Soil and Soil Mechanics Textbook Jaafar MOHAMMED

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Soil and Soil Mechanics textbook
Book · January 2014

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.31964.39047
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Soil
&
Soil Mechanics
Textbook
Collected by
Ing. Jaafar MOHAMMED
PhD Student at VŠB-TUO

2013-2014
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Soil & Soil Mechanics Textbook collected by Ing. Jaafar MOHAMMED 2014
started writing this simplified textbook at the beginning of the 1st semester of my doctoral
I study in Czech Republic at VŠB-Technical University of Ostrava . Through my research

and preparations for my study, I got this idea to write this small textbook for civil
Engineering students, in an effort to simplify the concepts as well help in making it easier for
them by collecting necessary information in a concise manner.
I would like to thank and acknowledge all the researchers and authors whom I relied on their
knowledge in my textbook and also, as well as recognize all the other internet resources that
proved very valuable in putting together this textbook.
It’s my pleasure if there is any mistake in this textbook to contact me by e-mail

[ Jaafar.brifkani@uod.ac or jaafar68@seznam.cz ].
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Contact
Locally
Jaafar A. Brifkani
University of Duhok (UOD)
Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Depart.
Zakho Street 38, 1006 AJ Duhok
Duhok Governorate – Kurdistan Region – Iraq
Tel : +964 750 7371922
E-mail: jaafar.brifkani@uod.ac
http://feas.uod.ac /
Currently
Ing. Jaafar Mohammed
VŠB-Technical University of Ostrava
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Department of Geotechnical and Underground Engineering
Office: C314
L. Podéště 1875, Ostrava - Poruba, Czech Republic
Tel.: 00420597 321 942
Mobil: 00420607111591
E-Mail: jaafar.mohammed.st@vsb.cz
Address profile: http://profily.vsb.cz/jaf001
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Glossary of symbols
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Introduction:
T he term Soil has various meanings, depending upon the general field in which it is being
considered. The term ‘Soil’ has different meanings in different scientific fields. It has
originated from the Latin word Solum. To an agricultural scientist, it means ‘‘the loose
material on the earth’s crust consisting of disintegrated rock with an admixture of organic
matter, which supports plant life’’. To a geologist, it means the disintegrated rock material
which has not been transported from the place of origin. But, to a civil engineer, the term ‘soil’
means, the loose unconsolidated inorganic material on the earth’s crust produced by the
disintegration of rocks, overlying hard rock with or without organic matter.
Foundations of all structures have to be placed on or in such soil, which is the primary reason
for our interest as Civil Engineers in its engineering behaviour. The application of the principles
of soil mechanics to the design and construction of foundations for various structures is known
as ‘‘Foundation Engineering’’. ‘‘Geotechnical Engineering’’ may be considered to include both
soil mechanics and foundation engineering.
In fact, according to Terzaghi, it is difficult to draw a distinct line of demarcation between soil
mechanics and foundation engineering; the latter starts where the former ends. [ DHARM N-
GEO\GE1-1.PM5]
Soil mechanics is the science of equilibrium and motion of soil bodies. Here soil is understood
to be the weathered material in the upper layers of the earth’s crust. The non-weathered material
in this crust is denoted as rock, and its mechanics is the discipline of rock mechanics. Soil
mechanics has been developed in the beginning of the 20th century. The need for the analysis of
the behavior of soils arose in many countries, often as a result of spectacular accidents, such as
landslides and failures of foundations. [Delft, March 2012]
According to Terzaghi (1948):
“Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering problems
dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles produced by
the mechanical and chemical disintegration of rocks regardless of whether or not they contain an
admixture of organic constituent.”
Some of the basic theories of soil mechanics are the basic description and classification of soil,
effective stress, shear strength, consolidation, lateral earth pressure, bearing capacity, slope
stability, and permeability. Foundations, embankments, retaining walls, earthworks and
underground openings are all designed in part with theories from soil mechanics.
But to a geotechnical engineer, soil has a much broader meaning and can include not only
agronomic material, but also broken-up fragments of rock, volcanic ash, alluvium, Aeolian sand,
glacial material, and any other residual or transported product of rock weathering. Difficulties
naturally arise because there is not a distinct dividing line between rock and soil. For example,
to a geologist a given material may be classified as a formational rock because it belongs to a
definite geologic environment, but to a geotechnical engineer it may be sufficiently weathered or
friable that it should be classified as a soil.( Robert W. Day).
Study of soil behavior in a more methodical manner in the area of geotechnical engineering
started in the early part of the 18thcentury, and last to 1927. The development of soil mechanics
can be divided into four phases, according to Skempton (1985):
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Fig.1- Hall of fame by Dr. Attaullah Shah
In this Textbook, different laboratory tests will be conducted to determine

the following important index and mechanical properties of soils:
 Water Content
 Organic Matter (Content)
 Unit Weight (Density)
 Specific Gravity
 Relative Density
 Atterberg Limits
 Grain Size Distribution (Sieve Analysis and Hydrometer Analysis)
 Visual Classification
 Moisture-Density Relationship (Compaction)
 Hydraulic Conductivity (Constant Head Method)
 Consolidation
 Shear Strength
Unconfined Compression Test
Direct Shear Test
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Objectives of Soil Mechanics, by Dr. Attaullah Shah
 To perform the Engineering soil surveys.
 To develop rational soil sampling devices and soil sampling methods.
 To develop suitable soil testing devices and soil testing methods.
 To collect and classify soils and their physical properties on the basis of fundamental
knowledge of soil mechanics.
 To investigate the physical properties of soil and determine the coefficients to
characterize these properties.
 To evaluate the soil test results and other applications as a construction material.
 To understand various factors such as static and dynamic loads, water and temperature.
Soil Modelling
“Model” assumed relationship between stress and strain for a soil. Underlying conventional
design calculations in geotechnical engineering are different soil models based on concepts of
elasticity and plasticity. Underlying most methods of calculating ground movements is the
assumption of a linear elastic soil model.
Underlying most stability calculations is a soil model which assumes rigid, perfectly plastic
behaviour.
Fields of Application of Soil Mechanics

The knowledge of soil mechanics has application in many fields of Civil Engineering
1- Foundation
The understanding of the mechanical behavior of granular material under different states of
stress conditions it is of great importance for the analysis of possible failure within a soil mass
that supports structures such as embankments, piles, spread footings, earth dams, etc. In diverse
situations, these structures may induce a wide range of loading conditions to the soil mass
beneath them, causing deformations that, in extreme cases, may lead to a total collapse. This
mechanical behavior is directly associated with the strength and deformation characteristics of
soils.
The loads from any structure have to be ultimately transmitted to a soil through the foundation
for the structure. Thus, the foundation is an important part of a structure, the type and details of
which can be decided upon only with the knowledge and application of the principles of soil
mechanics.
One of the most famous examples of problems related to soil bearing capacity and foundations
in the construction of structures prior to 18thcentury is the Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy. The
construction of the Tower began in 1173 A.D. and last over 200 years.
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2- Underground and Earth-retaining Structures
Underground structures such as drainage structures, pipe lines, and tunnels and earth-retaining
structures such as retaining walls and bulkheads can be designed and constructed only by using
the principles of soil mechanics and the concept of ‘soil-structure interaction’.
Various earth pressure theories assume that soils are homogeneous, isotropic and horizontally
inclined. These assumptions lead to hydrostatic or triangular pressure distributions when
calculating the lateral earth pressures being exerted against a vertical plane. Field measurements
on deep retained excavations have shown that the average earth pressure load is approximately
uniform with depth with small reductions at the top and bottom of the excavation. This type of
distribution was first suggested by Terzaghi (1943) on the basis of empirical data collected on
the Berlin Subway and Chicago Subway projects between1936-42.
3- Pavement Design
Pavement Design may consist of the design of flexible or rigid pavements. Flexible pavements
depend more on the subgrade soil for transmitting the traffic loads. Problems peculiar to the
design of pavements are the effect of repetitive loading, swelling and shrinkage of sub-soil and
frost action. Consideration of these and other factors in the efficient design of a pavement is a
must and one cannot do without the knowledge of soil mechanics.
Pavements are constructed on compacted soils that are typically unsaturated. The negative pore-
water pressure (soil suction) due to the ingress of water in between soil particles has a
significant effect on pavement foundation stiffness and strength. The study characterized the
effects of soil suction on shear strength and resilient modulus of four soils representing different
regions of Minnesota. The deviator stress in shear strength measurements followed a power
function relationship with soil suction.
4- Excavations, Embankments and Dams

Excavations require the knowledge of slope stability analysis; deep excavations may need
temporary supports—‘timbering’ or ‘bracing’, the design of which requires knowledge of soil
mechanics. Likewise the construction of embankments and earth dams where soil itself is used
as the construction material requires a thorough knowledge of the engineering behaviour of soil
especially in the presence of water. Knowledge of slope stability, effects of seepage,
consolidation and consequent settlement as well as compaction characteristics for achieving
maximum unit weight of the soil in-situ, is absolutely essential for efficient design and
construction of embankments and earth dams.
5- Small Housing
In the Middle East, especially in the villages, and so far there are some people build their homes
from templates made of soil mixed with grass and even the roof is a soil surrounded by the large
legs wood trees in the form of a beam and beyond are compacted both roof and walls to prevent
leakage of water inside the house.
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Soil Profile
A deposit of soil material, resulting from one or more of the geological processes described
earlier, is subjected to further physical and chemical changes which are brought about by the
climate and other factors prevalent subsequently. Vegetation starts to develop and rainfall begins
the processes of leaching and eluviation of the surface of the soil material. Gradually, with the
passage of geological time profound changes take place in the character of the soil.
These changes bring about the development of ‘soil profile’.
Fig.2- Topsoil – each soil horizon has specific physical and chemical properties
Generally, three distinct strata or horizons occur in a natural soil-profile; this number may
increase to five or more in soils which are very old or in which the weathering processes have
been unusually intense.
From top to bottom these horizons are designated as the A-horizon, the B-horizon and the C-
horizon. The A-horizon is rich in humus and organic plant residue. This is usually elevated and
leached; that is, the ultrafine colloidal material and the soluble mineral salts are washed out of
this horizon by percolating water. It is dark in color and its thickness may range from a few
centimeters to half a metre. This horizon often exhibits many undesirable engineering
characteristics and is of value only to agricultural soil scientists.
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The B-horizon is sometimes referred to as the zone of accumulation. The material which has
migrated from the A-horizon by leaching and eluviation gets deposited in this zone. There is a
distinct difference of color between this zone and the dark top soil of the A-horizon. This soil is
very much chemically active at the surface and contains unstable fine-grained material.
Thus, this is important in highway and airfield construction work and light structures such as
single storey residential buildings, in which the foundations are located near the ground surface.
The thickness of B-horizon may range from 0.50 to 0.75 m.
The material in the C-horizon is in the same physical and chemical state as it was first deposited
by water, wind or ice in the geological cycle. The thickness of this horizon may range from a
few centimeters to more than 30 m. The upper region of this horizon is often oxidized to a
considerable extent. It is from this horizon that the bulk of the material is often borrowed for the
construction of large soil structures such as earth dams.
Each of these horizons may consist of sub-horizons with distinctive physical and chemical
characteristics and may be designated as A1, A2, B1, B2, etc. The transition between horizons
and sub-horizons may not be sharp but gradual. At a certain place, one or more horizons may be
missing in the soil profile for special reasons.
The morphology or form of a soil is expressed by a complete description of the texture,
structure, color and other characteristics of the various horizons, and by their thicknesses and
depths in the soil profile. For these and other details the reader may refer ‘‘Soil Engineering’’ by
M.G. Spangler.
Fig.3- A typical soil profile [DHARM N-GEO\GE1-1.PM5]
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Definitions and Terminology
Stiffness dependent upon stress level
Stiffness is the ratio of the force required to create a specified deflection or movement of a part.
Stiffness is Force/deflection, which is expressed in lbs/in or grams/cm.
In civil engineering the non-linear property is used to great advantage in the pile foundation for
a building on very soft soil, underlain by a layer of sand. In the sand below a thick deposit of
soft clay the stress level is high, due to the weight of the clay. This makes the sand very hard and
strong, and it is possible to apply large compressive forces to the piles, provided that they are
long enough to reach well into the sand.
Shear
In compression soils become gradually stiffer. In shear, however, soils become gradually softer,
and if the shear stresses reach a certain level, with respect to the normal stresses, it is even
possible that failure of the soil mass occurs. This means that the slope of a sand heap, for
instance in a depot or in a dam, cannot be larger than about 30 or 40 degrees. The reason for this
is that particles would slide over each other at greater slopes. As a consequence of this
phenomenon many countries in deltas of large rivers are very flat. It has also caused the failure
of dams and embankments all over the world, sometimes with very serious consequences for the
local population. Especially dangerous is that in very fine materials, such as clay, a steep slope
is often possible for some time, due to capillary pressures in the water, but after some time these
capillary pressures may vanish (perhaps because of rain), and the slope will fail.
Dilatancy
Shear deformations of soils often are accompanied by volume changes. Loose sand has a
tendency to contract to a smaller volume, and densely packed sand can practically deform only
when the volume expands somewhat, making the sand looser. This is called dilatancy, a
phenomenon discovered by Reynolds, in 1885. This property causes the soil around a human
foot on the beach near the water line to be drawn dry during walking. The densely packed sand
is loaded by the weight of the foot, which causes a shear deformation, which in turn causes a
volume expansion, which sucks in some water from the surrounding soil.
Creep
The deformations of a soil often depend upon time, even under a constant load. This is called
creep. Clay and peat exhibit this phenomenon. It causes structures founded on soft soils to show
ever increasing settlements. A new road, built on a soft soil, will continue to settle for many
years. For buildings such settlements are particular damaging when they are not uniform, as this
may lead to cracks in the building.
Groundwater
A special characteristic of soil is that water may be present in the pores of the soil. This water
contributes to the stress transfer in the soil. It may also be flowing with respect to the granular
particles, which creates friction stresses between the fluid and the solid material. In many cases
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soil must be considered as a two phase material. As it takes some time before water can be
expelled from a soil mass, the presence of water usually prevents rapid volume changes.
Unknown initial stresses
Soil is a natural material, created in historical times by various geological processes. Therefore
the initial state of stress is often not uniform, and often even partly unknown. Because of the
non-linear behavior of the material, mentioned above, the initial stresses in the soil are of great
importance for the determination of soil behavior under additional loads. These initial stresses
depend upon geological history, which is never exactly known, and this causes considerable
uncertainty. In particular, the initial horizontal stresses in a soil mass are usually unknown. The
initial vertical stresses may be determined by the weight of the overlying layers. This means that
the stresses increase with depth, and therefore stiffness and strength also increase with depth.
The horizontal stresses, however, usually remain largely unknown.
Variability
The creation of soil by ancient geological processes also means that soil properties may be
rather different on different locations. Even in two very close locations the soil properties may
be completely different, for instance when an ancient river channel has been filled with sand
deposits. Sometimes the course of an ancient river can be traced on the surface of a soil, but
often it cannot be seen at the surface. When an embankment is built on such a soil, it can be
expected that the settlements will vary, depending upon the local material in the subsoil. The
variability of soil properties may also be the result of a heavy local load in the past.
Grain size
Soils are usually classified into various types. In many cases these various types also have
different mechanical properties. A simple subdivision of soils is on the basis of the grain size of
the particles that constitute the soil. Coarse granular material is often denoted as gravel and finer
material as sand. In order to have a uniformly applicable terminology it has been agreed
internationally to consider particles larger than 2 mm, but smaller than 63 mm as gravel. Larger
particles are denoted as stones. Sand is the material consisting of particles smaller than 2 mm,
but larger than 0.063 mm. Particles smaller than 0.063 mm and larger than 0.002 mm is denoted
as silt. Soil consisting of even smaller particles, smaller than 0.002 mm, is denoted as clay , see
Table 1.
Table 1: Grain sizes
The grain size may be useful as a first distinguishing property of soils, but it is not very useful
for the mechanical properties. The quantitative data that an engineer needs depend upon the
mechanical properties such as stiffness and strength, and these must be determined from
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mechanical tests. Soils of the same grain size may have different mechanical properties. Sand
consisting of round particles, for instance, can have a strength that is much smaller than sand
consisting of particles with sharp points. Also, a soil sample consisting of a mixture of various
grain sizes can have a very small permeability if the small particles just fit in the pores between
the larger particles. The size of the particles in a certain soil can be represented graphically in a
grain size diagram, see Figure 5. Such a diagram indicates the percentage of the particles smaller
than a certain diameter, measured as a percentage of the mass (or weight). A steep slope of the
curve in the diagram indicates a uniform soil; a shallow slope of the diagram indicates that the
soil contains particles of strongly different grain sizes. For rather coarse particles, say larger than
0.05 mm, the grain size distribution can be determined by sieving.
Figure 5: Grain size diagram.
Chemical composition
Besides the difference in grain size, the chemical composition of soil can also be helpful in
distinguishing between various types of soils. Sand and gravel usually consist of the same
minerals as the original rock from which they were created by the erosion process. This can be
quartz, feldspar or glimmer. In Western Europe sand usually consists mainly of quartz. The
chemical formula of this mineral is SiO2. Fine-grained soils may contain the same minerals, but
they also contain the so-called clay minerals, which have been created by chemical erosion.
Consistency limits
For very fine soils, such as silt and clay, the consistency is an important property. It determines
whether the soil can easily be handled, by soil moving equipment, or by hand. The consistency
is often very much dependent on the amount of water in the soil. This is expressed by the water
content w . It is defined as the weight of the water per unit weight of solid material,
w = Ww / Wk ……. 1
When the water content is very low (as in very dry clay) the soil can be very stiff, almost like a
stone. It is then said to be in the solid state. Adding water, for instance if the clay is flooded by
rain, may make the clay plastic, and for higher water contents the clay may even become almost
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liquid. In order to distinguish between these states (solid, plastic and liquid) two standard tests
have been agreed upon, that indicate the consistency limits.
Porosity
An important basic parameter is the porosity n, defined as the ratio of the volume of the pore
space and the total volume of the soil,
n = Vp / Vt …….. 2
For most soils the porosity is a number between 0.30 and 0.45 (or, as it is usually expressed as a
percentage, between 30 % and 45 %). When the porosity is small the soil is called densely
packed, when the porosity is large it is loosely packed.
It may be interesting to calculate the porosities for two particular cases. The first case is a very
loose packing of spherical particles, in which the contacts between the spheres occur in three
mutually orthogonal directions only. This is called a cubic array of particles, see Figure 6. If the
diameter of the spheres is D, each sphere occupies a volume πD3/6 in space. The ratio of the
volume of the solids to the total volume then is Vp/Vt = π/6 = 0.5236, and the porosity of this
assembly thus is n = 0.4764. This is the loosest packing of spherical particles that seems
possible. Of course, it is not stable: any small disturbance will make the assembly collapse.
Figure 6: Cubic array Figure 7: Densest array
Degree of saturation
The pores of a soil may contain water and air. To describe the ratio of these two the degree of
saturation S is introduced as
S = Vw/Vp ………..3
Here Vw is the volume of the water, and Vp is the total volume of the pore space. The volume of
air (or any other gas) per unit pore space then is 1 − S. If S = 1 the soil is completely saturated, if
S = 0 the soil is perfectly dry.
Density
For the description of the density and the volumetric weight of a soil, the densities of the various
components are needed. The density of a substance is the mass per unit volume of that
substance. For water this is denoted by ρω, and its value is about 1000 kg/m3. Small deviations
from this value may occur due to temperature differences or variations in salt content. In soil
mechanics these are often of minor importance, and it is often considered accurate enough to
assume that
ρω = 1000 kg/m3 4
For the analysis of soil mechanics problems the density of air can usually be disregarded.
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The density of the solid particles depends upon the actual composition of the solid material. In
many cases, especially for quartz sands, its value is about
ρω = 2650 kg/m3 5
Stresses in Soils
As in other materials, stresses may act in soils as a result of an external load and the volumetric
weight of the material itself. Soils, however, have a number of properties that distinguish it from
other materials. Firstly, a special property is that soils can only transfer compressive normal
stresses, and no tensile stresses. Secondly, shear stresses can only be transmitted if they are
relatively small compared to the normal stresses. Furthermore it is characteristic of soils that
part of the stresses is transferred by the water in the pores.
Figure 8: Stresses
Because the normal stresses in soils usually are compressive stresses only, it is standard practice
to use a sign convention for the stresses that is just opposite to the sign convention of classical
continuum mechanics, namely such that compressive stresses are considered positive, and
tensile stresses are negative. The stress tensor will be denoted by σ.
The sign convention for the stress components is illustrated in Figure 8. Its formal definition is
that a stress component is positive when it acts in positive coordinate direction on a plane with
its outward normal in negative coordinate direction, or when it acts in negative direction on a
plane with its outward normal in positive direction. This means that the sign of all stress
components is just opposite to the sign that they would have in most books on continuum
mechanics or applied mechanics.
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Stresses in a Layer
Vertical stresses
In many places on earth the soil consists of practically horizontal layers. If such a soil does not
carry a local surface load, and if the groundwater is at rest, the vertical stresses can be
determined directly from a consideration of vertical equilibrium.
A simple case is homogeneous layers, completely saturated with water, see Figure 9. The
pressure in the water is determined by the location of the phreatic surface. This is defined as the
plane where the pressure in the groundwater is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
If the atmospheric pressure is taken as the zero level of pressures, as is usual, it follows that p =
0 at the phreatic surface. If there are no capillary effects in the soil, this is also the upper
boundary of the water, which is denoted as the groundwater table. In the example it is assumed
that the phreatic surface coincides with the soil surface, see Figure 9. The volumetric weight of
the saturated soil is supposed to be = 20 kN/m3. The vertical normal stress in the soil now
increases linearly with depth,
σzz = γd 6
This is a consequence of vertical equilibrium of a column of soil of height d. It has been
assumed that there are no shear stresses on the vertical planes bounding the column in horizontal
direction.
Figure 9: Stresses in a homogeneous layer
That seems to be a reasonable assumption if the terrain is homogeneous and very large, with a
single geological history. Often this is assumed, even when there are no data.
At a depth of 10 m, for instance, the vertical total stress is 200 kN/m2 = 200 kPa. Because the
groundwater is at rest, the pressures in the water will be hydrostatic. The soil can be considered
to be a container of water of very complex shape, bounded by all the particles, but that is
irrelevant for the actual pressure in the water. This means that the pressure in the water at a
depth d will be equal to the weight of the water in a column of unit area, see also Figure 9,
p = γwd 7
Where w is the volumetric weight of water, usually w = 10 kN/m3. It now follows that a depth
of 10 m the effective stress is 200 kPa- 100 kPa=100 kPa.
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Formally, the distribution of the effective stress can be found from the basic equation
σꞌzz = σzz – p or, with 6 and 7
σꞌzz = ( γ - γw )d 8
The vertical effective stresses appear to be linear with depth. That is a consequence of the linear
distribution of the total stresses and the pore pressures, with both of them being zero at the same
level, the soil surface. It should be noted that the vertical stress components, both the total stress
and the pore pressures, with both of them being zero at the same level, the soil surface.
Pore pressures
Soil is a porous material, consisting of particles that together constitute the grain skeleton. In the
pores of the grain skeleton a fluid may be present: usually water. The pore structure of all
normal soils is such that the pores are mutually connected. The water fills a space of very
complex form, but it constitutes a single continuous body. In this water body a pressure may be
transmitted, and the water may also flow through the pores. The pressure in the pore water is
denoted as the pore pressure.
Residual and Transported Soils
Soils which are formed by weathering of rocks may remain in position at the place of region. In
that case these are ‘Residual Soils’. These may get transported from the place of origin by
various agencies such as wind, water, ice, gravity, etc. In this case these are termed
‘‘Transported soil’’. Residual soils differ very much from transported soils in their
characteristics and engineering behaviour. The degree of disintegration may vary greatly
throughout a residual soil mass and hence, only a gradual transition into rock is to be expected.
An important characteristic of these soils is that the sizes of grains are not definite because of
the partially disintegrated condition. The grains may break into smaller grains with the
application of a little pressure.
Fig. 10 Diagrammatic representation of sedentary and transported soils

[http://www.depi.vic.gov.au/agriculture-and-food/dairy/pastures-management/fertilising-dairy-pastures/how-do-the-
properties-of-soils-affect-plant-growth]
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The residual soil profile may be divided into three zones: (i) the upper zone in which there is a
high degree of weathering and removal of material; (ii) the intermediate zone in which there is
some degree of weathering in the top portion and some deposition in the bottom portion; and
(iii) the partially weathered zone where there is the transition from the weathered material to the
unweathered parent rock. Residual soils tend to be more abundant in humid and warm zones
where conditions are favourable to chemical weathering of rocks and have sufficient vegetation
to keep the products of weathering from being easily transported as sediments. Residual soils
have not received much attention from geotechnical engineers because these are located
primarily in undeveloped areas.
Transported soils may be further subdivided, depending upon the transporting agency and the
place of deposition, as under:
 Alluvial soils. Soils transported by rivers and streams: Sedimentary clays.
 Aeolian soils. Soils transported by wind: loess.
 Glacial soils. Soils transported by glaciers: Glacial till.
 Lacustrine soils. Soils deposited in lake beds: Lacustrine silts and lacustrine clays.
 Marine soils. Soils deposited in sea beds: Marine silts and marine clays.
Broad classification of soils may be:
1. Coarse-grained soils, with average grain-size greater than 0.075 mm, e.g., gravels and sands.
2. Fine-grained soils, with average grain-size less than 0.075 mm, e.g., silts and clays.
These exhibit different properties and behaviour but certain general conclusions are possible
even with this categorisation. For example, fine-grained soils exhibit the property of
‘cohesion’—bonding caused by inter-molecular attraction while coarse-grained soils do not;
thus, the former may be said to be cohesive and the latter non-cohesive or cohesionless.
Structure of Soils
The ‘structure’ of a soil may be defined as the manner of arrangement and state of aggregation
of soil grains. In a broader sense, consideration of mineralogical composition, electrical
properties, orientation and shape of soil grains, nature and properties of soil water and the
interaction of soil water and soil grains, also may be included in the study of soil structure,
which is typical for transported or sediments soils. Structural composition of sedimented soils
influences, many of their important engineering properties such as permeability, compressibility
and shear strength. Hence, a study of the structure of soils is important.
The following types of structure are commonly studied:

 Single-grained structure
 Honey-comb structure
 Flocculent structure
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Soil Testing - In-situ Sampling and Preparation
In-situ Sampling and Preparation

The correct sampling, description and preparation of soil and soil mixtures is necessary if
subsequent tests are to be meaningful and provide representative results.
Various national and international Standards specify a range of procedures and equipment
necessary to ensure representative sampling.
With the use of simple hand tools, it is often possible to obtain detailed information regarding
the sub-surface structure and hence the likely engineering characteristics of the area under
investigation.
Soil Colour Charts
A standard identification of colour is an essential component of a soil-profile description. Soil
colour charts are widely used by civil engineers, agronomists, soil scientists, geologists and
archaeologists as a means of providing a standard colour reference.
Sample Mixers
A regular laboratory requirement is the mixing of samples with water and/or other constituents
to provide a homogeneous mixture prior to subsequent testing. The following ranges of mixers
provide an efficient means of mixing samples.
Hand Boring and Sampling
The items listed provide the engineer with an economic range of equipment for field survey
work. Using this equipment it is possible to obtain disturbed or undisturbed samples at
reasonable depths, subject to ground conditions. Most items may be inter-connected.
Soil and Gravel Auger Heads
These auger heads are suitable for boring in cohesive soils or sands and gravels. The soil augers
are constructed of heavy duty steel plates forming an open tube partly interlocked at the cutting
end. Gravel augers comprise a one piece steel casting with a spiral point and two plates designed
to close when lifting samples from the borehole. The Dutch Auger is of similar construction to
the Soil Augers and is particularly useful in very fine silt-clay sands.
Large Sample Splitter
This splitter is designed for the reduction of test samples which are too large in volume to be
conveniently handled. It divides samples so that half is representative of the original total
sample and handles material up to 6 inches in particle size.
The lever-actuated unit is constructed of heavy gauge welded steel with a hopper which holds up
to 1 ft3. The single splitter chute provides wide flexibility in sizes of opening and adjustment is
provided for chutes of 0.5, 1.5, 2, 3, 4 or 6 inch by positioning of the chute bars. Overall height
approximately is 1 metre. Hopper size 735 mm long x 480 mm wide (approx.).
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Sample Reduction
The reduction of particles within the soil mass is necessary for a number of tests. For most
purposes crushing of individual particles must be avoided. This reduction process is best
achieved using a porcelain mortar and rubber headed pestle.
Moisture Content
The new range of Speedy Moisture testers now includes an electronic balance and a heavy duty
plastic case. Designed for the most demanding on-site conditions, the new waterproof and
durable case offers high levels of protection. The new model comprises: Speedy Moisture tester,
electronic balance, beaker, cleaning cloth, cap, washer, scoop, steel pulverizing balls, and
cleaning brushes.
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Used to weigh a sample before placing it in the Speedy
Moisture Tester, the portable battery powered balance includes LCD display with a measuring
range 0 – 200 g x 0.1 g. The % moisture content of the sample is read directly from the
calibrated pressure gauge.
Soil Index Properties

Soil index properties are used extensively by engineers to discriminate between the different
kinds of soil within a broad category, e.g. clay will exhibit a wide range of engineering
properties depending upon its composition.
Classification tests to determine index properties will provide engineers with valuable
information when the results are compared against empirical data relative to the index properties
determined.
Determination of Liquid Limit
The condition of a soil can be altered by changing the moisture content. The liquid limit is the
empirically established moisture content at which a soil passes from the plastic to the liquid
state. Knowledge of the liquid limit allows the engineer to correlate several engineering
properties with the soil. Two main types of test are used. The Casagrande’s type (Cup), which
has been used for many years, and the cone penetrometer method, which is now the definitive
method specified in BS 1377.
Casagrande’s Method
 Satisfies International Standards

 Motorized version with integral blow counter available
Particular design features of the instrument include a positive action horizontal lead screw,
which is rapidly adjustable and rigidly fixes the height of cup in relation to the base during the
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test procedure. The cam mechanism and cup suspension assembly have been designed to
withstand constant use with minimum readjustment.
Cone Penetrometer Method
The method is fundamentally more satisfactory than the Casagrande’s method as it is essentially
a static test depending on the soil shear strength. The test is based on the relationship between
moisture content and the penetration of a cone into the soil sample under controlled conditions.
Determination of Plastic Limit

The plastic limit is defined as the lowest moisture content of a soil that will permit a sample to
be rolled into threads of 3 mm diameter without the threads breaking.
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The test procedure has remained, in principle, the same since 1932, when Casagrande’s
proposed to define the various limits by relating the moisture content characteristics of soil
under certain conditions. The apparatus required is simple yet effective.
The majority of the apparatus required for this test is standard laboratory equipment. For full
details see the Laboratory equipment section of the catalogue
Determination of Shrinkage Characteristics

When the water content of a fine-grained soil is reduced below the plastic limit, shrinkage of the
soil mass continues until the shrinkage limit is reached.
Shrinkage can be significant in clays but less so in silts and sands.
The equipment listed below enables the engineer to determine a number of important
parameters, including shrinkage ratio, volumetric shrinkage and linear shrinkage.
Determination of Density, Particle Density and Specific Gravity

The term density refers to mass per unit volume. The density of a mass of soil is of interest to
the engineer for a variety of reasons including the design of earthworks and foundations and in
slope stability analysis.
Particle density or specific gravity is a measure of the actual particles which make up the soil
mass and is defined as the ratio of the mass of the particles to the mass of the water they
displace.
Knowledge of the particle density is essential in relation to other soil tests. It is used when
calculating porosity and voids ratio and is particularly important when compaction and
consolidation properties are being investigated. The majority of apparatus used for the various
tests is general laboratory equipment.
Particle Size Distribution and Sand Equivalent Value
The analysis of soils by particle size provides a useful engineering classification system from
which a considerable amount of empirical data can be obtained.
Two separate and different procedures are used.
Sieving is used for gravel and sand size particles and sedimentation procedures are used for the
finer soils. For soil containing a range of coarse and fine particles it is usual to employ a
composite test of sieving and sedimentation procedures.
The Sand Equivalent Test serves as a rapid field test to show the relative proportions of clay-like
or plastic fines and dusts in granular soils and fine aggregates.
Constant Temperature Bath
Specially designed for the sedimentation testing of soils and other fine grained material, the bath
is supplied with a false bottom to assist in circulation of the bath liquid. Will accommodate six
Sedimentation Cylinders.
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Sedimentation by the Hydrometer Method
This method determines particle size distribution in a soil from the coarse sand size down to clay
size (about 2 μm). The test does not require the weighing accuracy necessary for pipette
sedimentation and is suitable for use in site laboratories.
Automatic Compaction of Soils
The time and effort required preparing specimens for compaction studies and other test methods
can often be costly and time-consuming. The use of an automatic, mechanical compactor will
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show considerable cost benefits over hand compaction methods. Two models meeting the
requirements of BS/EN and ASTM are available.
Automatic Compactor
 Pre-set blow pattern ensures even compaction
 Solid state controls for reliability and ease of maintenance
 Automatic re-setting of counter after completion of blow pattern
These machines automatically compact specimens eliminating the laborious hand compaction
method. The height and weight of the rammer are adjustable to suit test requirements.
An automatic blow pattern ensures optimum compaction for each layer of soil. The rammer
travels across the mould and the table rotates the mould in equal steps on a base that is
extremely stable. The number of blows per layer can be set at the beginning of the test.
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California Bearing Ratio
The California Bearing Ratio test, or CBR test as it is usually termed, is an empirical test first
developed in California, USA, for estimating the bearing value of highway sub-bases and sub-
grades. The test follows a standardized procedure and there is little difference between BS/EN
and ASTM tests. However, there are numerous ways of preparing samples and in this respect
American practice differs in detail from British practice.
This test can be performed in the laboratory on prepared samples or on location. It is important
to appreciate that this test, being of an empirical nature, is valid only for the application for
which it was developed, i.e. the design of highway base thicknesses.
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Laboratory Test
1. Water Content Determination
Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the water (moisture) content of soils. The water content is
the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the mass of “pore” or “free” water in a given mass of soil
to the mass of the dry soil solids.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 2216 - Standard Test Method for Laboratory Determination of Water (Moisture)
Content of Soil, Rock, and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures
Significance:
For many soils, the water content may be an extremely important index used for establishing the
relationship between the way a soil behaves and its properties. The consistency of a fine-grained
soil largely depends on its water content. The water content is also used in expressing the phase
relationships of air, water, and solids in a given volume of soil.
Equipment:
Drying oven, Balance, Moisture can, Gloves, Spatula.
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Test Procedure:
1. Record the moisture can and lid number. Determine and record the mass of empty, clean,
and dry moisture can with its lid (MC)
2. Place the moist soil in the moisture can and secure the lid. Determine and record the mass
of the moisture can (now containing the moist soil) with the lid (MCMS).
3. Remove the lid and place the moisture can (containing the moist soil) in the drying oven
that is set at 105 °C. Leave it in the oven overnight.
4. Remove the moisture can. Carefully but securely, replace the lid on the moisture can
using gloves, and allow it to cool to room temperature. Determine and record the mass of
the moisture can and lid (containing the dry soil) (MCDS).
5. Empty the moisture can and cleans the can and lid.
Data Analysis:
1. Determine the mass of soil solids.

MS = MCDS −MC
2. Determine the mass of pore water.
MW = MCMS −MCDS
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3. Determine the water content.
Example Data
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2. Organic Matter Determination
Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the organic content of soils. The organic content is the ratio,
expressed as a percentage, of the mass of organic matter in a given mass of soil to the mass of
the dry soil solids.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 2974 – Standard Test Methods for Moisture, Ash, and Organic Matter of Peat and
Organic Soils
Significance:
Organic matter influences many of the physical, chemical and biological properties of soils.
Some of the properties influenced by organic matter include soil structure, soil compressibility
and shear strength. In addition, it also affects the water holding capacity, nutrient contributions,
biological activity, and water and air infiltration rates.
Equipment:
Muffle furnace, Balance, Porcelain dish, Spatula, Tongs
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Test Procedure:
1. Determine and record the mass of an empty, clean, and dry porcelain dish (MP).
2. Place a part of or the entire oven-dried test specimen from the moisture content
experiment (Expt.1) in the porcelain dish and determine and record the mass of the dish
and soil specimen (MPDS).
3. Place the dish in a muffle furnace. Gradually increase the temperature in the furnace to
440oC. Leave the specimen in the furnace overnight.
4. Remove carefully the porcelain dish using the tongs (the dish is very hot), and allow it to
cool to room temperature. Determine and record the mass of the dish containing the ash
(burned soil) (MPA).
5. Empty the dish and clean it.
Data Analysis:
1. Determine the mass of the dry soil.
MD=MPDS-MP
2. Determine the mass of the ashes (burned) soil.
MA=MPA-MP
3. Determine the mass of organic matter
MO = MD - MA
4. Determine the organic matter (content).
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Example Data
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3. Density (Unit Weight) Determination
Purpose:
This lab is performed to determine the in-place density of undisturbed soil obtained by pushing
or drilling a thin-walled cylinder. The bulk density is the ratio of mass of moist soil to the
volume of the soil sample, and the dry density is the ratio of the mass of the dry soil to the
volume the soil sample.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 2937-00 – Standard Test for Density of Soil in Place by the Drive- Cylinder Method
Significance:
This test is used to determine the in-place density of soils. This test can also be used to
determine density of compacted soils used in the construction of structural fills, highway
embankments, or earth dams. This method is not recommended for organic or friable soils.
Equipment:
Straightedge, Balance, Moisture can, Drying oven, Vernier caliper
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Test Procedure:
1. Extrude the soil sample from the cylinder using the extruder.
2. Cut a representative soil specimen from the extruded sample.
3. Determine and record the length (L), diameter (D) and mass (Mt) of the soil specimen.
4. Determine and record the moisture content of the soil (w). (See Experiment 1)
5. (Note: If the soil is sandy or loose, weigh the cylinder and soil sample together. Measure
dimensions of the soil sample within the cylinder. Extrude and weigh the soil sample and
determine moisture content)
Data Analysis:
Determine the moisture content as in Experiment 1
Determine the volume of the soil sample
Calculate bulk density (ρt) of soil
Calculate dry density (ρd) of soil
Example Data
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4. Specific Gravity Determination
Purpose:
This lab is performed to determine the specific gravity of soil by using a pycnometer. Specific
gravity is the ratio of the mass of unit volume of soil at a stated temperature to the mass of the
same volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 854-00 – Standard Test for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by Water Pycnometer
Significance:
The specific gravity of a soil is used in the phase relationship of air, water, and solids in a given
volume of the soil.
Equipment:
Pycnometer, Balance, Vacuum pump, Funnel, Spoon
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Test Procedure:
1. Determine and record the weight of the empty clean and dry pycnometer, WP.
2. Place 10g of a dry soil sample (passed through the sieve No. 10) in the pycnometer.
Determine and record the weight of the pycnometer containing the dry soil, WPS.
3. Add distilled water to fill about half to three-fourth of the pycnometer. Soak the sample
for 10 minutes.
4. Apply a partial vacuum to the contents for 10 minutes, to remove the entrapped air.
5. Stop the vacuum and carefully remove the vacuum line from pycnometer.
6. Fill the pycnometer with distilled (water to the mark), clean the exterior surface of the
pycnometer with a clean, dry cloth. Determine the weight of the pycnometer and
contents, WB.
7. Empty the pycnometer and clean it. Then fill it with distilled water only (to the mark).
Clean the exterior surface of the pycnometer with a clean, dry cloth. Determine the
weight of the pycnometer and distilled water, WA.
8. Empty the pycnometer and clean it.
Data Analysis:
Calculate the specific gravity of the soil solids using the following formula:
Where:
W0 = weight of sample of oven-dry soil, g = WPS - WP
WA = weight of pycnometer filled with water
WB = weight of pycnometer filled with water and soil
Example Data
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5. Relative Density Determination
Purpose:
This lab is performed to determine the relative density of cohesionless, free-draining soils using
a vibrating table. The relative density of a soil is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the
difference between the maximum index void ratio and the field void ratio of a cohesionless,
free-draining soil; to the difference between its maximum and minimum index void ratios.
Standard References:
ASTM D 4254 – Standard Test Methods for Minimum Index Density and Unit Weight of Soils
and Calculation of Relative Density
ASTM D 4253 – Standard Test Methods for Maximum Index Density and Unit Weight of Soils
Using a Vibratory Table
Significance:
Relative density and percent compaction are commonly used for evaluating the state of
compactness of a given soil mass. The engineering properties, such as shear strength,
compressibility, and permeability, of a given soil depend on the level of compaction.
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Equipment:
Vibrating Table, Mold Assembly consisting of standard mold, guide sleeves, surcharge base-
plate, surcharge weights, surcharge base-plate handle, and dial-indicator gage, Balance, Scoop,
Straightedge
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Test Procedure:
1. Fill the mold with the soil (approximately 0.5 inch to 1 inch above the top of the mold) as
loosely as possible by pouring the soil using a scoop or pouring device (funnel). Spiraling
motion should be just sufficient to minimize particle segregation.
2. Trim off the excess soil level with the top by carefully trimming the soil surface with a
straightedge.
3. Determine and record the mass of the mold and soil. Then empty the mold (M1).
4. Again fill the mold with soil (do not use the same soil used in step 1) and level the
surface of the soil by using a scoop or pouring device (funnel) in order to minimize the
soil segregation. The sides of the mold may be struck a few times using a metal bar or
rubber hammer to settle the soil so that the surcharge base-plate can be easily placed into
position and there is no surge of air from the mold when vibration is initiated.
5. Place the surcharge base plate on the surface of the soil and twist it slightly several times
so that it is placed firmly and uniformly in contact with the surface of the soil. Remove
the surcharge base-plate handle.
6. Attach the mold to the vibrating table.
7. Determine the initial dial reading by inserting the dial indicator gauge holder in each of
the guide brackets with the dial gage stem in contact with the rim of the mold (at its
center) on the both sides of the guide brackets. Obtain six sets of dial indicator readings,
three on each side of each guide bracket. The average of these twelve readings is the
initial dial gage reading, Ri. Record Ri to the nearest 0.001 in. (0.025 mm).
8. Firmly attach the guide sleeve to the mold and lower the appropriate surcharge weight
onto the surcharge base-plate.
9. Vibrate the mold assembly and soil specimen for 8 min.
10. Determine and record the dial indicator gage readings as in step (7).
11. The average of these readings is the final dial gage reading, Rf.
12. Remove the surcharge base-plate from the mold and detach the mold from the vibrating
table.
13. Determine and record the mass of the mold and soil (M2)
14. Empty the mold and determine the weight of the mold.
15. Determine and record the dimensions of the mold (i.e., diameter and height) in order to
calculate the calibrated volume of the mold, Vc. Also, determine the thickness of the
surcharge base-plate, Tp.
Analysis:
1. Calculate the minimum index density (ρdmin) as follows:
Where
Ms1= mass of tested-dry soil = Mass of mold with soil placed loose – mass of mold
Vc= Calibrated volume of the mold
2. Calculate the maximum index density (ρdmax) as follows:

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Where
Ms2 = mass of tested-dry soil = Mass of mold with soil after vibration – Mass of mold
V = Volume of tested-dry soil = Vc – (Ac*H)
Where
Ac = the calibrated cross sectional area of the mold
H = │Rf -Ri│+ Tp
3. Calculate the maximum and the minimum-index void ratios as follows (use Gs value
determined from Experiment 4; ρw=1 g/cm3):
4. Calculate the relative density as follows:
[Calculate the void ratio of the natural state of the soil based on ρd (Experiment 3) and ρs=GS*ρw
(Gs determined from Experiment 4) as follows:
Example Data
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6. Atterberg Limits
Purpose:
This lab is performed to determine the plastic and liquid limits of a fine grained soil. The liquid
limit (LL) is arbitrarily defined as the water content, in percent, at which a part of soil in a
standard cup and cut by a groove of standard dimensions will flow together at the base of the
groove for a distance of 13 mm (1/2 in.) when subjected to 25 shocks from the cup being
dropped 10 mm in a standard liquid limit apparatus operated at a rate of two shocks per second.
The plastic limit (PL) is the water content, in percent, at which a soil can no longer be deformed
by rolling into 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) diameter threads without crumbling.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 4318 - Standard Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of
Soils
Significance:
The Swedish soil scientist Albert Atterberg originally defined seven “limits of consistency” to
classify fine-grained soils, but in current engineering practice only two of the limits, the liquid
and plastic limits, are commonly used. (A third limit, called the shrinkage limit, is used
occasionally.) The Atterberg limits are based on the moisture content of the soil. The plastic
limit is the moisture content that defines where the soil changes from a semi-solid to a plastic
(flexible) state. The liquid limit is the moisture content that defines where the soil changes from
a plastic to a viscous fluid state. The shrinkage limit is the moisture content that defines where
the soil volume will not reduce further if the moisture content is reduced. A wide variety of soil
engineering properties have been correlated to the liquid and plastic limits, and these Atterberg
limits are also used to classify a fine-grained soil according to the Unified Soil Classification
system or AASHTO system.
Equipment:
Liquid limit device, Porcelain (evaporating) dish, Flat grooving tool with gage, Eight moisture
cans, Balance, Glass plate, Spatula, Wash bottle filled with distilled water, Drying oven set at
105°C.
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Test Procedure:
Liquid Limit:
1. Take roughly 3/4 of the soil and place it into the porcelain dish. Assume that the soil was
previously passed through a No. 40 sieve, air-dried, and then pulverized. Thoroughly mix the
soil with a small amount of distilled water until it appears as a smooth uniform paste. Cover
the dish with cellophane to prevent moisture from escaping.
2. Weigh four of the empty moisture cans with their lids, and record the respective weights and
can numbers on the data sheet.
3. Adjust the liquid limit apparatus by checking the height of drop of the cup. The point on the
cup that comes in contact with the base should rise to a height of 10 mm. The block on the
end of the grooving tool is 10 mm high and should be used as a gage. Practice using the cup
and determine the correct rate to rotate the crank so that the cup drops approximately two
times per second.
4. Place a portion of the previously mixed soil into the cup of the liquid limit apparatus at the
point where the cup rests on the base. Squeeze the soil down to eliminate air pockets and
spread it into the cup to a depth of about 10 mm at its deepest point. The soil pat should form
an approximately horizontal surface (See Photo B).
5. Use the grooving tool carefully cut a clean straight groove down the center of the cup. The
tool should remain perpendicular to the surface of the cup as groove is being made. Use
extreme care to prevent sliding the soil relative to the surface of the cup (See Photo C).
6. Make sure that the base of the apparatus below the cup and the underside of the cup is clean
of soil. Turn the crank of the apparatus at a rate of approximately two drops per second and
count the number of drops, N, it takes to make the two halves of the soil pat come into
contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of 13 mm (1/2 in.)
7. (See Photo D). If the number of drops exceeds 50, then go directly to step eight and do not
record the number of drops, otherwise, record the number of drops on the data sheet.
8. Take a sample, using the spatula, from edge to edge of the soil pat. The sample should
include the soil on both sides of where the groove came into contact. Place the soil into a
moisture can cover it. Immediately weigh the moisture can containing the soil, record its
mass, remove the lid, and place the can into the oven. Leave the moisture can in the oven for
at least 16 hours. Place the soil remaining in the cup into the porcelain dish. Clean and dry
the cup on the apparatus and the grooving tool.
9. Remix the entire soil specimen in the porcelain dish. Add a small amount of distilled water
to increase the water content so that the number of drops required closing the groove
decrease.
10. Repeat steps six, seven, and eight for at least two additional trials producing successively
lower numbers of drops to close the groove.
11. One of the trials shall be for a closure requiring 25 to 35 drops, one for closure between 20
and 30 drops, and one trial for a closure requiring 15 to 25 drops. Determine the water
content from each trial by using the same method used in the first laboratory. Remember to
use the same balance for all weighing.
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Plastic Limit:
1. Weigh the remaining empty moisture cans with their lids, and record the respective weights
and can numbers on the data sheet.
2. Take the remaining 1/4 of the original soil sample and add distilled water until the soil is at a
consistency where it can be rolled without sticking to the hands.
3. Form the soil into an ellipsoidal mass (See Photo F). Roll the mass between the palm or the
fingers and the glass plate (See Photo G). Use sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a
thread of uniform diameter by using about 90 strokes per minute. (A stroke is one complete
motion of the hand forward and back to the starting position.) The thread shall be deformed
so that its diameter reaches 3.2 mm (1/8 in.), taking no more than two minutes.
4. When the diameter of the thread reaches the correct diameter, break the thread into several
pieces. Knead and reform the pieces into ellipsoidal masses and re-roll them. Continue this
alternate rolling, gathering together, kneading and re-rolling until the thread crumbles under
the pressure required for rolling and can no longer be rolled into a 3.2 mm diameter thread
(See Photo H).
5. Gather the portions of the crumbled thread together and place the soil into moisture can, and
then cover it. If the can does not contain at least
6. 6 grams of soil, add soil to the can from the next trial (See Step 6). Immediately weigh the
moisture can containing the soil, record it’s mass, remove the lid, and place the can into the
oven. Leave the moisture can in the oven for at least 16 hours.
7. Repeat steps three, four, and five at least two more times. Determine the water content from
each trial by using the same method used in the first laboratory. Remember to use the same
balance for all weighing.
Analysis:
Liquid Limit:
1. Calculate the water content of each of the liquid limit moisture cans after they have been in
the oven for at least 16 hours.
2. Plot the number of drops, N, (on the log scale) versus the water content (w). Draw the best-
fit straight line through the plotted points and determine the liquid limit (LL) as the water
content at 25 drops.
Plastic Limit:
1. Calculate the water content of each of the plastic limit moisture cans after they have been in
the oven for at least 16 hours.
2. Compute the average of the water contents to determine the plastic limit, PL. Check to see if
the difference between the water contents is greater than the acceptable range of two results
(2.6 %).
3. Calculate the plasticity index, PI=LL-PL. Report the liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity
index to the nearest whole number, omitting the percent designation.
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Example Data
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7. Grain Size Distribution (Sieve Analysis and Hydrometer Analysis)
Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the percentage of different grain sizes contained within a
soil. The mechanical or sieve analysis is performed to determine the distribution of the coarser,
larger-sized particles, and the hydrometer method is used to determine the distribution of the
finer particles.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 422 - Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils
Significance:
The distribution of different grain sizes affects the engineering properties of soil. Grain size
analysis provides the grain size distribution, and it is required in classifying the soil.
Equipment:
Balance, Set of sieves, Cleaning brush, Sieve shaker, Mixer (blender), 152H Hydrometer,
Sedimentation cylinder, Control cylinder, Thermometer, Beaker, Timing device.
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Test Procedure:
Sieve Analysis:
1. Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in the analysis.
2. Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.
3. Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the ascending order of sieve
numbers (#4 sieves at top and #200 sieves at bottom). Place the pan below #200 sieves.
Carefully pour the soil sample into the top sieve and place the cap over it.
4. Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10 minutes.
5. Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record the weight of each sieve
with its retained soil. In addition, remember to weigh and record the weight of the bottom
pan with its retained fine soil.
Hydrometer Analysis:
1. Take the fine soil from the bottom pan of the sieve set, place it into a beaker, and add 125
mL of the dispersing agent (sodium hexametaphosphate (40 g/L)) solution. Stir the mixture
until the soil is thoroughly wet. Let the soil soak for at least ten minutes.
2. While the soil is soaking, add 125mL of dispersing agent into the control cylinder and fill it
with distilled water to the mark. Take the reading at the top of the meniscus formed by the
hydrometer stem and the control solution. A reading less than zero is recorded as a negative
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3. (-) correction and a reading between zero and sixty is recorded as a positive (+) correction.
This reading is called the zero correction. The meniscus correction is the difference between
the top of the meniscus and the level of the solution in the control jar (Usually about +1).
4. Shake the control cylinder in such a way that the contents are mixed thoroughly. Insert the
hydrometer and thermometer into the control cylinder and note the zero correction and
temperature respectively.
5. Transfer the soil slurry into a mixer by adding more distilled water, if necessary, until mixing
cup is at least half full. Then mix the solution for a period of two minutes.
6. Immediately transfer the soil slurry into the empty sedimentation cylinder. Add distilled
water up to the mark.
7. Cover the open end of the cylinder with a stopper and secure it with the palm of your hand.
Then turn the cylinder upside down and back upright for a period of one minute. (The
cylinder should be inverted approximately 30 times during the minute.)
8. Set the cylinder down and record the time. Remove the stopper from the cylinder. After an
elapsed time of one minute and forty seconds, very slowly and carefully insert the
hydrometer for the first reading. (Note: It should take about ten seconds to insert or remove
the hydrometer to minimize any disturbance, and the release of the hydrometer should be
made as close to the reading depth as possible to avoid excessive bobbing).
9. The reading is taken by observing the top of the meniscus formed by the suspension and the
hydrometer stem. The hydrometer is removed slowly and placed back into the control
cylinder. Very gently spin it in control cylinder to remove any particles that may have
adhered.
10. Take hydrometer readings after elapsed time of 2 and 5, 8, 15, 30, 60 minutes and 24 hours.
Data Analysis:
Sieve Analysis:
1. Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve by subtracting the weight of the empty sieve
from the mass of the sieve + retained soil, and record this mass as the weight retained on the
data sheet. The sum of these retained masses should be approximately equals the initial mass
of the soil sample. A loss of more than two percent is unsatisfactory.
2. Calculate the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the weight retained on each sieve by
the original sample mass.
3. Calculate the percent passing (or percent finer) by starting with 100 percent and subtracting
the percent retained on each sieve as a cumulative procedure.
a. For example: Total mass = 500 g
Mass retained on No. 4 sieve = 9.7 g
Mass retained on No. 10 sieve = 39.5 g
b. For the No.4 sieve:
Quantity passing = Total mass - Mass retained = 500 - 9.7 = 490.3 g
The percent retained is calculated as;
% retained = Mass retained/Total mass = (9.7/500) X 100 = 1.9 %
From this, the % passing = 100 - 1.9 = 98.1 %
c. For the No. 10 sieve:
Quantity passing = Mass arriving - Mass retained = 490.3 - 39.5 = 450.8 g
% Retained = (39.5/500) X 100 = 7.9 %
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% Passing = 100 - 1.9 - 7.9 = 90.2 %
(Alternatively, use % passing = % Arriving - % Retained
d. For No. 10 sieve = 98.1 - 7.9 = 90.2 %)
4. Make a semilogarithmic plot of grain size vs. percent finer.
5. Compute Cc and Cu for the soil.
Hydrometer Analysis:
1. Apply meniscus correction to the actual hydrometer reading.
2. From Table 1, obtain the effective hydrometer depth L in cm (for meniscus corrected
reading).
3. For known Gs of the soil (if not known, assume 2.65 for this lab purpose), obtain the value of
K from Table 2.
4. Calculate the equivalent particle diameter by using the following formula:
Where t is in minutes, and D is given in mm.

5. Determine the temperature correction CT from Table 3.
6. Determine correction factor “a” from Table 4 using Gs.
7. Calculate corrected hydrometer reading as follows:
Rc = RACTUAL - zero correction + CT
8. Calculate percent finer as follows:
Where WS is the weight of the soil sample in grams

9. Adjusted percent fines as follows:
F200 = % finer of #200 sieve as a percent

10. Plot the grain size curve D versus the adjusted percent finer on the semilogarithmic sheet.
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Table below show the values of Effective Depth Based on Hydrometer and Sedimentation
Cylinder of Specific Sizes
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Table below show the Values of k for Use in Equation for Computing Diameter of Particle in
Hydrometer Analysis
Table below show the Temperature Correction Factors CT
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Table below show Correction Factors a for Unit Weight of Solids
Example Data
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8. Visual Classification
Purpose:
Visually classify the soils.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 2488 - Standard Practice for Description and Identification of Soils (Visual - Manual
Procedure)
Significance:
The first step in any geotechnical engineering project is to identify and describe the subsoil
condition. For example, as soon as a ground is identified as gravel, engineer can immediately
form some ideas on the nature of problems that might be encountered in a tunneling project. In
contrast, a soft clay ground is expected to lead to other types of design and construction
considerations. Therefore, it is useful to have a systematic procedure for identification of soils
even in the planning stages of a project. Soils can be classified into two general categories: (1)
coarse grained soils and (2) fine grained soils. Examples of coarse-grained soils are gravels and
sands. Examples of fine-grained soils are silts and clays. Procedures for visually identifying
these two general types of soils are described in the following sections.
Equipment:
Magnifying glass (optional)
Identification Procedure:
a. Identify the color (e.g. brown, gray, brownish gray), odor (if any) and texture (coarse or fine-
grained) of soil.
b. Identify the major soil constituent (>50% by weight) using Table 1 as coarse gravel, fine
gravel, coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand, or fines.
c. Estimate percentages of all other soil constituents using Table 1 and the following terms:
Trace - 0 to 10% by weight
Little - 10 to 20%
Some - 20 to 30%
And - 30 to 50%
(Examples: trace fine gravel, little silt, some clay)
d. If the major soil constituent is sand or gravel:
Identify particle distribution. Describe as well graded or poorly graded. Well-graded soil
consists of particle sizes over a wide range. Poorly graded soil consists of particles which are all
about the same size. Identify particle shape (angular, sub-angular, rounded, sub-rounded) using
Figure 1 and Table 2.
e. If the major soil constituents are fines, perform the following tests:
Dry strength test: Mold a sample into 1/8" size ball and let it dry. Test the strength of the
dry sample by crushing it between the fingers. Describe the strength as none, low,
medium, high or very high depending on the results of the test as shown in Table 3(a).
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Dilatancy Test: Make a sample of soft putty consistency in your palm. Then observe the
reaction during shaking, squeezing (by closing hand) and vigorous tapping. The reaction
is rapid, slow or none according to the test results given in Table 3(b). During dilatancy
test, vibration densities the silt and water appears on the surface. Now on squeezing,
shear stresses are applied on the densified silt. The dense silt has a tendency for volume
increase or dilatancy due to shear stresses. So the water disappears from the surface.
Moreover, silty soil has a high permeability, so the water moves quickly. In clay, we see
no change, no shiny surface, in other words, no reaction.
Plasticity (or Toughness) Test: Roll the samples into a thread about 1/8" in diameter.
Fold the thread and reroll it repeatedly until the thread crumbles at a diameter of 1/8".
Note (a) the pressure required to roll the thread when it is near crumbling, (b) whether it
can support its own weight, (c) whether it can be molded back into a coherent mass, and
(d) whether it is tough during kneading. Describe the plasticity and toughness according
to the criteria in Tables 3(c) and 3(d). A low to medium toughness and non-plastic to low
plasticity is the indication that the soil is silty; otherwise the soil is clayey.
Based on dry strength, dilatancy and toughness, determine soil symbol based on Table 4.
f. Identify moisture condition (dry, moist, wet or saturated) using Table 5.

g. Record visual classification of the soil in the following order: color, major constituent, minor
constituents, particle distribution and particle shape (if major constituent is coarse-grained),
plasticity (if major constituent is fine-grained), moisture content, soil symbol (if major
constituent is fine-grained).
Examples of coarse-grained soils:
Soil 1: Brown fine gravel, some coarse to fine sand, trace silt, trace clay, well graded,
angular, dry.
Soil 2: Gray coarse sand, trace medium to fine sand, some silt, trace clay, poorly graded,
rounded, saturated.
Examples of fine-grained soils:
Soil A: Brown lean clay, trace coarse to fine sand, medium plasticity, moist, CL.
Soil B: Gray clayey silt, trace fine sand, non-plastic, saturated, ML.
Laboratory Exercise:
You will be given ten different soil samples. Visually classify these soils. Record all information
on the attached forms.
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9. Moisture-Density Relationship (Compaction)
Purpose:
This laboratory test is performed to determine the relationship between the moisture content and
the dry density of a soil for a specified compactive effort. The compactive effort is the amount
of mechanical energy that is applied to the soil mass. Several different methods are used to
compact soil in the field, and some examples include tamping, kneading, vibration, and static
load compaction. This laboratory will employ the tamping or impact compaction method using
the type of equipment and methodology developed by R. R. Proctor in 1933, therefore, the test
is also known as the Proctor test. Two types of compaction tests are routinely performed: (1)
The Standard Proctor Test, and (2) The Modified Proctor Test. Each of these tests can be
performed in three different methods as outlined in the attached Table 1. In the Standard Proctor
Test, the soil is compacted by a 5.5 lb hammer falling a distance of one foot into a soil filled
mold. The mold is filled with three equal layers of soil, and each layer is subjected to 25 drops
of the hammer. The Modified Proctor Test is identical to the Standard Proctor Test except it
employs, a 10 lb hammer falling a distance of 18 inches, and uses five equal layers of soil
instead of three. There are two types of compaction molds used for testing. The smaller type is 4
inches in diameter and has a volume of about 1/30 ft3 (944 cm3), and the larger type is 6 inches in
diameter and has a volume of about 1/13.333 ft3 (2123 cm3). If the larger mold is used each soil
layer must receive 56 blows instead of 25 (See Table 1).
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Standard Reference:
ASTM D 698 - Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using
Standard Effort (12,400 ft-lbs/ft3 (600 KN-m/m3)) ASTM D 1557 - Standard Test Methods for
Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Modified Effort (56,000 ft-lbs/ft3 (2,700
KN-m/m3))
Significance:
Mechanical compaction is one of the most common and cost effective means of stabilizing soils.
An extremely important task of geotechnical engineers is the performance and analysis of field
control tests to assure that compacted fills are meeting the prescribed design specifications.
Design specifications usually state the required density (as a percentage of the “maximum”
density measured in a standard laboratory test), and the water content. In general, most
engineering properties, such as the strength, stiffness, resistance to shrinkage, and
imperviousness of the soil, will improve by increasing the soil density. The optimum water
content is the water content that results in the greatest density for a specified compactive effort.
Compacting at water contents higher than (wet of ) the optimum water content results in a
relatively dispersed soil structure (parallel particle orientations) that is weaker, more ductile, less
pervious, softer, more susceptible to shrinking, and less susceptible to swelling than soil
compacted dry of optimum to the same density. The soil compacted lower than (dry of) the
optimum water content typically results in a flocculated soil structure (random particle
orientations) that has the opposite characteristics of the soil compacted wet of the optimum
water content to the same density.
Equipment:
Molds, Manual rammer, Extruder, Balance, Drying oven, Mixing pan, Trowel, #4 sieve,
Moisture cans, Graduated cylinder, Straight Edge.
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Test Procedure:
1. Depending on the type of mold you are using obtain a sufficient quantity of air-dried soil in
large mixing pan. For the 4-inch mold take approximately 10 lbs, and for the 6-inch mold take
roughly 15 lbs. pulverize the soil and run it through the # 4 sieve.
2. Determine the weight of the soil sample as well as the weight of the compaction mold with its
base (without the collar) by using the balance and record the weights.
3. Compute the amount of initial water to add by the following method:
(a) Assume water content for the first test to be 8 percent.
(b) Compute water to add from the following equation:
Where “water to add” and the “soil mass” are in grams. Remember that a gram of water is equal
to approximately one milliliter of water.
4. Measure out the water, add it to the soil, and then mix it thoroughly into the soil using the
trowel until the soil gets a uniform color (See Photos B and C).
5. Assemble the compaction mold to the base, place some soil in the mold and compact the soil
in the number of equal layers specified by the type of compaction method employed (See Photos
D and E). The number of drops of the rammer per layer is also dependent upon the type of mold
used (See Table 1). The drops should be applied at a uniform rate not exceeding around 1.5
seconds per drop, and the rammer should provide uniform coverage of the specimen surface. Try
to avoid rebound of the rammer from the top of the guide sleeve.
6. The soil should completely fill the cylinder and the last compacted layer must extend slightly
above the collar joint. If the soil is below the collar joint at the completion of the drops, the test
point must be repeated. (Note: For the last layer, watch carefully, and add more soil after about
10 drops if it appears that the soil will be compacted below the collar joint.)
7. Carefully remove the collar and trim off the compacted soil so that it is completely even with
the top of the mold using the trowel. Replace small bits of soil that may fall out during the
trimming process (See Photo F).
8. Weigh the compacted soil while it’s in the mold and to the base, and record the mass (See
Photo G). Determine the wet mass of the soil by subtracting the weight of the mold and base.
9. Remove the soil from the mold using a mechanical extruder (See
Photo H) and take soil moisture content samples from the top and bottom of the specimen (See
Photo I). Fill the moisture cans with soil and determine the water content.
10. Place the soil specimen in the large tray and break up the soil until it appears visually as if it
will pass through the # 4 sieve, add 2 percent more water based on the original sample mass, and
re-mix as in step 4. Repeat steps 5 through 9 until, based on wet mass, a peak value is reached
followed by two slightly lesser compacted soil masses.
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Analysis:
1. Calculate the moisture content of each compacted soil specimen by using the average of the
two water contents.
2. Compute the wet density in grams per cm3 of the compacted soil sample by dividing the wet
mass by the volume of the mold used.
3. Compute the dry density using the wet density and the water content determined in step 1.
Use the following formula:
Where: w = moisture content in percent divided by 100, and ρ = wet density in grams per cm3.
4. Plot the dry density values on the y-axis and the moisture contents on the x-axis. Draw a
smooth curve connecting the plotted points.
5. On the same graph draw a curve of complete saturation or “zero air voids curve”. The values
of dry density and corresponding moisture contents for plotting the curve can be computed from
the following equation:
Where:
ρd = dry density of soil grams per cm3
Gs = specific gravity of the soil being tested (assume 2.70 if not given)
ρw = density of water in grams per cm3 (approximately1 g/cm3)
wsat = moisture content in percent for complete saturation.
Example Calculations:
Gs=2.7 (assumed)
ρw=1.0 g/cm3
6. Identify and report the optimum moisture content and the maximum dry density. Make sure
that you have recorded the method of compaction used (e.g., Standard Proctor, Method A) on
data sheet.
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Example Data
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10.Permeability (Hydraulic Conductivity) Test Constant Head Method
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Purpose:
The purpose of this test is to determine the permeability (hydraulic conductivity) of a sandy soil
by the constant head test method. There are two general types of permeability test methods that
are routinely performed in the laboratory: (1) the constant head test method, and (2) the falling
head test method. The constant head test method is used for permeable soils (k>10-4 cm/s) and
the falling head test is mainly used for less permeable soils (k<10-4 cm/s).
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 2434 - Standard Test Method for Permeability of Granular Soils (Constant Head)
(Note: The Falling Head Test Method is not standardized)
Significance:
Permeability (or hydraulic conductivity) refers to the ease with which water can flow through a
soil. This property is necessary for the calculation of seepage through earth dams or under sheet
pile walls, the calculation of the seepage rate from waste storage facilities (landfills, ponds, etc.),
and the calculation of the rate of settlement of clayey soil deposits.
Equipment:
Permeameter, Tamper, Balance, Scoop, 1000 mL Graduated cylinders, Watch (or Stopwatch),
Thermometer, Filter paper.
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Test Procedure:
a. Measure the initial mass of the pan along with the dry soil (M1).
b. Remove the cap and upper chamber of the permeameter by unscrewing the knurled cap nuts
and lifting them off the tie rods. Measure the inside diameter of upper and lower chambers.
Calculate the average inside diameter of the permeameter (D).
c. Place one porous stone on the inner support ring in the base of the chamber then place a filter
paper on top of the porous stone (see Photo C).
d. Mix the soil with a sufficient quantity of distilled water to prevent the segregation of particle
sizes during placement into the permeameter. Enough water should be added so that the
mixture may flow freely (see Photo B).
e. Using a scoop, pour the prepared soil into the lower chamber using a circular motion to fill it
to a depth of 1.5 cm. A uniform layer should be formed.
f. Use the tamping device to compact the layer of soil. Use approximately ten rams of the
tamper per layer and provide uniform coverage of the soil surface. Repeat the compaction
procedure until the soil is within 2 cm. of the top of the lower chamber section (see Photo D).
g. Replace the upper chamber section, and don’t forget the rubber gasket that goes between the
chamber sections. Be careful not to disturb the soil that has already been compacted.
Continue the placement operation until the level of the soil is about 2 cm. below the rim of
the upper chamber. Level the top surface of the soil and place a filter paper and then the
upper porous stone on it (see Photo E).
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h. Place the compression spring on the porous stone and replace the chamber cap and its sealing
gasket. Secure the cap firmly with the cap nuts (see Photo F).
i. Measure the sample length at four locations around the circumference of the permeameter
and compute the average length. Record it as the sample length.
j. Keep the pan with remaining soil in the drying oven.
k. Adjust the level of the funnel to allow the constant water level in it to remain a few inches
above the top of the soil.
l. Connect the flexible tube from the tail of the funnel to the bottom outlet of the permeameter
and keep the valves on the top of the permeameter open (see Photo G).
m. Place tubing from the top outlet to the sink to collect any water that may come out (see Photo
G).
n. Open the bottom valve and allow the water to flow into the permeameter.
o. As soon as the water begins to flow out of the top control (deairing) valve, close the control
valve, letting water flow out of the outlet for some time.
p. Close the bottom outlet valve and disconnect the tubing at the bottom. Connect the funnel
tubing to the top side port (see Photo H).
q. Open the bottom outlet valve and raise the funnel to a convenient height to get a reasonable
steady flow of water.
r. Allow adequate time for the flow pattern to stabilize (see Photo I).
s. Measure the time it takes to fill a volume of 750 - 1000 mL using the graduated cylinder, and
then measure the temperature of the water. Repeat this process three times and compute the
average time, average volume, and average temperature. Record the values as t, Q, and T,
respectively (see Photo I).
t. Measure the vertical distance between the funnel head level and the chamber outflow level,
and record the distance as h.
u. Repeat step 17 and 18 with different vertical distances.
v. Remove the pan from the drying oven and measure the final mass of the pan along with the
dry soil (M2).
Analysis:
1. Calculate the permeability, using the following equation:
Where:
KT = coefficient of permeability at temperature T, cm/sec.
L = length of specimen in centimeters
t = time for discharge in seconds
Q = volume of discharge in cm3 (assume 1 mL = 1 cm3)
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h = hydraulic head difference across length L, in cm of water; or it is equal to the vertical
distance between the constant funnel head level and the chamber overflow level.
2. The viscosity of the water changes with temperature. As temperature increases viscosity
decreases and the permeability increases. The coefficient of permeability is standardized at
20°C, and the permeability at any temperature T is related to K20 by the following ratio:
Where:
ηT and η20 are the viscosities at the temperature T of the test and at 20°C, respectively. From
Table 1 obtain the viscosities and compute K20.
3. Compute the volume of soil used from: V = LA.
4. Compute the mass of dry soil used in permeameter (M) = initial mass - final mass:
M = M1-M2
5. Compute the dry density (ρd) of soil
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Example Data
HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY TEST CONSTANT HEAD METHOD DATA SHEET
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11. Consolidation
Consolidation is a process by which soils decrease in volume. It occurs when stress is applied to
a soil that causes the soil particles to pack together more tightly, therefore reducing volume.
When this occurs in a soil that is saturated with water, water will be squeezed out of the soil.
The magnitude of consolidation can be predicted by many different methods. In the Classical
Method, developed by Karl Terzaghi, soils are tested with an oedometer test to determine their
compression index. This can be used to predict the amount of consolidation.
When stress is removed from a consolidated soil, the soil will rebound, regaining some of the
volume it had lost in the consolidation process. If the stress is reapplied, the soil will consolidate
again along a recompression curve, defined by the recompression index. The soil which had its
load removed is considered to be overconsolidated. This is the case for soils which have
previously had glaciers on them. The highest stress that it has been subjected to is termed the
preconsolidation stress. A soil which is currently experiencing its highest stress is said to be
normally consolidated.
Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the magnitude and rate of volume decrease that a laterally
confined soil specimen undergoes when subjected to different vertical pressures. From the
measured data, the consolidation curve (pressure-void ratio relationship) can be plotted. This
data is useful in determining the compression index, the recompression index and the
preconsolidation pressure (or maximum past pressure) of the soil. In addition, the data obtained
can also be used to determine the coefficient of consolidation and the coefficient of secondary
compression of the soil.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 2435 - Standard Test Method for One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils
Significance:
The consolidation properties determined from the consolidation test are used to estimate the
magnitude and the rate of both primary and secondary consolidation settlement of a structure or
an earth-fill. Estimates of this type are of key importance in the design of engineered structures
and the evaluation of their performance.
Equipment:
Consolidation device (including ring, porous stones, water reservoir, and load plate), Dial gauge
(0.0001 inch = 1.0 on dial), Sample trimming device, glass plate, Metal straight edge, Clock,
Moisture can, Filter paper.
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Engineering Properties of Soils Based on Laboratory Testing by Prof. Krishna Reddy, UIC
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Test Procedure:
1. Weigh the empty consolidation ring together with glass plate.

2. Measure the height (h) of the ring and its inside diameter (d).
3. Extrude the soil sample from the sampler, generally thin-walled Shelby tube. Determine
the initial moisture content and the specific gravity of the soil as per Experiments 1 and 4,
respectively (Use the data sheets from these experiments to record all of the data).
4. Cut approximately a three-inch long sample. Place the sample on the consolidation ring
and cut the sides of the sample to be approximately the same as the outside diameter of
the ring. Rotate the ring and pare off the excess soil by means of the cutting tool so that
the sample is reduced to the same inside diameter of the ring. It is important to keep the
cutting tool in the correct horizontal position during this process.
5. As the trimming progresses, press the sample gently into the ring and continue until the
sample protrudes a short distance through the bottom of the ring. Be careful throughout
the trimming process to insure that there is no void space between the sample and the
ring.
6. Turn the ring over carefully and remove the portion of the soil protruding above the ring.
Using the metal straight edge, cut the soil surface flush with the surface of the ring.
Remove the final portion with extreme care.
7. Place the previously weighed Saran-covered glass plate on the freshly cut surface, turn
the ring over again, and carefully cut the other end in a similar manner.
8. Weigh the specimen plus ring plus glass plate.
9. Carefully remove the ring with specimen from the Saran-covered glass plate and peel the
Saran from the specimen surface. Center the porous stones that have been soaking, on the
top and bottom surfaces of the test specimen. Place the filter papers between porous
stones and soil specimen. Press very lightly to make sure that the stones adhere to the
sample. Lower the assembly carefully into the base of the water reservoir. Fill the water
reservoir with water until the specimen is completely covered and saturated.
10. Being careful to prevent movement of the ring and porous stones, place the load plate
centrally on the upper porous stone and adjust the loading device.
11. Adjust the dial gauge to a zero reading.
12. With the toggle switch in the down (closed) position, set the pressure gauge dial (based
on calibration curve) to result in an applied pressure of 0.5 tsf (tons per square foot).
13. Simultaneously, open the valve (by quickly lifting the toggle switch to the up (open)
position) and start the timing clock.
14. Record the consolidation dial readings at the elapsed times given on the data sheet.
15. Repeat Steps 11 to 13 for different preselected pressures (generally includes loading
pressures of 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 8.0, and 16.0 tsf and unloading pressures of 8.0, 4.0, 2.0, 1.0
and 0.5 tsf)
16. At the last elapsed time reading, record the final consolidation dial reading and time,
release the load, and quickly disassemble the consolidation device and remove the
specimen. Quickly but carefully blot the surfaces dry with paper toweling. (The specimen
will tend to absorb water after the load is released.)
17. Place the specimen and ring on the Saran-covered glass plate and, once again, weigh
them together.
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18. Weigh an empty large moisture can and lid.
19. Carefully remove the specimen from the consolidation ring, being sure not to lose too
much soil, and place the specimen in the previously weighed moisture can. Place the
moisture can containing the specimen in the oven and let it dry for 12 to 18 hours.
20. Weigh the dry specimen in the moisture can.
Analysis:
1. Calculate the initial water content and specific gravity of the soil.
2. For each pressure increment, construct a semilog plot of the consolidation dial readings
versus the log time (in minutes). Determine D0, D50, D100, and the coefficient of
consolidation (cv) using Casagrande’s logarithm of time fitting method. See example
data. Also calculate the coefficient of secondary compression based on these plots.
3. Calculate the void ratio at the end of primary consolidation for each pressure increment
(see example data). Plot log pressure versus void ratio. Based on this plot, calculate
compression index, recompression index and preconsolidation pressure (maximum past
pressure).
4. Summarize and discuss the results.
Example Data
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Final Results:
Compression Index (Cc) = 0.11

Recompression Index (Cr) = 0.013
Preconsolidation pressure (Pc) or Maximum past pressure (σvmax) = 3.5 tsf
Coefficient of consolidation (Cv)= 1.54x10-2 to 9.01x10-3 in2/min (depends on the pressure)
Coefficient of secondary compression (Cα) = 0.001
(It is the slope of time vs settlement curve beyond the end of primary consolidation)
Consolidation Test
Data Sheets
Date Tested:
Tested By:
Project Name:
Sample Number:
Sample Description:
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Consolidation Test Load Device
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Consolidation Test Summary Table
Void Ratio Vs. Effective Stress
Sample Calculations for Consolidation Test
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12. Direct Shear Test
Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the consolidated-drained shear strength of a sandy to silty
soil. The shear strength is one of the most important engineering properties of a soil, because it
is required whenever a structure is dependent on the soil’s shearing resistance. The shear
strength is needed for engineering situations such as determining the stability of slopes or cuts,
finding the bearing capacity for foundations, and calculating the pressure exerted by a soil on a
retaining wall.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 3080 - Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils Under Consolidated
Drained Conditions
Significance:
The direct shear test is one of the oldest strength tests for soils. In this laboratory, a direct shear
device will be used to determine the shear strength of a cohesionless soil (i.e. angle of internal
friction (f)). From the plot of the shear stress versus the horizontal displacement, the maximum
shear stress is obtained for a specific vertical confining stress. After the experiment is run
several times for various vertical-confining stresses, a plot of the maxi mum shear stresses
versus the vertical (normal) confining stresses for each of the tests is produced. From the plot, a
straight-line approximation of the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope curve can be drawn, f may be
determined, and, for cohesionless soils (c = 0), the shear strength can be computed from the
following equation:
s = s tanf
Equipment:
Direct shear device, Load and deformation dial gauges, Balance.
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Test Procedure:
1. Weigh the initial mass of soil in the pan.
2. Measure the diameter and height of the shear box. Compute 15% of the diameter in
millimeters.
3. Carefully assemble the shear box and place it in the direct shear device. Then place a porous
stone and a filter paper in the shear box.
4. Place the sand into the shear box and level off the top. Place a filter paper, a porous stone,
and a top plate (with ball) on top of the sand
5. Remove the large alignment screws from the shear box! Open the gap between the shear box
halves to approximately 0.025 in. using the gap screws, and then back out the gap screws.
6. Weigh the pan of soil again and compute the mass of soil used.
7. Complete the assembly of the direct shear device and initialize the three gauges (Horizontal
displacement gage, vertical displacement gage and shear load gage) to zero.
8. Set the vertical load (or pressure) to a predetermined value, and then close bleeder valve and
apply the load to the soil specimen by raising the toggle switch.
9. Start the motor with selected speed so that the rate of shearing is at a selected constant rate,
and take the horizontal displacement gauge, vertical displacement gage and shear load gage
readings. Record the readings on the data sheet. (Note: Record the vertical displacement
gage readings, if needed).
10. Continue taking readings until the horizontal shear load peaks and then falls, or the
horizontal displacement reaches 15% of the diameter.
Analysis:
1. Calculate the density of the soil sample from the mass of soil and volume of the shear box.
2. Convert the dial readings to the appropriate length and load units and enter the values on the
data sheet in the correct locations. Compute the sample area A, and the vertical (Normal)
stress sv.
3. Where: Nv = normal vertical force, and sv = normal vertical stress

4. Calculate shear stress (t) using
5. Where Fh= shear stress (measured with shear load gage)

6. Plot the horizontal shear stress (t) versus horizontal (lateral) displacement H.
7. Calculate the maximum shear stress for each test.
8. Plot the value of the maximum shear stress versus the corresponding vertical stress for each
test, and determine the angle of internal friction (f) from the slope of the approximated
Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope.
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13. Unconfined Compression (UC) Test
Purpose:
The primary purpose of this test is to determine the unconfined compressive strength, which is
then used to calculate the unconsolidated undrained shear strength of the clay under unconfined
conditions. According to the ASTM standard, the unconfined compressive strength (qu) is
defined as the compressive stress at which an unconfined cylindrical specimen of soil will fail in
a simple compression test. In addition, in this test method, the unconfined compressive strength
is taken as the maximum load attained per unit area, or the load per unit area at 15% axial strain,
whichever occurs first during the performance of a test.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 2166 - Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil
Significance:
For soils, the undrained shear strength (su) is necessary for the determination of the bearing
capacity of foundations, dams, etc. The undrained shear strength (su) of clays is commonly
determined from an unconfined compression test. The undrained shear strength (su) of a
cohesive soil is equal to one-half the unconfined compressive strength (qu) when the soil is
under the f = 0 condition (f = the angle of internal friction). The most critical condition for the
soil usually occurs immediately after construction, which represents undrained conditions, when
the undrained shear strength is basically equal to the cohesion (c). This is expressed as:
Then, as time passes, the pore water in the soil slowly dissipates, and the intergranular stress
increases, so that the drained shear strength (s), given by s = c + s ‘tan f, must be used. Where
s‘= intergranular pressure acting perpendicular to the shear plane; and s‘= (s - u), s = total
pressure, and u = pore water pressure; c’ and j’ are drained shear strength parameters. The
determination of drained shear strength parameters is given in Experiment 14
Equipment:
Compression device, Load and deformation dial gauges, Sample trimming equipment, Balance,
Moisture can.
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Test Procedure:
1. Extrude the soil sample from Shelby tube sampler. Cut a soil specimen so that the ratio (L/d)
is approximately between 2 and 2.5. Where L and d are the length and diameter of soil
specimen, respectively.
2. Measure the exact diameter of the top of the specimen at three locations 120° apart, and then
make the same measurements on the bottom of the specimen. Average the measurements and
record the average as the diameter on the data sheet.
3. Measure the exact length of the specimen at three locations 120° apart, and then average the
measurements and record the average as the length on the data sheet.
4. Weigh the sample and record the mass on the data sheet.
5. Calculate the deformation (DL) corresponding to 15% strain (e).
6. Where L0 = Original specimen length (as measured in step 3).

7. Carefully place the specimen in the compression device and center it on the bottom plate.
Adjust the device so that the upper plate just makes contact with the specimen and set the
load and deformation dials to zero.
8. Apply the load so that the device produces an axial strain at a rate of 0.5% to 2.0% per
minute, and then record the load and deformation dial readings on the data sheet at every 20
to 50 divisions on deformation the dial.
9. Keep applying the load until (1) the load (load dial) decreases on the specimen significantly,
(2) the load holds constant for at least four deformation dial readings, or (3) the deformation
is significantly past the 15% strain that was determined in step 5.
10. Draw a sketch to depict the sample failure.
11. Remove the sample from the compression device and obtain a sample for water content
determination. Determine the water content as in Experiment 1.
Analysis:
(1) Convert the dial readings to the appropriate load and length units, and enter these values on
the data sheet in the deformation and total load columns. (Confirm that the conversion is done
correctly, particularly proving dial gage readings conversion into load)
(2) Compute the sample cross-sectional area
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(7) Plot the stress versus strain. Show qu as the peak stress (or at 15% strain) of the test. Be sure
that the strain is plotted on the abscissa. See example data.
(8) Draw Mohr’s circle using qu from the last step and show the undrained shear strength, su = c
(or cohesion) = qu/2. See the example data.
Example Data
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Summary
1. The term ‘Soil’ is defined and the development of soil mechanics or geotechnical
engineering as a discipline in its own right is traced.
2. Foundations, underground and earth-retaining structures, pavements, excavations,
embankments and dams are the fields in which the knowledge of soil mechanics is essential.
3. The formation of soils by the action of various agencies in nature is discussed, residual soils
and transported soils being differentiated. Some commonly used soil designations are
explained.
4. The structure and texture of soils affect their nature and engineering performance. Single-
grained structure is common in coarse grained soils and honey-combed and flocculent
structures are common in fine-grained soils.
5. The soil-material is considered to be a homogeneous mechanical mixture of two phases: one
phase represents the structure of solid particles in the soil aggregate and the other phase
represents the fluid water in the pores or voids of the aggregate. It is more difficult to
understand this soil-material than the mechanically simple perfectly elastic or plastic
materials, so most of the book is concerned with the mechanical interaction of the phases and
the stress – strain properties of the soil-material in bulk. Much of this work is of interest to
workers in other fields, but as we are civil engineers we will take particular interest in the
standard tests and calculations of soil mechanics and foundation engineering.
6. A useful tool in engineering is the analysis of the behavior of a structure by doing a model
test, at a reduced scale. The purpose of the test may be just to investigate a phenomenon in a
qualitative way, but more often its purpose is to obtain quantitative information. In that case
the scale rules must be known. For a soil a special difficulty is that the mechanical properties
often depend upon the state of stress, which is determined to a large extent by the weight of
the soil itself. This means that in a scale model the soil properties are not well represented,
because in the model the stresses are much smaller than in reality (the prototype).
Page 142 of 147

References
1. BRAJA M. DAS, 2010” Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 7th Edition”.

2. A. Verruijt, Soil Mechanics,Delft University of Technology, 2001, 2012 “SOIL
MECHANICS”.
3. Prof. Krishna Reddy, UIC , August 2002 “Engineering Properties of Soils Based on
Laboratory Testing”.
4. Marc Pansu, Jacques Gautheyrou, 2006, “Handbook of Soil Analysis Mineralogical,
Organic and Inorganic Methods".
5. Distribution & Pipeline Technology Division Gas Technology Institute,March 2005,
"Evaluation of Soil Compaction Measuring Devices".
6. P. HALUSCHAK, April 2006 "LABORATORY METHODS OF SOIL ANALYSIS
CANADA-MANITOBA SOIL SURVEY".
7. Andrew Schofield and Peter Wroth, “Critical State Soil Mechanics'.
8. Robert W. Day, “SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS, SECTION SIX ".
9. Compiled and Edited by Rebecca Burt, Issued 2009"SOIL SURVEY FIELD AND
LABORATORY METHODS MANUAL".
10. Dr. Attaullah Shah, ‘Introduction to Soil Mechanics Geotechnical Engineering".
11. APOLLONIA GASPARRE, July 2005'ADVANCED LABORATORY
CHARACTERISATION OF LONDON CLAY'.
12. Braja M. Das, 2008 "Advanced Soil Mechanics, Third edition".
13. APINITI JOTISANKASA,August 2005"COLLAPSE BEHAVIOUR OF A
COMPACTED SILTY CLAY".
14. KONSTANTINOS GEORGIADIS,FEBRUARY 2003"DEVELOPMENT,
IMPLEMENTATION AND APPLICATION OF PARTIALLY SATURATED SOIL
MODELS IN FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS".
15. Prathima Alla,August 2009"DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF UNSATURATED SOILS".
16. Jonathan P. Stewart,Raymond B. Seed,Gregory L. Fenves,Report No. PEER-
98/07"Empirical Evaluation of Inertial Soil-Structure Interaction Effects".
17. G.N. Smith, Ian G. N. Smith,1988 "Elements of Soil Mchanics".
18. W. V. Ping, P.E. ,Guiyan Xing,Michael Leonard ,Zenghai Yang ,March 2003
"Evaluation of Laboratory Compaction Techniques for Simulating Field Soil
Compaction (Phase II)".
19. J. Paul Guyer, P.E., R.A., Fellow ASCE, Fellow AEI,2010"Introduction to Laboratory
Testing of Soils".
20. P.K.Basu, I.A.S.,January, 2011"Soil Testing in India".
Page 143 of 147

Appendix
Engineering Properties of Soil and Rock
Table 6-1 Commonly Performed Laboratory Tests on Soils
(Samtani and Nowatzki, 2006)
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Table 6-2 Methods for Index Testing of Soils
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Table 6-3 Methods for Performance Testing of Soils
Page 146 of 147

Braja M. Das, 2008 "Advanced Soil Mechanics, Third edition"
Page 147 of 147

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Soil and Soil Mechanics textbook

Book · January 2014

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded ﬁle.

Ing. Jaafar MOHAMMED

PhD Student at VŠB-TUO

I study in Czech Republic at VŠB-Technical University of Ostrava . Through my research

It’s my pleasure if there is any mistake in this textbook to contact me by e-mail

In this Textbook, different laboratory tests will be conducted to determine

Fields of Application of Soil Mechanics

4- Excavations, Embankments and Dams

Fig.3- A typical soil profile [DHARM N-GEO\GE1-1.PM5]

Stiffness dependent upon stress level

Unknown initial stresses

Table 1: Grain sizes

Figure 5: Grain size diagram.

Figure 6: Cubic array Figure 7: Densest array

Figure 9: Stresses in a homogeneous layer

Fig. 10 Diagrammatic representation of sedentary and transported soils

The following types of structure are commonly studied:

In-situ Sampling and Preparation

Soil Index Properties

 Satisfies International Standards

Cone Penetrometer Method

Determination of Plastic Limit

Determination of Shrinkage Characteristics

Determination of Density, Particle Density and Specific Gravity

1. Determine the mass of soil solids.

Determine the volume of the soil sample

Calculate bulk density (ρt) of soil

Calculate dry density (ρd) of soil

2. Calculate the maximum index density (ρdmax) as follows:

4. Calculate the relative density as follows:

Where t is in minutes, and D is given in mm.

Where WS is the weight of the soil sample in grams

F200 = % finer of #200 sieve as a percent

Table below show the Temperature Correction Factors CT

f. Identify moisture condition (dry, moist, wet or saturated) using Table 5.

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1. Weigh the empty consolidation ring together with glass plate.

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Compression Index (Cc) = 0.11

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Void Ratio Vs. Effective Stress

Sample Calculations for Consolidation Test

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3. Where: Nv = normal vertical force, and sv = normal vertical stress

5. Where Fh= shear stress (measured with shear load gage)

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6. Where L0 = Original specimen length (as measured in step 3).

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1. BRAJA M. DAS, 2010” Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 7th Edition”.

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(Samtani and Nowatzki, 2006)