the alternation of
production. The phenological stages that the olive tree must follow are:

1. winter stage during which the buds are still

2. vegetative revival of the buds
3. the formation of mignoles with the flower not yet developed but presents the
flower buttons
4. volume increase of the buttons
5. differentiation of the corolla from the chalice
6. Blossom with flowers opening (white corolla)
7. fall of petals (dark corolla)
8. moment of the flowering allegation and appearance of the fruit from the
chalice
9. Increasing the fruit
10.veraison and hardening of the core
11.ripening the fruit

The alternation of production is an aspect which ought to be taken into account in

olive cultivation because its effects are affected both on the price and on the quality
of the finished product (both olives and table olives).

The causes that can be attributed to this event are a mixture of climatic conditions,
parasitic attacks, pruning and incorrect fertilization, excessive delay in harvesting
fruits and not least the predisposition of the cultivar. To remedy this problem, you
must work in a timely manner and continue over time with the following steps:
1. Adjust the production with extraordinary pruning
2. practice of irrigation and fertilization throughout the year;
3. Regular pest control, especially against the fly of the olive;
4. anticipating the harvest time.
Implant

Before laying the olive trees, and after choosing the place where the plants will be
planted, the following operations must be carried out:

1. Leveling and, if necessary, rustling;

2. Deep processing of soil with plow (ripper) to break the soil deeply;
3. Continue with a fertilizer based on manure (300-400 q.li / ha) and a phosphorus
potassium (150-200 kg / ha);
4. The installation of a drainage net (ditches and drains);
5. Tracking of the planting distance and installation of wooden stakes for future
seedlings;
6. Pruning of seedlings transplantation.

The recommended period is the beginning of spring, before the vegetative recovery.

Planted plants are to be grown with particular planting pattern: in the centre of Italy
it is preferred the implantation 5 x 6 or 6 x 6 while in the southern of Italy is more
widely used 7 x 6 or 7 x 7.
Forms of breeding

Forms of breeding change from zone to zone, from varieties to variety but, above
all, depending on the type of harvest to be practiced. The olive tree is a
Mediterranean plant: As such, it needs a lot of light and air and needs the most
mass of leaves to produce good productive results, while avoiding shadows that
have negative effects on the productive and economic results of the crop.

The vase shape is the most

widespread among olive
growing systems obtained by
pruning on the shaft to give to
canopy the shape of a cone or
cylinder. It is a system that
allows a good ventilating of the
canopy avoiding the excessive
flowering of the vegetation.
 The “ vaso policonico”, with the
branches that are located 1-2 meters
from the ground, allows the
processing and growth of the
herbaceous species under the tree.
At the same time, it allows plants to
bear fruit very high, making pruning
and harvesting difficult and costly.
When the plants reach maturity, stairs are needed, so other forms of breeding are
being spread.

The free form is obtained without

any pruning operation in the plant
during the first 8-10 years, with the
exception of the base shoots for the
first 40-50 cm, to be carried out
immediately after the transplant or
at the end of the first year.
 In the globe form , the stem has been
cut to a certain height and the
branches grow from that level
without a predetermined order to
reach, with the ramifications,
different heights; In general, the
canopy of the olive tree takes a
globular shape.

Then among the low breeding forms we remember: The “palmetta libera”, the
“vaso cespugliato”, the “cespuglio” widened along the thread (elliptical) or
expanded (circular), “monocono” or “cordone “, “siepone “. These shapes tend to
create a continuous mass of vegetation along the thread up to 4 m.
 The “ vaso cespugliato”
has 3-4 main branches.

The “ monocono “ is a form very

similar to “ fusetto “ used in fruit
cultivation, with a simple manual
pruning. For the setting of this form
of breeding, it is recommended to
do summer pruining in the first two
years in order to eliminate basal
ramifications of the trunk in the first
80-90 cm and suppress any lateral ramifications that may enter into competition.
The woody branches will be spaced between 50 and 60 cm to give the plant, with a
finished structure, the shape of a cone with the vertex facing upwards. It is the
breeding form that best suits the mechanical harvest by trunk vibration, but the
fruiting is not always regular. Free-breeding forms are more suitable for those farms
that have little labor for pruning and harvesting.
Cultivation practices

In order to guarantee a good production, a production pruning must be

implemented bearing in mind a few fundamental rules:

1. Maintenance of a fair balance between vegetation and fruit;

2. The olive produces on long branches of 25 to 50 cm long;
3. Excessive production during the year results in a depletion of nutrients
available to the plant, favoring the alternation of production;
4. The hormonal competition between fruits of the same plant and the same
branch is the main factor that causes the pre-harvested fruit drop.

There are two other cultivation practices, even if less important, that are spreading
lately: irrigation and fertilization. Of both the olive tree there is no real need
because it is a rustic plant but that, to increase its production, it has been quite
effective.

Irrigation is important especially in the early years of planting and in summer. If the
plant went to water deficiency during the summer and the spring would turn into
abnormal openings of flowers and consequent abortion of the ovary, in a small size
of fruits and a little flesh compared to whole fruit that would give less oil. In order to
overcome this problem, we are intervening with the establishment of traditional
gravitational irrigation systems or microportable (spray and drop) systems. The
fertilization is important, as already mentioned, at the time of planting but also at
the time of full production if high conversion rates are to be obtained. There are
elements that play a fundamental role in the nutrition of these plants and are: Bo
and Mg (together with iron for the mineral nutrition of the plant), Ca, K (promotes
the synthesis of starch, regulates water accumulation and increases resistance to
environmental adversities), P (regulates growth and fruiting) And K (regulates the
plant's vigor and regulates its vegeto-productive equilibrium).
Harvesting and storage

There is no precise harvest time for olives. The olives are divided, according to the
ripening of the fruits, in: Scaling maturation and contemporary maturation.
Moreover, unlike their precocity, they are divided into: early (Leccino, Rosciola and
Moraiolo), medium-early (Cardoncella) and late (Frantoio). For olive oil it is decided
to carry out (usually from mid October to the whole of December) when the fruits
have come to maturity: which is derived from the veraison of the exocarp (typical
and different between cultivar and cultivar); In table olives, the picking by hand can
be carried out both before and after veraison (depending on the work being done).

Important, especially for olive oil, is to estimate the time of their harvesting, bearing
in mind some considerations:

 The pre-harvesting fruit drop causes significant losses on future oil

production; However, the product obtained from olives is of poor quality: in
cultivars subject to this phenomenon it is good to anticipate the harvest;
 With anticipating the harvesting is possible to avoid both damage from
atmospheric events and parasitic attacks;
 The olives harvested early, with ripening already completed, have both more
pleasant taste, lower acidity and better oil yield;
  The prolonged stay of the already mature olives on the plant leads the new
gems to not differentiate, thus favoring the alternation of production.

The harvesting of the olives can be done either manually or mechanically. That
manual is divided into three different types;

 Picking by hand: Fruits are removed thanks to the help of their hands and
deposit in baskets or buckets. You get 5-10 kg / h of olive oil up to 10-20 kg /
h for table-olives;

 Combing: the drupes are 'combed' or 'crawled' with tools said combs, and
dropped on towels or nets placed under the trees. The yield varies around
15-25 kg / h for both categories.
  “Raccattatura”: Practiced mainly in Liguria, Apulia and Sicily and consists in
collecting the olive when it has naturally fallen without having to intervene
with labor

Instead, the mechanized one is implemented with the following types of machine:

 Hooks or swinging combs which, driven by compressors and carried at the

end of the rods, allow to double the yield per hour;
 Shakers to be applied to the gills or directly to the trunk. There are picking
machines that match the shaker to the product interceptor.
 Storage is a very
important step of
any food, including
olive oil. In fact,
olive oil shelf life
can be influenced
by different factors,
from olive quality to
processing
technologies,
however, the
selection of proper
storage conditions,
including packaging,
can be of great importance. Incorrect storage practices influence the sensory
quality of the oil, as rancidity and off-flavours may develop. Packaging can directly
influence olive oil quality by protecting the product from both oxygen and light. The
shelf life of the oils exposed to intense artificial light and diffused daylight is shorter
than that of oils kept in the dark. Moreover, the storage temperature, the use of
nitrogen atmosphere and the reduction of the oxygen in the headspace volume can
appreciably control quality changes during storage time. Materials which have been
used for olive oil packaging include glass, metals (tin-coated steel) and more
recently plastics and plastics coated paperboard.

According to olive variety, extra virgin olive oil has different sensorial attributes,
e.g. fragrance, flavour, colour and nutrient composition parameters and some of
these quality parameters of extra virgin olive oil (acidity, peroxide value and UV
absorbance) can vary depending on time and storage method, reaching undesirable
values at the end of the shelf life. So the olive oil storage could be shorter as
possible: its assumption could not exceed the production year: the oil gains the
excellence about 3-8 months after production, after that its quality starts
decreasing. This behaviour depends on the olive cultivar and on the alteration of
fatty fraction.

During storage the oil tends to loss the typical pigmentation and the aromatic
characteristics of bitter and spicy, showing too many transparency and brilliance.
Immediately after oil extraction, the flavour appears too strong and also
characterized by an unpleasant aftertaste. If the olive oil is stored properly, as in
well-sealed packages, it can reach the second storage year maintaining its sensory
properties.

The oil storage is favoured by the antioxidants content that prevents the rancidity,
but their activity initially slows and then stops with successive formation of free
radicals. This action can be enhanced by improper storage practices: for example,
when storage temperature is not controlled, or when the oil is held in contact with
the direct light and or at high temperatures at consumer’s house, or when an
improper sealing is applied after the first container opening. Concerning this last
aspect, the use of screw caps is more advisable than metal pourers which expose
the oil to the oxidative agents.

Finally, it is important that storing and packaging facilities respect hygiene and
healthiness standards.
Packaging of olive oil

After olive pressing, oils are transferred in tanks and after pouring they are put into
storage containers where they attain their sensory characteristics. Containers are of
different materials and capacity ; they are made mainly with AISI 304 inox steel
which is also used for the containers intended for olive oil clarification.

The packaging in the selling container is the last unit operation: it is very important
for product stability, maintaining high quality level and also value added, if carried
out properly.

Reduction of oxygen in the packaging headspace and light exposure are key factors
in lowering lipid oxidation and off-flavour development, thus keeping quality of olive
oil.
The Regulation 1019/2002/CE (Official Journal European Union, 2002) sanctioned
the prohibition of the consumer sale of the on tap olive oils. This effect promotes
the consumer protection in product quality and the valorisation of farm identity. In
this sense olive farms can provide packaging or ask for it to external companies. As
for the other foods, the oil storage and packaging mill area must be maintained
clean, ventilated, illuminated and all the unit operations should follow the hygienic-
health rules according to Regulation 852/2004/CE (Official Journal European Union,
2004). As previously discussed, olive oil must be stored at constant temperature,
about 14-15 °C, protected from light and air. When oils are stored in big containers
(inox steel is the best material), these have to be preferably maintained quite full or
better with the headspace filled with nitrogen.

For smaller quantities, the bottling with depression and the pre-bottling with inert
gas are nowadays diffused by using bottlers apparatus, which saturate the
headspace with nitrogen in bottle filling operation. In particular, bottles are hooked
up by a special machine, which invert them and blow inside liquid nitrogen, which
becomes gas when comes in contact with the environment, dilutes and moves out
the oxygen present in the free volume of the bottle.

Then, bottle straighten up and proceeds toward the filling operation during which
nitrogen stays inside because is heavier than air. As the bottle fills up and the oil
level goes up, the nitrogen is carried outside avoiding anyway the oxygen
penetration. The velocity of successive capping guarantees that only presence of
nitrogen between cap and oil

Using of inert gases, as argon and nitrogen, can solve many problems and provide an
optimal product storage in several production steps, as pressing, kneading and,
most of all, storage and bottling. Nitrogen is the most used gas to protect oil from
the air contact, able to remove oxygen by container headspace and pre-formed
volatile contaminants. Bottling lines are very versatile for packaging typologies and
easily cleanable.

Bottle capping can be carried out by means of cork or more frequently by metal
caps. A good quality cork has not to be porous and present fungal contaminants,
however it is not suggested as may cause early deterioration, due to its high oxygen
permeability. Metal caps are provided of a screw and a plastic soft liner that permit
a perfect airtight acting as dripper.
Conclusions

Olive oil storage and packaging are final steps of the production process and are as
important as the other ones. Deterioration agents can decrease the quality of this
important food also during these unit operations, so a correct control and
monitoring of some indicators can be useful to the olive oil shelf life. Storage
environment and its characteristics (temperature most of all) contribute to it.

Packaging typologies also influence the stored olive oil properties with different
results depending on materials. During the time various containers were adopted
and evaluated with evident feedback for qualitative aspects (some material have
been in fact banned for healthy causes). Moreover, the traditional uses can give to
different preferences (e.g. in Italy is very difficult to substitute the glass apart from
its ascertained value as packaging material for olive oil).

Future developments are surely expected because of many attentions on this

subject also by scientific community and probably some materials will be improved
and other container types will be proposed in a more and more advanced food
market.