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Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with
heat and temperature, and their relation to energy, work,
radiation, and properties of matter. The behavior of these
quantities is governed by the four laws of thermodynamics
which convey a quantitative description using measurable
macroscopic physical quantities, but may be explained in
terms of microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics.
Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of topics in science
and engineering, especially physical chemistry, chemical
engineering and mechanical engineering, but also in fields as
complex as meteorology.

Historically, thermodynamics developed out of a desire to

increase the efficiency of early steam engines, particularly
through the work of French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi
Carnot (1824) who believed that engine efficiency was the key
that could help France win the Napoleonic Wars.[1] Scots- Annotated color version of the original 1824
Irish physicist Lord Kelvin was the first to formulate a Carnot heat engine showing the hot body (boiler),
concise definition of thermodynamics in 1854[2] which working body (system, steam), and cold body
stated, "Thermo-dynamics is the subject of the relation of (water), the letters labeled according to the
stopping points in Carnot cycle.
heat to forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and
the relation of heat to electrical agency."

The initial application of thermodynamics to mechanical heat engines was extended early on to the study of chemical
compounds and chemical reactions. Chemical thermodynamics studies the nature of the role of entropy in the process
of chemical reactions and has provided the bulk of expansion and knowledge of the field.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11] Other
formulations of thermodynamics emerged. Statistical thermodynamics, or statistical mechanics, concerns itself with
statistical predictions of the collective motion of particles from their microscopic behavior. In 1909, Constantin
Carathéodory presented a purely mathematical approach in an axiomatic formulation, a description often referred to
as geometrical thermodynamics.

Contents
Introduction
History
Etymology
Branches of thermodynamics
Classical thermodynamics
Statistical mechanics
Chemical thermodynamics
Equilibrium thermodynamics
Laws of thermodynamics
System models
States and processes
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Instrumentation
Conjugate variables
Potentials
Applied fields
See also
Lists and timelines
References
Further reading
External links

Introduction
A description of any thermodynamic system employs the four laws of thermodynamics that form an axiomatic basis.
The first law specifies that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat and work.[12] The second law
defines the existence of a quantity called entropy, that describes the direction, thermodynamically, that a system can
evolve and quantifies the state of order of a system and that can be used to quantify the useful work that can be
extracted from the system.[13]

In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Central to this are
the concepts of the thermodynamic system and its surroundings. A system is composed of particles, whose average
motions define its properties, and those properties are in turn related to one another through equations of state.
Properties can be combined to express internal energy and thermodynamic potentials, which are useful for
determining conditions for equilibrium and spontaneous processes.

With these tools, thermodynamics can be used to describe how systems respond to changes in their environment. This
can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, such as engines, phase transitions, chemical
reactions, transport phenomena, and even black holes. The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of
physics and for chemistry, chemical engineering, corrosion engineering, aerospace engineering, mechanical
engineering, cell biology, biomedical engineering, materials science, and economics, to name a few.[14][15]

This article is focused mainly on classical thermodynamics which primarily studies systems in thermodynamic
equilibrium. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is often treated as an extension of the classical treatment, but
statistical mechanics has brought many advances to that field.

History
The history of thermodynamics as a scientific discipline generally begins with Otto von Guericke who, in 1650, built
and designed the world's first vacuum pump and demonstrated a vacuum using his Magdeburg hemispheres. Guericke
was driven to make a vacuum in order to disprove Aristotle's long-held supposition that 'nature abhors a vacuum'.
Shortly after Guericke, the English physicist and chemist Robert Boyle had learned of Guericke's designs and, in 1656,
in coordination with English scientist Robert Hooke, built an air pump.[17] Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed
a correlation between pressure, temperature, and volume. In time, Boyle's Law was formulated, which states that
pressure and volume are inversely proportional. Then, in 1679, based on these concepts, an associate of Boyle's named
Denis Papin built a steam digester, which was a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confined steam until a high
pressure was generated.

Later designs implemented a steam release valve that kept the machine from exploding. By watching the valve
rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a piston and a cylinder engine. He did not, however,
follow through with his design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papin's designs, engineer Thomas Savery built the first

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engine, followed by Thomas Newcomen in

1712. Although these early engines were
crude and inefficient, they attracted the
attention of the leading scientists of the
time.

The fundamental concepts of heat capacity

and latent heat, which were necessary for
the development of thermodynamics, were
developed by Professor Joseph Black at the
University of Glasgow, where James Watt
was employed as an instrument maker.
Black and Watt performed experiments
together, but it was Watt who conceived the
idea of the external condenser which
resulted in a large increase in steam engine
efficiency.[18] Drawing on all the previous
work led Sadi Carnot, the "father of
thermodynamics", to publish Reflections on The thermodynamicists representative of the original eight
founding schools of thermodynamics. The schools with the most-
the Motive Power of Fire (1824), a discourse
lasting effect in founding the modern versions of thermodynamics
on heat, power, energy and engine
are the Berlin school, particularly as established in Rudolf
efficiency. The book outlined the basic Clausius’s 1865 textbook The Mechanical Theory of Heat, the
energetic relations between the Carnot Vienna school, with the statistical mechanics of Ludwig Boltzmann,
engine, the Carnot cycle, and motive power. and the Gibbsian school at Yale University, American engineer
It marked the start of thermodynamics as a Willard Gibbs' 1876 On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous
Substances launching chemical thermodynamics.[16]
modern science.[10]

The first thermodynamic textbook was

written in 1859 by William Rankine, originally trained as a physicist and a civil and mechanical engineering professor
at the University of Glasgow.[19] The first and second laws of thermodynamics emerged simultaneously in the 1850s,
primarily out of the works of William Rankine, Rudolf Clausius, and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin).

The foundations of statistical thermodynamics were set out by physicists such as James Clerk Maxwell, Ludwig
Boltzmann, Max Planck, Rudolf Clausius and J. Willard Gibbs.

During the years 1873-76 the American mathematical physicist Josiah Willard Gibbs published a series of three
papers, the most famous being On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances,[3] in which he showed how
thermodynamic processes, including chemical reactions, could be graphically analyzed, by studying the energy,
entropy, volume, temperature and pressure of the thermodynamic system in such a manner, one can determine if a
process would occur spontaneously.[20] Also Pierre Duhem in the 19th century wrote about chemical
thermodynamics.[4] During the early 20th century, chemists such as Gilbert N. Lewis, Merle Randall,[5] and E. A.
Guggenheim[6][7] applied the mathematical methods of Gibbs to the analysis of chemical processes.

Etymology
The etymology of thermodynamics has an intricate history.[21] It was first spelled in a hyphenated form as an adjective
(thermo-dynamic) and from 1854 to 1868 as the noun thermo-dynamics to represent the science of generalized heat
engines.[21]

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American biophysicist Donald Haynie claims that thermodynamics was coined in 1840 from the Greek root θέρμη
therme, meaning heat and δύναμις dynamis, meaning power.[22] However, this etymology has been cited as
unlikely.[21]

Pierre Perrot claims that the term thermodynamics was coined by James Joule in 1858 to designate the science of
relations between heat and power,[10] however, Joule never used that term, but used instead the term perfect thermo-
dynamic engine in reference to Thomson's 1849[23] phraseology.[21]

By 1858, thermo-dynamics, as a functional term, was used in William Thomson's paper "An Account of Carnot's
Theory of the Motive Power of Heat."[23]

Branches of thermodynamics
The study of thermodynamical systems has developed into several related branches, each using a different
fundamental model as a theoretical or experimental basis, or applying the principles to varying types of systems.

Classical thermodynamics
Classical thermodynamics is the description of the states of thermodynamic systems at near-equilibrium, that uses
macroscopic, measurable properties. It is used to model exchanges of energy, work and heat based on the laws of
thermodynamics. The qualifier classical reflects the fact that it represents the first level of understanding of the
subject as it developed in the 19th century and describes the changes of a system in terms of macroscopic empirical
(large scale, and measurable) parameters. A microscopic interpretation of these concepts was later provided by the
development of statistical mechanics.

Statistical mechanics
Statistical mechanics, also called statistical thermodynamics, emerged with the development of atomic and molecular
theories in the late 19th century and early 20th century, and supplemented classical thermodynamics with an
interpretation of the microscopic interactions between individual particles or quantum-mechanical states. This field
relates the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic, bulk properties of materials
that can be observed on the human scale, thereby explaining classical thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics,
classical mechanics, and quantum theory at the microscopic level.

Chemical thermodynamics
Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of energy with
chemical reactions or with a physical change of state within the confines of
the laws of thermodynamics.

Equilibrium thermodynamics
Equilibrium thermodynamics is the systematic study of transfers of matter
and energy in systems as they pass from one state of thermodynamic
equilibrium to another. The term 'thermodynamic equilibrium' indicates a
state of balance. In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced
potentials, or driving forces, between macroscopically distinct parts of the
system. A central aim in equilibrium thermodynamics is: given a system in
a well-defined initial equilibrium state, and given its surroundings, and

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given its constitutive walls, to calculate what will be the final equilibrium state of the system after a specified
thermodynamic operation has changed its walls or surroundings.

Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with systems that are not in
thermodynamic equilibrium. Most systems found in nature are not in thermodynamic equilibrium because they are
not in stationary states, and are continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and energy to and from
other systems. The thermodynamic study of non-equilibrium systems requires more general concepts than are dealt
with by equilibrium thermodynamics. Many natural systems still today remain beyond the scope of currently known
macroscopic thermodynamic methods.

Laws of thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is principally based on a set of four laws which are universally valid when applied to systems that fall
within the constraints implied by each. In the various theoretical descriptions of thermodynamics these laws may be
expressed in seemingly differing forms, but the most prominent formulations are the following:

Zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
This statement implies that thermal equilibrium is an equivalence relation on the set of thermodynamic systems under
consideration. Systems are said to be in equilibrium if the small, random exchanges between them (e.g. Brownian
motion) do not lead to a net change in energy. This law is tacitly assumed in every measurement of temperature. Thus,
if one seeks to decide if two bodies are at the same temperature, it is not necessary to bring them into contact and
measure any changes of their observable properties in time.[24] The law provides an empirical definition of
temperature and justification for the construction of practical thermometers.

The zeroth law was not initially named as a law of thermodynamics, as its basis in thermodynamical equilibrium was
implied in the other laws. The first, second, and third laws had been explicitly stated prior and found common
acceptance in the physics community. Once the importance of the zeroth law for the definition of temperature was
realized, it was impracticable to renumber the other laws, hence it was numbered the zeroth law.

First law of thermodynamics: The internal energy of an isolated system is constant.

The first law of thermodynamics is an expression of the principle of conservation of energy. It states that energy can be
transformed (changed from one form to another), but cannot be created or destroyed.[25]

The first law is usually formulated by saying that the change in the internal energy of a closed thermodynamic system
is equal to the difference between the heat supplied to the system and the amount of work done by the system on its
surroundings. It is important to note that internal energy is a state of the system (see Thermodynamic state) whereas
heat and work modify the state of the system. In other words, a change of internal energy of a system may be achieved
by any combination of heat and work added or removed from the system as long as those total to the change of
internal energy. The manner by which a system achieves its internal energy is path independent.

Second law of thermodynamics: Heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder location to a hotter location.
The second law of thermodynamics is an expression of the universal principle of decay observable in nature. The
second law is an observation of the fact that over time, differences in temperature, pressure, and chemical potential
tend to even out in a physical system that is isolated from the outside world. Entropy is a measure of how much this
process has progressed. The entropy of an isolated system which is not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time,
approaching a maximum value at equilibrium. However, principles guiding systems that are far from equilibrium are
still debatable. One of such principles is the maximum entropy production principle.[26][27] It states that non-
equilibrium systems behave such a way as to maximize its entropy production.[28]

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In classical thermodynamics, the second law is a basic postulate applicable to any system involving heat energy
transfer; in statistical thermodynamics, the second law is a consequence of the assumed randomness of molecular
chaos. There are many versions of the second law, but they all have the same effect, which is to explain the
phenomenon of irreversibility in nature.

Third law of thermodynamics: As a system approaches absolute zero, all processes cease and the entropy of the
system approaches a minimum value.
The third law of thermodynamics is a statistical law of nature regarding entropy and the impossibility of reaching
absolute zero of temperature. This law provides an absolute reference point for the determination of entropy. The
entropy determined relative to this point is the absolute entropy. Alternate definitions are, "the entropy of all systems
and of all states of a system is smallest at absolute zero," or equivalently "it is impossible to reach the absolute zero of
temperature by any finite number of processes".

Absolute zero, at which all activity would stop if it were possible to happen, is −273.15 °C (degrees Celsius), or
−459.67 °F (degrees Fahrenheit), or 0 K (kelvin), or 0° R (degrees Rankine).

System models
An important concept in thermodynamics is the thermodynamic system,
which is a precisely defined region of the universe under study. Everything in
the universe except the system is called the surroundings. A system is
separated from the remainder of the universe by a boundary which may be a
physical boundary or notional, but which by convention defines a finite
volume. Exchanges of work, heat, or matter between the system and the
surroundings take place across this boundary.

In practice, the boundary of a system is simply an imaginary dotted line drawn

around a volume within which is going to be a change in the internal energy of
A diagram of a generic
that volume. Anything that passes across the boundary that effects a change in thermodynamic system
the internal energy of the system needs to be accounted for in the energy
balance equation. The volume can be the region surrounding a single atom
resonating energy, such as Max Planck defined in 1900; it can be a body of steam or air in a steam engine, such as Sadi
Carnot defined in 1824; it can be the body of a tropical cyclone, such as Kerry Emanuel theorized in 1986 in the field of
atmospheric thermodynamics; it could also be just one nuclide (i.e. a system of quarks) as hypothesized in quantum
thermodynamics, or the event horizon of a black hole.

Boundaries are of four types: fixed, movable, real, and imaginary. For example, in an engine, a fixed boundary means
the piston is locked at its position, within which a constant volume process might occur. If the piston is allowed to
move that boundary is movable while the cylinder and cylinder head boundaries are fixed. For closed systems,
boundaries are real while for open systems boundaries are often imaginary. In the case of a jet engine, a fixed
imaginary boundary might be assumed at the intake of the engine, fixed boundaries along the surface of the case and a
second fixed imaginary boundary across the exhaust nozzle.

Generally, thermodynamics distinguishes three classes of systems, defined in terms of what is allowed to cross their
boundaries:

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Interactions of thermodynamic systems

Type of system Mass flow Work Heat
Open
Closed
Thermally isolated
Mechanically isolated
Isolated

As time passes in an isolated system, internal differences of pressures, densities, and temperatures tend to even out. A
system in which all equalizing processes have gone to completion is said to be in a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium.

Once in thermodynamic equilibrium, a system's properties are, by definition, unchanging in time. Systems in
equilibrium are much simpler and easier to understand than are systems which are not in equilibrium. Often, when
analysing a dynamic thermodynamic process, the simplifying assumption is made that each intermediate state in the
process is at equilibrium, producing thermodynamic processes which develop so slowly as to allow each intermediate
step to be an equilibrium state and are said to be reversible processes.

States and processes

When a system is at equilibrium under a given set of conditions, it is said to be in a definite thermodynamic state. The
state of the system can be described by a number of state quantities that do not depend on the process by which the
system arrived at its state. They are called intensive variables or extensive variables according to how they change
when the size of the system changes. The properties of the system can be described by an equation of state which
specifies the relationship between these variables. State may be thought of as the instantaneous quantitative
description of a system with a set number of variables held constant.

A thermodynamic process may be defined as the energetic evolution of a thermodynamic system proceeding from an
initial state to a final state. It can be described by process quantities. Typically, each thermodynamic process is
distinguished from other processes in energetic character according to what parameters, such as temperature,
pressure, or volume, etc., are held fixed; Furthermore, it is useful to group these processes into pairs, in which each
variable held constant is one member of a conjugate pair.

Several commonly studied thermodynamic processes are:

Adiabatic process: occurs without loss or gain of energy by heat

Isenthalpic process: occurs at a constant enthalpy
Isentropic process: a reversible adiabatic process, occurs at a constant entropy
Isobaric process: occurs at constant pressure
Isochoric process: occurs at constant volume (also called isometric/isovolumetric)
Isothermal process: occurs at a constant temperature
Steady state process: occurs without a change in the internal energy

Instrumentation
There are two types of thermodynamic instruments, the meter and the reservoir. A thermodynamic meter is any
device which measures any parameter of a thermodynamic system. In some cases, the thermodynamic parameter is
actually defined in terms of an idealized measuring instrument. For example, the zeroth law states that if two bodies
are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. This principle, as
noted by James Maxwell in 1872, asserts that it is possible to measure temperature. An idealized thermometer is a

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sample of an ideal gas at constant pressure. From the ideal gas law pV=nRT, the volume of such a sample can be used
as an indicator of temperature; in this manner it defines temperature. Although pressure is defined mechanically, a
pressure-measuring device, called a barometer may also be constructed from a sample of an ideal gas held at a
constant temperature. A calorimeter is a device which is used to measure and define the internal energy of a system.

A thermodynamic reservoir is a system which is so large that its state parameters are not appreciably altered when it is
brought into contact with the system of interest. When the reservoir is brought into contact with the system, the
system is brought into equilibrium with the reservoir. For example, a pressure reservoir is a system at a particular
pressure, which imposes that pressure upon the system to which it is mechanically connected. The Earth's atmosphere
is often used as a pressure reservoir. If ocean water is used to cool a power plant, the ocean is often a temperature
reservoir in the analysis of the power plant cycle.

Conjugate variables
The central concept of thermodynamics is that of energy, the ability to do work. By the First Law, the total energy of a
system and its surroundings is conserved. Energy may be transferred into a system by heating, compression, or
addition of matter, and extracted from a system by cooling, expansion, or extraction of matter. In mechanics, for
example, energy transfer equals the product of the force applied to a body and the resulting displacement.

Conjugate variables are pairs of thermodynamic concepts, with the first being akin to a "force" applied to some
thermodynamic system, the second being akin to the resulting "displacement," and the product of the two equalling
the amount of energy transferred. The common conjugate variables are:

Pressure-volume (the mechanical parameters);

Temperature-entropy (thermal parameters);
Chemical potential-particle number (material parameters).

Potentials
Thermodynamic potentials are different quantitative measures of the stored energy in a system. Potentials are used to
measure the energy changes in systems as they evolve from an initial state to a final state. The potential used depends
on the constraints of the system, such as constant temperature or pressure. For example, the Helmholtz and Gibbs
energies are the energies available in a system to do useful work when the temperature and volume or the pressure
and temperature are fixed, respectively.

The five most well known potentials are:

Name Symbol Formula Natural variables

Internal energy

Helmholtz free energy

Enthalpy

Gibbs free energy

Landau Potential (Grand potential) ,

where is the temperature, the entropy, the pressure, the volume, the chemical potential, the number of
particles in the system, and is the count of particles types in the system.

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Thermodynamic potentials can be derived from the energy balance equation applied to a thermodynamic system.
Other thermodynamic potentials can also be obtained through Legendre transformation.

Applied fields
Atmospheric thermodynamics
Biological thermodynamics
Black hole thermodynamics
Chemical thermodynamics
Classical thermodynamics
Equilibrium thermodynamics
Industrial ecology (re: Exergy)
Maximum entropy thermodynamics
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics
Psychrometrics
Quantum thermodynamics
Statistical thermodynamics
Thermoeconomics

See also
Thermodynamic process path

Lists and timelines

List of important publications in thermodynamics
List of textbooks in statistical mechanics
List of thermal conductivities
List of thermodynamic properties
Table of thermodynamic equations
Timeline of thermodynamics

References
1. Clausius, Rudolf (1850). On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be deduced from it for the
'Theory of Heat'. Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik, LXXIX (Dover Reprint). ISBN 978-0-486-59065-3.
2. William Thomson, LL.D. D.C.L., F.R.S. (1882). Mathematical and Physical Papers (https://books.google.com/?id=
nWMSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA100&dq=On+an+Absolute+Thermometric+Scale+Founded+on+Carnot%E2%80%99s+
Theory#v=onepage&q=On%20an%20Absolute%20Thermometric%20Scale%20Founded%20on%20Carnot%E
2%80%99s%20Theory&f=false). 1. London, Cambridge: C.J. Clay, M.A. & Son, Cambridge University Press.
p. 232.
3. Gibbs, Willard, J. (1874–1878). Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences (https://archive.or
g/details/transactions03conn). III. New Haven. pp. 108–248, 343–524.
4. Duhem, P.M.M. (1886). Le Potential Thermodynamique et ses Applications, Hermann, Paris.
5. Lewis, Gilbert N.; Randall, Merle (1923). Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances.
McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.
6. Guggenheim, E.A. (1933). Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of J.W. Gibbs, Methuen, London.
7. Guggenheim, E.A. (1949/1967). Thermodynamics. An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists, 1st
edition 1949, 5th edition 1967, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
8. Ilya Prigogine, I. & Defay, R., translated by D.H. Everett (1954). Chemical Thermodynamics. Longmans, Green &
Co., London. Includes classical non-equilibrium thermodynamics.

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9. Enrico Fermi (1956). Thermodynamics (https://books.google.com/books?id=VEZ1ljsT3IwC&printsec=frontcover&

dq=thermodynamics). Courier Dover Publications. pp. (ix). ISBN 978-0486603612. OCLC 230763036 (https://ww
w.worldcat.org/oclc/230763036).
10. Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-856552-9.
OCLC 123283342 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/123283342).
11. Clark, John, O.E. (2004). The Essential Dictionary of Science. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 978-0-7607-4616-5.
OCLC 58732844 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/58732844).
12. Van Ness, H.C. (1983) [1969]. Understanding Thermodynamics. Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 9780486632773.
OCLC 8846081 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8846081).
13. Dugdale, J.S. (1998). Entropy and its Physical Meaning. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 978-0-7484-0569-5.
OCLC 36457809 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/36457809).
14. Smith, J.M.; Van Ness, H.C.; Abbott, M.M. (2005). Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics.
Journal of Chemical Education. 27. p. 584. Bibcode:1950JChEd..27..584S (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1950JC
hEd..27..584S). doi:10.1021/ed027p584.3 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed027p584.3). ISBN 978-0-07-310445-4.
OCLC 56491111 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56491111).
15. Haynie, Donald, T. (2001). Biological Thermodynamics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79549-4.
OCLC 43993556 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43993556).
16. Schools of thermodynamics (http://www.eoht.info/page/Schools+of+thermodynamics) – EoHT.info.
17. Partington, J.R. (1989). A Short History of Chemistry. Dover. OCLC 19353301 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/193
53301).
18. The Newcomen engine was improved from 1711 until Watt's work, making the efficiency comparison subject to
qualification, but the increase from the 1865 version was on the order of 100%.
19. Cengel, Yunus A.; Boles, Michael A. (2005). Thermodynamics – an Engineering Approach. McGraw-Hill.
ISBN 978-0-07-310768-4.
20. Gibbs, Willard (1993). The Scientific Papers of J. Willard Gibbs, Volume One: Thermodynamics. Ox Bow Press.
ISBN 978-0-918024-77-0. OCLC 27974820 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/27974820).
21. "Thermodynamics (etymology)" (http://www.eoht.info/page/Thermo-dynamics). EoHT.info.
22. Donald T. Haynie (2008). Biological Thermodynamics (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 26.
23. Kelvin, William T. (1849) "An Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat – with Numerical Results
Deduced from Regnault's Experiments on Steam." Transactions of the Edinburg Royal Society, XVI. January
2.Scanned Copy (http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?Destination=Gallica&O=NUMM-95118)
24. Moran, Michael J. and Howard N. Shapiro, 2008. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics. 6th ed. Wiley
and Sons: 16.
25. "Energy Rules! Energy Conversion and the Laws of Thermodynamics – More About the First and Second Laws"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20100605173901/http://www.uwsp.edu/cnr/wcee/keep/Mod1/Rules/ThermoLaws.ht
m). Uwsp.edu. Archived from the original (http://www.uwsp.edu/cnr/wcee/keep/mod1/rules/ThermoLaws.htm) on 5
June 2010. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
26. Onsager, Lars (1931). "Reciprocal Relations in Irreversible Processes". Phys. Rev. 37 (405): 405–426.
Bibcode:1931PhRv...37..405O (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1931PhRv...37..405O). doi:10.1103/physrev.37.405
(https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysrev.37.405).
27. Ziegler, H. (1983). An Introduction to Thermomechanics. North Holland.
28. Belkin, Andrey; et., al. (2015). "Self-Assembled Wiggling Nano-Structures and the Principle of Maximum Entropy
Production" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4321171). Sci. Rep. 5: 8323.
Bibcode:2015NatSR...5E8323B (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015NatSR...5E8323B). doi:10.1038/srep08323
(https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep08323). PMC 4321171 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4321171).
PMID 25662746 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25662746).

Further reading
Goldstein, Martin & Inge F. (1993). The Refrigerator and the Universe. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-
75325-9. OCLC 32826343 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32826343). A nontechnical introduction, good on
historical and interpretive matters.

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Kazakov, Andrei; Muzny, Chris D.; Chirico, Robert D.; Diky, Vladimir V.; Frenkel, Michael (2008). "Web Thermo
Tables – an On-Line Version of the TRC Thermodynamic Tables" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC
4651616). Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology. 113 (4): 209–220.
doi:10.6028/jres.113.016 (https://doi.org/10.6028%2Fjres.113.016). ISSN 1044-677X (https://www.worldcat.org/iss
n/1044-677X). PMC 4651616 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4651616). PMID 27096122 (https://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27096122).
Gibbs J.W. (1928). The Collected Works of J. Willard Gibbs Thermodynamics. New York: Longmans, Green and
Co. Vol. 1, pp. 55–349.
Guggenheim E.A. (1933). Modern thermodynamics by the methods of Willard Gibbs. London: Methuen & co. ltd.
Denbigh K. (1981). The Principles of Chemical Equilibrium: With Applications in Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering. London: Cambridge University Press.
Stull, D.R., Westrum Jr., E.F. and Sinke, G.C. (1969). The Chemical Thermodynamics of Organic Compounds.
London: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Bazarov I.P. (2010). Thermodynamics: Textbook. St. Petersburg: Lan publishing house. p. 384. ISBN 978-5-8114-
1003-3. 5th ed. (in Russian)
Bawendi Moungi G., Alberty Robert A. and Silbey Robert J. (2004). Physical Chemistry. J. Wiley & Sons,
Incorporated.
Alberty Robert A. (2003). Thermodynamics of Biochemical Reactions. Wiley-Interscience.
Alberty Robert A. (2006). Biochemical Thermodynamics: Applications of Mathematica. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ISBN 978-0-471-75798-6.
The following titles are more technical:

Bejan, Adrian (2016). Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics (4 ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-1-119-05209-8.
Cengel, Yunus A., & Boles, Michael A. (2002). Thermodynamics – an Engineering Approach. McGraw Hill.
ISBN 978-0-07-238332-4. OCLC 45791449 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45791449).
Dunning-Davies, Jeremy (1997). Concise Thermodynamics: Principles and Applications. Horwood Publishing.
ISBN 978-1-8985-6315-0. OCLC 36025958 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/36025958).
Kroemer, Herbert & Kittel, Charles (1980). Thermal Physics. W.H. Freeman Company. ISBN 978-0-7167-1088-2.
OCLC 32932988 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32932988).

External links
"Thermodynamics" (https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediabri26chisrich/page/808). Encyclopædia Britannica.
26 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 808–814.
Thermodynamics Data & Property Calculation Websites (http://tigger.uic.edu/~mansoori/Thermodynamic.Data.an
d.Property_html)
Thermodynamics Educational Websites (http://tigger.uic.edu/~mansoori/Thermodynamics.Educational.Sites_html)
Thermodynamics at ScienceWorld (http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/topics/Thermodynamics.html)
Biochemistry Thermodynamics (http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/boyer/0470003790/reviews/thermo/thermo_i
ntro.htm)
Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics (http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/sm1/lectures/lectures.html)
Engineering Thermodynamics – A Graphical Approach (https://web.archive.org/web/20090430200028/http://www.
ent.ohiou.edu/~thermo/)
Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics (http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/sm1/statmech.pdf) by Richard
Fitzpatrick

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