Unit-1

WHAT IS A COMPUTER NETWORK?

A Computer network consists of two or more autonomous computers that are linked (connected) together in order to:

• Share resources (files, printers, modems, fax machines).

• Share Application software like MS Office.

• Allow Electronic communication.

• Increase productivity (makes it easier to share data amongst users).

A Computer network includes, the network operating system in the client and server machines, the cables, which connect
different computers and all supporting hardware in between such as bridges, routers and switches

Computer networks are generally classified according to their structure and the area they are localised in as:

• Local Area Network (LAN): The network that spans a relatively small area that is, in the single building or campus is
known as LAN.

• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): The type of computer network that is, designed for a city or town is known as MAN.

• Wide Area Network (WAN): A network that covers a large geographical area and covers different cities, states and
sometimes even countries, is known as WAN.

The additional characteristics that are also used to categorise different types of networks are:

• Topology: Topology is the graphical arrangement of computer systems in a network. Common topologies include a bus,
star, ring, and mesh.

• Protocol: The protocol defines a common set of rules which are used by computers on the network that communicate
between hardware and software entities. One of the most popular protocols for LANs is the Ethernet. Another popular LAN
protocol for PCs is the token-ring network.

• Architecture: Networks can be broadly classified as using either a peer-to-peer or client/server architecture.

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It was developed by ISO – ‘International Organization for
Standardization’, in the year 1984. It is a 7-layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform. All
these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to another across the globe.

What is OSI Model?

The OSI model, created in 1984 by ISO, is a reference framework that explains the process of transmitting data between
computers. It is divided into seven layers that work together to carry out specialised network functions, allowing for a
more systematic approach to networking.
Physical Layer – Layer 1
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual physical connection
between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting
individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into
0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer:

 Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock
controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
 Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star,
or mesh topology.
 Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected devices. The various
transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of this layer is to make
sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is
the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame size of the
NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking
“Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are
meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the
frame.
 Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the
sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
 Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and retransmits
damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow control
coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
 Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data
link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.

Note:
1. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
2. Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host machines.
3. Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
Network Layer – Layer 3
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different networks. It also takes
care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The
sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.

Functions of the Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This function of
the network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing
scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address
distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
 Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.
 Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.

Transport Layer – Layer 4

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network layer. The data in the
transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message. The
transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error
is found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation, and
also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port
numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For example, when a web
application requests a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web
applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it has
received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and breaks the message into
smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at the destination
station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer header includes a type of
address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure
that the message is delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
1. Connection-Oriented Service
2. Connectionless Service
1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
 Connection Establishment
 Data Transfer
 Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source after a packet or group of
packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of transmission, the receiver
does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster communication between devices.
Connection-oriented service is more reliable than connectionless Service.
Note:
1. Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments.
2. Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and communicates with the Application
Layer by making system calls.
3. The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.
4. Device or Protocol Use : TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP
Session Layer – Layer 5
This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and authentication, and also
ensures security.

Functions of the Session Layer

 Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two processes to establish, use and
terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization points in the
data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of
the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in half-duplex or
full-duplex.
Note:
1. All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the TCP/IP model as the ????
pplication Layer”.
2. Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also known as Upper Layers
or Software Layers.
3. Device or Protocol Use : NetBIOS, PPTP.
for Example:-
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger application running in his
browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which provides the user with an interface to create the data.
This message or so-called Data is compressed, encrypted (if any secure data), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that
it can be transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Presentation Layer – Layer 6

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The encrypted data is known
as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as
decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
Note: Device or Protocol Use : JPEG, MPEG, GIF
Application Layer – Layer 7
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which is implemented by the
network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network. This layer also
serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for displaying the received information to the
user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Note: 1. The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
2. Device or Protocol Use : SMTP

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of application layer are given below.

 Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 FTAM- File transfer access and management : This application allows a user to
access file in a remote host, retrieve files in remote host and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
 Mail Services : Provide email service.
 Directory Services : This application provides distributed database sources
and access for global information about various objects and services.
Note: OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the Internet because of its late invention. The
current model being used is the TCP/IP model.
OSI Model in a Nutshell
Layer Information Device or
No Layer Name Responsibility Form(Data Unit) Protocol

Application Helps in identifying the client and synchronizing

Message SMTP
7 Layer communication.

Data from the application layer is extracted and

Presentation JPEG, MPEG,
manipulated in the required format for Message
Layer GIF
6 transmission.

Establishes Connection, Maintenance, Ensures

Session Layer Message Gateway
5 Authentication, and Ensures security.

Transport Take Service from Network Layer and provide it to

Segment Firewall
4 Layer the Application Layer.

Network Transmission of data from one host to another,

Packet Router
3 Layer located in different networks.

Data Link
Node to Node Delivery of Message. Frame Switch, Bridge
2 Layer

Establishing Physical Connections between Hub, Repeater,

Physical Layer Bits
1 Devices. Modem, Cables

TCP/IP Model
The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It was designed to describe the functions of the
communication system by dividing the communication procedure into smaller and simpler components.
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and is based on standard
protocols. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the
OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.
The number of layers is sometimes referred to as five or four. Here In this article, we’ll study five layers. The Physical
Layer and Data Link Layer are referred to as one single layer as the ‘Physical Layer’ or ‘Network Interface Layer’ in the
4-layer reference.

What Does TCP/IP Do?

The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to another. The main condition of this
process is to make data reliable and accurate so that the receiver will receive the same information which is sent by the
sender. To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into
packets and combines them at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while transferring from
one end to another end.

What is the Difference between TCP and IP?

TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer Networks. The basic difference between TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol) is in the transmission of data. In simple words, IP finds the destination of the mail
and TCP has the work to send and receive the mail. UDP is another protocol, which does not require IP to communicate
with another computer. IP is required by only TCP. This is the basic difference between TCP and IP.
How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?
Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP Model, the TCP/IP Model divides the data into
packets at the sender’s end and the same packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to form the same data, and
this thing happens to maintain the accuracy of the data. TCP/IP model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the
data first go into this layer in one order and again in reverse order to get organized in the same way at the receiver’s end.
Layers of TCP/IP Model
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
3. Network/Internet Layer(IP)
4. Data Link Layer (MAC)
5. Physical Layer

The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:

1. Physical Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is responsible for generating the data and
requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network Access layer on the behalf of the receiver. During
this article, we will be talking on the behalf of the receiver.
2. Data Link Layer
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by the data-link layer. Error prevention and
“framing” are also provided by the data-link layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2
framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.
 3. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are responsible for the logical
transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source host to the destination
host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most
websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when
compared to the number of users.
 ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible
for providing hosts with information about network problems.
 ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a host from a known IP
address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of protocols that define the Internet. The
Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from one device to another across a network. It does this by
assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to identify the device and determine the route that packets
should take to reach it.

Example: Imagine that you are using a computer to send an email to a friend. When you click “send,” the email is broken
down into smaller packets of data, which are then sent to the Internet Layer for routing. The Internet Layer assigns an IP
address to each packet and uses routing tables to determine the best route for the packet to take to reach its destination.
The packet is then forwarded to the next hop on its route until it reaches its destination. When all of the packets have been
delivered, your friend’s computer can reassemble them into the original email message.
In this example, the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email from your computer to your friend’s
computer. It uses IP addresses and routing tables to determine the best route for the packets to take, and it ensures that the
packets are delivered to the correct destination. Without the Internet Layer, it would not be possible to send data across
the Internet.
4. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit missing packets to ensure
that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end communication is referred to as such. Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were physically connected by a circuit.
TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character transmission rather than separate packets. A starting
point that establishes the connection, the whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the
connection make up this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport layer protocol. Connections between
receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that transport little amounts of data use UDP rather
than TCP because it eliminates the processes of establishing and validating connections.
5. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-
free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of data. The three main protocols
present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World Wide Web to manage
communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP
with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate,
and carry out bank transactions.
 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is preferred
is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
 NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our computer to one standard
time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions. Assume the following situation without the presence
of NTP. Suppose you carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records
it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
The host-to-host layer is a layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model that is responsible for providing
communication between hosts (computers or other devices) on a network. It is also known as the transport layer.
Some common use cases for the host-to-host layer include:
1. Reliable Data Transfer: The host-to-host layer ensures that data is transferred reliably between hosts by using
techniques like error correction and flow control. For example, if a packet of data is lost during transmission, the host-
to-host layer can request that the packet be retransmitted to ensure that all data is received correctly.
2. Segmentation and Reassembly: The host-to-host layer is responsible for breaking up large blocks of data into smaller
segments that can be transmitted over the network, and then reassembling the data at the destination. This allows data
to be transmitted more efficiently and helps to avoid overloading the network.
3. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: The host-to-host layer is responsible for multiplexing data from multiple sources
onto a single network connection, and then demultiplexing the data at the destination. This allows multiple devices to
share the same network connection and helps to improve the utilization of the network.
4. End-to-End Communication: The host-to-host layer provides a connection-oriented service that allows hosts to
communicate with each other end-to-end, without the need for intermediate devices to be involved in the
communication.
Example: Consider a network with two hosts, A and B. Host A wants to send a file to host B. The host-to-host layer in
host A will break the file into smaller segments, add error correction and flow control information, and then transmit the
segments over the network to host B. The host-to-host layer in host B will receive the segments, check for errors, and
reassemble the file. Once the file has been transferred successfully, the host-to-host layer in host B will acknowledge
receipt of the file to host A.
In this example, the host-to-host layer is responsible for providing a reliable connection between host A and host B,
breaking the file into smaller segments, and reassembling the segments at the destination. It is also responsible for
multiplexing and demultiplexing the data and providing end-to-end communication between the two hosts.
Other Common Internet Protocols
TCP/IP Model covers many Internet Protocols. The main rule of these Internet Protocols is how the data is validated and
sent over the Internet. Some Common Internet Protocols include:
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): HTTP takes care of Web Browsers and Websites.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): FTP takes care of how the file is to be sent over the Internet.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP is used to send and receive data.

Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model

TCP/IP OSI

TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol. OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection.

TCP/IP uses both the session and presentation layer in the

OSI uses different session and presentation layers.
application layer itself.

TCP/IP follows connectionless a horizontal approach. OSI follows a vertical approach.

The Transport layer in TCP/IP does not provide assurance In the OSI model, the transport layer provides assurance
delivery of packets. delivery of packets.

While in the OSI model, Protocols are better covered

Protocols cannot be replaced easily in TCP/IP model.
and are easy to replace with the technology change.

TCP/IP model network layer only provides connectionless Connectionless and connection-oriented services are
(IP) services. The transport layer (TCP) provides connections. provided by the network layer in the OSI model.

Physical Topology

The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.

Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is the
geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one
another.
There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring

MESH:

A mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node in the network.

Advantages of a mesh topology

 Can handle high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit data
simultaneously.
 A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission of data.
 Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other devices.
Disadvantages of a mesh topology
 The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a less desirable
option.
 Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
 The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs and potential
for reduced efficiency.

STAR:

A star network, star topology is one of the most common network setups. In this configuration,
every node connects to a central network device, like a hub, switch, or computer. The central
network device acts as a server and the peripheral devices act as clients. Depending on the type
of network card used in each computer of the star topology, a coaxial cable or a RJ-45 network
cable is used to connect computers together.
BUS:

a line topology, a bus topology is a network setup in which each computer and network device are
connected to a single cable or backbone.
Advantages of bus topology
 It works well when you have a small network.
 It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in a linear
fashion.
 It requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of bus topology
 It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
 It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
 Bus topology is not great for large networks.
 Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
 Additional devices slow the network down.
 If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.

RING:

A ring topology is a network configuration in which device connections create a circular data
path. In a ring network, packets of data travel from one device to the next until they reach their
destination. Most ring topologies allow packets to travel only in one direction, called a
unidirectional ring network. Others permit data to move in either direction, called bidirectional.
The major disadvantage of a ring topology is that if any individual connection in the ring is
broken, the entire network is affected.
Ring topologies may be used in either local area networks (LANs) or wide area networks
(WANs).
 Advantages of ring topology
 All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.
 A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between each
workstation.
 Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.
 Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of the network.
Disadvantages of ring topology
 All data being transferred over the network must pass through each workstation on the
network, which can make it slower than a star topology.
 The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
 The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more expensive than
Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.
Hybrid Topology A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with each
branch connecting several stations in a bus topology as shown in Figure

Types of Network based on size

The types of network are classified based upon the size, the area it covers and its physical
architecture. The three primary network categories are LAN, WAN and MAN. Each network
differs in their characteristics such as distance, transmission speed, cables and cost.
Basic types
LAN (Local Area Network)

Group of interconnected computers within a small area.(room,building, campus)

Two or more pc's can from a LAN to share files, folders, printers, applications and other devices.
Coaxial or CAT 5 cables are normally used for connections. Due to short distances,
errors and noise are minimum.
Data transfer rate is 10 to 100 mbps. Example: A computer
lab in a school.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

Design to extend over a large area.

Connecting number of LAN's to form larger network, so that resources can be shared.
Networks can be up to 5 to 50 km. Owned by organization
or individual. Data transfer rate is low compare to LAN.
Example: Organization with different branches located in the city.
WAN (Wide Area Network)

Are country and worldwide network. Contains multiple

LAN's and MAN's.
Distinguished in terms of geographical range. Uses satellites and
microwave relays.
Data transfer rate depends upon the ISP provider and varies over the location. Best example is the internet.

Other types

WLAN (Wireless LAN)

A LAN that uses high frequency radio waves for communication. Provides short range
connectivity with high speed data transmission. PAN (Personal Area Network)
Network organized by the individual user for its personal use.
SAN (Storage Area Network)

Connects servers to data storage devices via fiber-optic cables. E.g.: Used for daily backup of
organization or a mirror copy

A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information
from a source to a destination.

Classes of transmission media

Guided Media: Guided media, which are those that provide a medium from one
device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.

Twisted-Pair Cable: A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each
with its own plastic insulation, twisted together. One of the wires is used to carry signals
to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference.

Switching

A network is a set of connected devices. Whenever we have multiple

devices, we have the problem of how to connect them to make one-to-one
communication possible. One solution is to make a point-to-point connection
between each pair of devices (a mesh topology) or between a central device
and every other device (a star topology). These methods, however, are
impractical and wasteful when applied to very large networks.
The number and length of the links require too much infrastructure to be
cost-efficient, and the majority of those links would be idle most of the time.
A better solution is switching. A switched network consists of a series of
interlinked nodes, called switches. Switches are devices capable of creating
temporary connections between two or more devices linked to the switch. In a
switched network, some of these nodes are connected to the end systems
(computers or telephones, for example). Others are used only for routing. Figure
shows a switched network.
We can then divide today's networks into three broad categories: circuit-
switched networks, packet-switched networks, and message-switched. Packet-
switched networks can further be divided into two subcategories-virtual-circuit
networks and datagram networks as shown in Figure.
CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS

A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches

connected by physical links. A connection between two stations is a
dedicated path made of one or more links. However, each
connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link. Each link
is normally divided into n channels by using FDM or TDM.
In circuit switching, the resources need to be reserved during the
setup phase;
the resources remain dedicated for the entire duration of data transfer
until the teardown phase

Three Phases

The actual communication in a circuit-switched network

requires three phases: connection setup, data transfer, and
connection teardown.
Setup Phase
Before the two parties (or multiple parties in a
conference call) can communicate, a dedicated circuit
(combination of channels in links) needs to be established.
Connection setup means creating dedicated channels
between the switches. For example, in Figure, when system
A needs to connect to system M, it sends a setup request
that includes the address of system M, to switch I.
Switch I finds a channel between itself and switch IV that
can be dedicated for this purpose. Switch I then sends the
request to switch IV, which finds aedicated channel
between itself and switch III. Switch III informs system M of
system A's intention at this time.
In the next step to making a connection, an
acknowledgment from system M needs to be sent in the
opposite direction to system A. Only after system A
receives this acknowledgment is the connection
established.
Data Transfer Phase
After the establishment of the dedicated circuit (channels),
the two parties can transfer data.
Teardown Phase
When one of the parties needs to disconnect, a signal is sent
to each switch to release the resources.
Efficiency

It can be argued that circuit-switched networks are not as

efficient as the other two types of networks because
resources are allocated during the entire duration of the
connection. These resources are unavailable to other
connections.
Delay

Although a circuit-switched network normally has low

efficiency, the delay in this type of network is minimal.
During data transfer the data are not delayed at each
switch; the resources are allocated for the duration of the
 connection.
The total delay is due to the time needed to create the
connection, transfer data, and disconnect the circuit.
Switching at the physical layer in the traditional telephone network