OSI reference model is a logical framework for the network communication.

OSI
reference model is now considered as a primary standard for internetworking and
inter computing.In the OSI model the network/data communication is defined into
seven layers. The seven layers can be grouped into three groups -
Network, Transport and Application.

1. Layer 1, 2 and 3 i.e. physical, data link, and network are network support layers.
2. Layer 4, Transport layer provides end to end reliable data transmission.
3. Layer 5, 6 and 7 i.e. Session, Presentation, and Application layer are user support
layers.

It is important to note that OSI model is just a model. It is not a protocol that can be
installed or run on any system.

To remember the names of seven layers in order one cornmon mnemonic used is -
"All People Seem to Need Data Processing".
The last three layers are mainly concerned with the organization of terminal software
and are not directly the concern of communications engineers. The transport layer is
the one which links the communication processes to this software-oriented protocol.

Layer 7 – Application Layer

The application layer is the layer at which user communicate with application
program. This layer provides network services to the end users like
ftp,mail,telnet,DNS. When you download or send emails, your e-mail program
contacts this layer. This layer provides network services to the end-users like Mail,
ftp, telnet, DNS. Application layer act as interface b/w actual application programs.

Applications sometimes used desktop resources to check if there are sufficient

resources available to make communication between applications at different n/w.
There are internetworking applications to share data and information accross the
netwrorks. ex:
 1)www: it ia an internetworkning applicaion that transfers information across the
servers. information can be multimedia or data files.

2)email gateways: allow diffrent emails to communicate over n/w

3)online chat rooms

Function of Application Layer:

 Resource sharing and device redirection.

 File transfer
 Remote printer access.
 Inter-process communication.
 Network management.
 Directory services.*
 Electronic messaging (such as mail).

.
 Layer 6 – Presentation Layer

Functions of Presentation Layer:

It presents data to the application layer and is responsible for data translation. By
providing data translation services , presentation layer ensure that data transferred
from the application layer of one system can be read by the application layer of other
system.

Character code translation: for example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-floating point, and so on.

 Data compression: reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.
 Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes. For example, password
encryption.

Layer 5 - Session Layer

Functions of Session Layer: SSD

Session establishment, maintenance and termination: allows two

application processes on different machines to establish, use and terminate a
connection, called a session.

Session support: performs the functions that allow these processes to

communicate over the network, performing security, name recognition, logging and
so on.

Dialog control: Dialog control is the function of session layer that determines
which device will communicate first and the amount of data that will be sent.
Session layer helps to keep different application’s data separate.

Layer 4 – Transport Layer

Transport layer manages end to end (source to destination) (process to process)

message delivery in a network and also provides the error correction and hence
guarantees that no duplication or errors are occurring in the data transfers across the
network. It makes sure that all the sgments of a message arrive intact and in order.

Transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data

transmission and retransmits the data if error is found. The transport layer ensures
that messages are delivered error-free, in sequence, and with no losses or
duplications.

Transport layer provides two types of services:

1. Connection oriented

2. Connectionless

1. Connection Oriented Transmission

(a) In this type of transmission the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back
to the source after a packet or group of packet is received.
(b) This type of transmission is also known as reliable transport method.

(c) Because connection oriented transmission requires more packets be sent across
network, it is considered a slower transmission method.

(d) If the data that is sent has problems, the destination requests the source for
retransmission by acknowledging only packets that have been received and are
recognizable.

(e) Once the destination computer receives all of the data necessary to reassemble
the packet, the transport layer assembles the data in the correct sequence and then
passes it up, to the session layer.

2. Connectionless Transmission

(a) In this type of transmission the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet.

(b) Sending device assumes that packet arrive just fine.

(c) This approach allows for much faster communication between devices.

Functions of Transport Layer: (S MMS)

Segmentation of message and reassembly of data segments into message:

accepts a message from the (session) layer above it, splits the message into smaller
units (if not already small enough), and passes the smaller units down to the network
layer. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.

Note: Segmentation and reassembly of message is done by TCP.

Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message delivery with

acknowledgments.

Message traffic control: tells the transmitting station to "back-off" when no

message buffers are available.

Service point addressing: The purpose of transport layer is to delivery message

from one process running on source machine to another process running on
destination machine. It may be possible that several programs or processes are
running on both the machines at a time. In order to deliver the message to correct
process, transport layer header includes a type of address called service point
address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, transport layer makes
sure that the message is delivered to the correct process on destination machine.

Flow control: Like Data link layer, transport layer also performs flow control.
Transport layer makes sure that the sender and receiver communicate at a rate they
both can handle. Therefore flow control prevents the source from sending data
packets faster than the destination can handle. Here, flow control is performed end-
to-end rather than across a link.

Error control: Like Data link layer, Transport layer also performs error control.
Here error control is performed end-to-end rather than across a single link. The
sending transport layer ensures that the entire message arrives at the receiving
transport layer without error (damage, loss or duplication). Error correction is
achieved through retransmission.

Protocol: TCP : Segmentation of message into packet and reassembly of packets into
message

Note:
Windowing
Ideally, data throughput happens quickly and efficiently. And as you can imagine, it
would
be painfully slow if the transmitting machine had to actually wait for an
acknowledgment
after sending each and every segment! The quantity of data segments, measured in
bytes,
that the transmitting machine is allowed to send without receiving an
acknowledgment is

called a window.

Layer 3 – Network Layer

This layer is incharge of packet addressing, converting logical addresses into

physical addresses. It is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a
packet across multiple networks (links). The network layer determines that
how data transmits between the different network .

Functions of Network Layer: (LIL RP FP)

• Logical-Physical Address Mapping: translates logical addresses into physical

addresses.

Internetworking

• One of the main responsibilities of network layer is to provide internetworking

between different networks.
• It is because of this layer, we can combine various different networks to form a
bigger network.

Logical Addressing

• Large number of different networks can be combined together to from bigger

networks or internetwork.

• In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network layer defines an

addressing scheme.

• Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

Routing

• When independent networks or links are combined together to create internet

works, multiple routes are possible from source machine to destination machine.

• The network layer protocols determine which route or path is best from source
to destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.

Packetizing

• The network layer receives the data from the upper layers and creates its own
packets by encapsulating these packets. The process is known as packetizing.

• This packetizing in done by Internet Protocol (IP) that defines its own packet
format.

Fragmentation

• Fragmentation means dividing the larger packets into small fragments.

• The maximum size for a transportable packet in defined by physical layer protocol.

• For this, network layer divides the large packets into fragments so that they can be
easily sent on the physical medium.

•
Protocols: These protocols work on the network layer IP, ICMP, eigrp, IPX and
OSPF.

Layer 2 - Data Link layer

It is responsible for reliable node-to-node delivery of data. It receives the data(i.e

packets) from network layer and creates frames, add physical address to these
frames and pass them to physical layer

The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data frames from one node to
another over the physical layer.
Data Link layer consists of two sub-layers

1. Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer

2. Medium Access Control (MAC) sublayer

LLC sublayer determines whether the communication is going to be connectionless

or connection-oriented at the data link layer.

At the MAC sublayer of Data link layer, the actual physical address of the device,
called the MAC address is added to the packet. Such a packet is called a Frame that
contains all the addressing information necessary to travel from source device to
destination device.

MAC address is the 12 digit hexadecimal number unique to every computer in this
world. A device's MAC address is located on its Network Interface Card (NIC). In
these 12 digits of MAC address, the first six digits indicate the NIC manufacturer
and the last six digits are unique. For example, 32-14-a6-42-71-0c is the 12 digit
hexadecimal MAC address. Thus MAC address represents the physical address of a
device in the network.
Functions of Data Link Layer: (FEFA)

Link Establishment and Termination: Establishes and terminates the logical

link between two nodes.

Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical
addresses (MAC address) of sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.

Frame Traffic Control: Tells the transmitting node to "back-off algorithm"

when no frame buffers are available.

Frame Sequencing: Transmits/receives frames sequentially.

Frame Acknowledgment: Provides/expects frame acknowledgments. Detects and

recovers from errors that occur in the physical layer by retransmitting non-
acknowledged frames and handling duplicate frame receipt.

Flow control:. If the rate at which data is absorbed by receiver is less that the rate
produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes this flow control mechanism.
Flow control mechanism alow the sender and receiver to communicate at equal
speed. ,i.e., rate at which sender sends the frane shouls be same as rate at which
receiver receive.
Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it
detects and retransmits damaged· or lost frames. It also deals with the problem of
duplicate frame, thus providing reliability to physical layer.

Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple

devices, MAC sub-layer of data link layer helps to determine which device has control
over the channel at a given time.

Feedback: After transmitting the frames, the system waits for the feedback. The
receiving device then sends the acknowledgement frames back to the source
providing the receipt of the frames.

Layer 1 – Physical Layer

Functions of Physical layer:

Provides physical characteristics of interfaces and medium: Physical layer

manages the way a device connects to network media. For example, if the physical
connection from the device to the network uses coaxial cable, the hardware that
functions at the physical layer will be designed for that specific type of network. All
components including connectors are also specified at physical layer.

Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits
by providing a clock. This clock controls both transmitter as well as receiver thus
providing synchronization at bit level.

Bit rate control: Physical layer defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits
sent in one second. Therefore it defines the duration of a bit.
Line configuration: Physical layer also defines the way in which the devices are
connected to the medium. Two different line configurations are used point to point
configuration and multipoint configuration. To activate, maintain and deactivate the
physical connection.

Note: p to p: one device connected to only one device.

Multi p : one to many

Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are:
Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.

Transmission Technique: determines whether the encoded bits will be

transmitted by baseband (digital) or broadband (analog) signaling.

Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a networki.e. bus, star or mesh.

Multiplexing: Physical layer can use different techniques of multiplexing, in order

to improve the channel efficiency.

Circuit switching: Physical layer also provides the circuit switching to interconnect
different networks.

Protocols used at physical layer are ISDN, IEEE 802 and IEEE 802.2.