Institute of Accountancy Arusha

Computer Networks
ITU 07418

The OSI Reference Model

 Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
Define the concept of OSI Model
Explain the Characteristics of OSI Model
Explain the functions of the seven layers of OSI
model
Describe some protocols
 Introduction
 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a
reference tool for understanding data communications
between any two networked systems.
 It divides the communications processes into seven
layers.
 Each layer performs specific functions to support the
layers above it and offers services to the layers below
it.
 Therefore each layer is self-contained, so that task
assigned to each layer can be performed
independently
 Cont.….
 Also it describes how information from a software
application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another
computer.
 It developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now
considered as an architectural model for the inter-
computer communications.
 Benefits of the OSI Model
 Helps users understand the big picture of networking
 Helps users understand how hardware and software
elements function together
 Makes troubleshooting easier by separating networks
into manageable pieces
 Defines terms that networking professionals can use
to compare basic functional relationships on different
networks
 Characteristics of OSI Model
 The OSI model is divided into two
layers: upper layers and lower layers.
 The upper layer of the OSI model
mainly deals with the application
related issues, and they are
implemented only in the software.
 The application layer is closest to the
end user.

 Both the end user and the application layer interact with the software
applications.
 Cont..
 The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the
data transport issues.
 The data link layer and the physical layer are
implemented in hardware and software.
 The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model
and is closest to the physical medium.
 The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the
information on the physical medium.
 Functions of the OSI Layers
 A list of seven layers are given below:
Physical Layer

Data-Link Layer

Network Layer

Transport Layer

Session Layer

Presentation Layer

Application Layer
Cont.…….
Physical layer
 Cont.…..
 It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
 The main functionality of the physical layer is to
transmit the individual bits from one node to another
node.
 It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical
connection.
 It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural
network interface specifications.
 Functions of a Physical layer
Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or
more devices can be connected physically.
Data Transmission: It defines the transmission
mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex
mode between the two devices on the network.
Topology: It defines the way how network devices
are arranged.
Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for
transmitting the information.
Data-Link Layer
 Data-Link Layer - Explanations
 This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of
data frames.
 It defines the format of the data on the network.
 It provides a reliable and efficient communication
between two or more devices.
 It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of
each device that resides on a local network.
 It contains two sub-layers:
 Logical Link Control Layer and Media Access Control
Layer
 Cont.…..
 Logical Link Control Layer
It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network
layer of the receiver that is receiving.
It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from
the header.
It also provides flow control.
 Media Access Control Layer
A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical
Link Control layer and the network's physical layer.
It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
 Functions of the Data-link layer
 Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's
raw bit stream into packets known as Frames.
 The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the
frame.
 The header which is added to the frame contains the
hardware destination and source address.
 Cont.…
Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a
header to the frame that contains a destination
address. The frame is transmitted to the destination
address mentioned in the header.
Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality
of the Data-link layer. It is the technique through
which the constant data rate is maintained on both
the sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures
that the transmitting station such as a server with
higher processing speed does not exceed the
receiving station, with lower processing speed.
 Cont.…..
Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a
calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) that
is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added
to the message frame before it is sent to the physical
layer. If any error seems to occur, then the receiver
sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of
the corrupted frames.
Access Control: When two or more devices are
connected to the same communication channel, then
the data link layer protocols are used to determine
which device has control over the link at a given time.
Network Layer
 Network Layer- Explanations
 It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks
the location of devices on the network.
 It determines the best path to move data from source
to the destination based on the network conditions,
the priority of service, and other factors.
 The Data link layer is responsible for routing and
forwarding the packets.
 Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in
this layer and used to provide the routing services
within an internetwork.
 Cont.…..
 The protocols used to route the network traffic are
known as Network layer protocols. Examples of
protocols are IP and Ipv6.
 Functions of Network Layer
 Internetworking: An internetworking is the main
responsibility of the network layer. It provides a logical
connection between different devices.
 Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and
destination address to the header of the frame.
Addressing is used to identify the device on the
internet.
 Routing: Routing is the major component of the
network layer, and it determines the best optimal path
out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination.
 Cont.…
Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets
from the upper layer and converts them into packets.
This process is known as Packetizing.
It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).
Transport Layer
 Transport Layer- Explanations
 The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that
messages are transmitted in the order in which they
are sent and there is no duplication of data.
 The main responsibility of the transport layer is to
transfer the data completely.
 It receives the data from the upper layer and converts
them into smaller units known as segments.
 This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it
provides a point-to-point connection between source
and destination to deliver the data reliably.
 The protocols used in this layer
 Transmission Control Protocol
 It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to
communicate over the internet.
 It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
 When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP
protocol divides the data into smaller units known as
segments.
 Each segment travels over the internet using multiple
routes, and they arrive in different orders at the
destination.
 The transmission control protocol reorders the packets in
the correct order at the receiving end.
 Cont.…….
 User Datagram Protocol
 User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
 It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case
receiver does not send any acknowledgment when the
packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment.
 Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.
 Functions of Transport Layer
 Service-point addressing: Computers run several
programs simultaneously due to this reason, the
transmission of data from source to the destination
not only from one computer to another computer but
also from one process to another process.
 The transport layer adds the header that contains the
address known as a service-point address or port
address.
 The responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit
the message to the correct process
 Cont.…..
 Segmentation and reassembly: When the
transport layer receives the message from the upper
layer, it divides the message into multiple segments,
and each segment is assigned with a sequence
number that uniquely identifies each segment.
 When the message has arrived at the destination,
then the transport layer reassembles the message
based on their sequence numbers.
 Cont.……
 Connection control: Transport layer provides two
services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service.
 A connectionless service treats each segment as an
individual packet, and they all travel in different routes
to reach the destination.
 A connection-oriented service makes a connection
with the transport layer at the destination machine
before delivering the packets.
 In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel
in the single route.
 Cont.……..
 Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for
flow control but it is performed end-to-end rather than
across a single link.
 Error control: The transport layer is also responsible
for Error control. Error control is performed end-to-
end rather than across the single link. The sender
transport layer ensures that message reach at the
destination without any error.
Session Layer
 Session Layer – Explanations
 It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.
 The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and
synchronizes the interaction between communicating
devices.
 Functions of Session layer
 Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog
controller that creates a dialog between two processes
or we can say that it allows the communication
between two processes which can be either half-
duplex or full-duplex.
 Synchronization: Session layer adds some
checkpoints when transmitting the data in a sequence.
If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission
of data, then the transmission will take place again
from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.
Presentation Layer
Presentation Layer – Explanations
 A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the
syntax and semantics of the information exchanged
between the two systems.
 It acts as a data translator for a network.
 This layer is a part of the operating system that
converts the data from one presentation format to
another format.
 The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax
layer.
 Functions of Presentation layer
 Translation: The processes in two systems exchange
the information in the form of character strings,
numbers and so on.
 Different computers use different encoding methods,
the presentation layer handles the interoperability
between the different encoding methods.
 It converts the data from sender-dependent format
into a common format and changes the common
format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving
end.
 Cont.…..
 Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain
privacy. Encryption is a process of converting the
sender-transmitted information into another form and
sends the resulting message over the network.
 Compression: Data compression is a process of
compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the number of
bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very
important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.
Application Layer
 Application Layer - Explanations
 An application layer serves as a window for users and
application processes to access network service.
 It handles issues such as network transparency,
resource allocation, etc.
 An application layer is not an application, but it
performs the application layer functions.
 This layer provides the network services to the end-
users.
 Functions of Application layer
 File transfer, access, and management (FTAM):
An application layer allows a user to access the files in
a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a
computer and to manage the files in a remote
computer.
 Mail services: An application layer provides the
facility for email forwarding and storage.
 Directory services: An application provides the
distributed database sources and is used to provide
that global information about various objects.
 Class Activity

Discuss all protocols found in application layer and

their port number
 References
 https://www.javatpoint.com/osi-model
 Tanenbaum, A (2003). Computer Networks, 5th ed,
Pearson Education.
 Chin, J(2004). Cisco Frame Relay Solutions Guide, 2nd
ed, Cisco Press.
 Kurose, J & Ross, K (2003) Computer Networking: a
Top-Down Approach Featuring the Internet, 2nd ed,
Addison-Wesley Longman.