5.

BRAKING SYSTEM
5.1. INTRODUCTION TO BRAKES
A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy
from a moving system. It is used for slowing or stopping a moving vehicle,
wheel, axle, or to prevent its motion, most often accomplished by means of
friction.
Most brakes commonly use friction between two surfaces pressed
together to convert the kinetic energy of the moving object into heat, though
other methods of energy conversion may be employed. For
example, regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy,
which may be stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic
energy into potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or
pressurized oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic
energy into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is converted into
heat. Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into different
forms, for example by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.
Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also
take other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into
water or air). Some vehicles use a combination of braking mechanisms, such as
drag racing cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with both
wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing.
Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage
carts and shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp. Most fixed-
wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft
also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight. Notable
examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily
some fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft
to maintain a safe speed in a steep descent. The Saab B 17 dive bomber and
Vought F4U Corsair fighter used the deployed undercarriage as an air brake.
Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc
brake while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling
downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake.
When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed
against the master cylinder, ultimately a piston pushes the brake pad against
the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as
the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also slows the
wheel down.
5.2. TYPES OF BRAKES
5.2.1 Electromagnetic Brakes

Figure 5.1
Electromagnetic brakes slow down or stop a moving machine by using an
electromagnetic force to apply friction to its wheels. These brakes receive the
electromagnetic force they require from a magnetic field comprised of a
magnetic coil and a coil shell that is bolted to the machine frame.A typical
electromagnetic brake has three elements in its construction – a magnetic field
comprising of a coil and a shell, an armature and the hub. When the brakes are
applied, the armature is attracted to the magnetic field developed by the
coil.Simultaneously, a torque working in the opposite direction is transferred
into the field to counteract the effect of the magnetic field. As the strength of the
field falls, the vehicle begins to slow down and eventually stops. The
disengagement process begins as soon as the vehicle stops. As the magnetic flux
degrades rapidly, the armature is brought to its initial position ready to work
again. This process is quite rapid and usually takes less than three seconds to
complete. The smooth working of the coil is crucial to the effective functioning
of the electromagnetic brake as it produces the magnetic field. The whole
assembly has to be protected against extremes of temperature as well as wear
and tear, as both these factors are detrimental to the functioning of the brakes.
5.2.2 Frictional Brakes

Figure 5.2
 Frictional brakes are a type of service brake found in many automobiles.
They are typically found in two forms; pads and shoes. As the name implies,
these brakes use friction to stop the automobile from moving. They typically
include a rotating device with a stationary pad and a rotating weather surface.
On most band brakes the shoe will constrict and rub against the outside of the
rotating drum, alternatively on a drum brake, a rotating drum with shoes will
expand and rub against the inside of the drum.

5.2.3 Pumping Brakes

Pumping brakes are used when a pump is included in part of the vehicle.
These types of brakes use an internal combustion piston motor to shut off the
fuel supply, in turn causing internal pumping losses to the engine, which causes
braking.

5.2.4 Hydraulic Brakes

Hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses
brake fluid to transfer pressure from the controlling unit, which is usually near
the operator of the vehicle, to the actual brake mechanism, which is nearer to
the wheel of the vehicle.
Important Components
 Brake pedal or lever
 A pushrod or actuating rod
 A master cylinder assembly containing piston assembly( made up of
either one or two pistons, a return spring, a series of gaskets and a fluid
reservoir)
 Reinforced hydraulic lines
 Brake caliper assembly consisting of one or two caliper pistons, asset of
thermally conductive brake pads and a rotor

Working
In a hydraulic brake system, when the brake pedal is pressed, a pushrod
exerts force on the piston(s) in the master cylinder, causing fluid from the brake
fluid reservoir to flow into a pressure chamber through a compensating port.
This results in an increase in the pressure of the entire hydraulic system, forcing
fluid through the hydraulic lines toward one or more callipers where it acts upon
one or more calliper pistons sealed by one or more seated O-rings (which
prevent leakage of the fluid).
 The brake calliper pistons then apply force to the brake pads, pushing
them against the spinning rotor, and the friction between the pads and the rotor
causes a braking torque to be generated, slowing the vehicle. Heat generated by
this friction is either dissipated through vents and channels in the rotor or is
conducted through the pads, which are made of specialized heat-tolerant
materials such as Kevlar or sintered glass.
Alternatively, in a drum brake, the fluid enters a wheel cylinder and
presses one or two brake shoes against the inside of the spinning drum. The
brake shoes use a similar heat-tolerant friction material to the pads used in disc
brakes.
Subsequent release of the brake pedal/lever allows the spring(s) in the
master cylinder assembly to return the master piston(s) back into position. This
action first relieves the hydraulic pressure on the calliper, then applies suction to
the brake piston in the calliper assembly, moving it back into its housing and
allowing the brake pads to release the rotor.
The hydraulic braking system is designed as a closed system: unless there
is a leak in the system, none of the brake fluid enters or leaves it, nor does the
fluid get consumed through use. Leakage may happen, however, from cracks in
the O-rings or from a puncture in the brake line. Cracks can form if two types of
brake fluid are mixed or if the brake fluid becomes contaminated with water,
alcohol, antifreeze, or any number of other liquids.

Figure 5.3
5.2.5Servo Brakes
Servo brakes are found on most cars and are intended to augment the
amount of pressure the driver applies to the brake pedal. These brakes use a
vacuum in the inlet manifold to generate extra pressure needed to create
braking. Additionally, these braking systems are only effective while the
engine is still running.

In some vehicles we may find that there are more than one of these
braking systems included. These systems can be used in unison to create a more
reliable and stronger braking system. Unfortunately, on occasion, these braking
systems may fail resulting in automobile accidents and injuries.

5.3 REASONS FOR SELECTING HYDRAULIC BRAKES

 Hydraulic disc are known for smooth feel and stopping power.

 The first 'bleed' can be frustrating, but really they are quite simple
machines and require less adjustment than mechanical discs.

 Hydraulic brakes are much better at heat dissipation.

5.4 DESIGN OF BRAKING SYSTEM

5.4.1 Determination ofcentre of gravity of the vehicle
From chapter 2
Weight of the vehicle,W= 234 kg = 2295.5 N
Wheel base, L=140 cm
Front wheel track,Bf=126 cm
Rear wheel track,Br=120 cm
Location of Centre of gravity(C.G)
Distance of C.G from the rear wheel, Lr=53.2 cm
Distance of C.G from the front wheel, Lf=86.8 cm
Height of location of C.G from the ground, H=55 cm
Static reaction force at front wheels,
Rf= W× Lr/L = 234×53.2/140
Rf=88.92 kg
 Static reaction force at rear wheels,
Rr =W× Lf/L = 234×86.8/140
Rr =145.08 kg
5.4.2 Determination of maximum deceleration that can be achieved by
thevehicle

Figure 5.4

Let,
Rrdyn= Dynamic normal reaction acting on rear wheel,N
Rfdyn= Dynamic normal reaction acting on front wheel,N
FR = Frictional force at rear wheels, N
FF = Frictional force at front wheels, N
a = Deceleration of the vehicle, g units
W×a = Inertial force, N
µ = coefficient of friction between the wheel and ground
W×a and ( FR+FF) acts in the opposite direction which creates a couple.
When the brake is applied, the couple will compress the front wheel and lifts the
rear wheel.
FF+ FR– Wa=0 (5.1)
Σ FY=0
Rrdyn+Rfdyn– W=0 (5.2)
FR=µ×Rrdyn (5.3)
FF=µ×Rfdyn (5.4)
Substituting in (5.1)
FF+FR– (W×a)=0
µ×Rfdyn+ µ×Rrdyn =W×a
µ(Rfdyn+Rrdyn ) =W×a
µ×W=W×a
Therefore , µ=a (5.5)
Maximum deceleration(a) is limited by coefficient of friction between the
wheel and ground(µ).
5.4.3 Determination ofthe dynamic reaction loads

Figure 5.5

Taking moment about front wheel, contact point

Rrdyn×L+ (W×a×H) = W×Lf (5.6)
Rrdyn×L= (W×Lf)–(W×a×H) (5.7)
Considering Co-efficient of friction between tyres and surface to be 0.6
From equation( 5.5), Deceleration =0.6 g units
Substituting the values from step 1
Rrdyn×140=(2295.5×86.8) –(2295.5×0.6×55)(5.8)

Rrdyn= 882.12 N
Taking moment about rear wheel
Rfdyn×L= W×Lr+Wa×H (5.9)
Rfdyn×140 = 2295.5×53.2 + 2295.5×0.6×55
(5.10) Rfdyn= 1413.3 N
For various values of deceleration, the dynamic loads are calculated and are
shown in the table 5.1 and visualized in the graph 5.1 as follows:

Deceleration Rfdyn ( N) Rrdyn (N)

0.2 1316.89 1331.81

0.4 1596.68 1052.02

0.6 1413.3 882.12

0.8 2156.27 492.43

1.0 2436.05 212.64

Table 5.1 : Variation of dynamic loads for various values of deceleration
 Graph 5.1: Variation of deceleration with normal front and rear dynamic load

Graph 5.2: Variation of normal dynamic reactions at front and rear wheels for deceleration values
5.4.4 Determination of maximum frictional(Braking) force
From equations (5.3) and (5.4),
FR =µ×Rrdyn (5.11)
=0.6×882.12
FR =529.72 N
FF = µ×Rfdyn (5.12)
=0.6×1413.3
FF = 847.98 N

5.4.5 Design of braking components

It is assumed that FF & FR values induces the braking system
( KfW+KaAfV2)+FF+FR=W×a
Where,
Kr =Co-efficient of rolling resistance
Ka =Co-efficient of air drag resistance
Af =Frontal area in m2
V =Velocity of the vehicle in m/s
Neglecting air and rolling resistance, we get
FF+FR=W×a (5.13)
Disc
A simple diagram of the disc is shown in the figure 5.6

Figure 5.6
Braking torque is given by
Fr×R=F1×r×2
(µ×Rrdyn)× R=F1×r×2
(µ×Rrdyn)× R=µ1×Pcal×Acal×r×2
Where,
R =Effective Radius of the wheel, m
r =Effective radius of disc, m
F1 =Tangential force or breaking force acting on the disc, N
µ1=Co-efficient of friction between disc and brake pad
Pcal=Pressure developed in the caliper, N/m2
Acal=Area of the piston in the caliper, m2
5.4.6 Calculation of braking torque (TB)
Radius of the wheel(R) = 11” = 0.2794 m
TB(r) = FR× R
= 529.72 × 0.2794
= 148 N-m
TB(f)= 847.98 × 0.2794
= 236.92 N-m

Figure 5.7

Considering uniform wear rate theory,

R= (r1+r2)/2
 Where
r1is the inner radius in ‘m’
r2 is the outer radius in ‘m’
Braking condition is given by
µ×Rrdyn× R ≥ µ1×Pcal×Acal×r×2
If Pcal=0, then deceleration is zero.
When the vehicle is slowed down then
µ×Rrdyn× R – µ1×Pcal×Acal ×r×2 = I×α
I×α is the residual torque produced due to rotating parts
While braking I×α tends to zero as there is no angular acceleration. If there is a
condition called wheel lock.

Therefore, µ×Rrdyn× R – µ1×Pcal×Acal ×r×2 = 0

Figure 5.8

ChoosingWilwood PS-1 caliper of bore diameter 1.12" with double piston :

Brake pad width = 25.4 mm
Disc diameter = 200 mm
r1 = disc radius –brake pad width = 74.6 mm
r= (r1+r2)/2 = (74.6+100)/2 = 87.3 mm
For the rear wheel, the normal braking force is given by
F1(r) = TB(r)/( µ1×r×2)
= 148/ (0.3×0.0872×2)
= 2828.7 N
Similarly for the front wheel,
F1(f)= 236.92/ (0.3×0.0872×2)
= 4528.28 N
Choosing master cylinder with bore diameter 1"
Area of the master cylinder = 506.71 mm2
Caliper bore diameter = 1.12" = 28.45 mm
Area of the caliper,Acal = 635.7 mm2
Pressure developed in the caliper, Pcal = F1(f)/(n×Acal)
where‘n’ represents the number of pistons in the caliper
Pcal= 4528.28/(2×635.7)
= 3.56 N/mm2
Since Pmaster cylinder = Pcal
Force at the master cylinder/ Area of the master cylinder = 3.56 N/mm2
Force at the master cylinder = 3.56 × Area of the master cylinder
= 3.56 × 506.71
= 1804.7 N
Wilwood PS1 caliper description
 g Figure 5.9

Determination of mechanical leverage

l2

l1

Figure 5.10

From the figure 5.9,

P1×l1=P2×l2 (Angular momentum about pivot is neglected)
where
P1 =Pedal force, N
P2=Force exerted on master cylinder, N
l1&l2=Distance of the pivot from pedal and master cylinder
respectively, m
Assuming the pedal force to be 250 N,
Pedal force(P1) × Mechanical leverage(l1/l2) = Force at the master cylinder(P2)
250 × (l1/l2) = 1804.7
= 1804.7/250
Mechanical leverage (l1/l2) = 7.2
5.4.7 Determination of Stopping distance 'S'
S=V2/2f
Where f =deceleration of the vehicle in 'm/s2'
V=Velocity of the vehicle in 'm/s'
If the vehicle moves at a speed of 55 kmph, then
S = V2/ (2 × 0.6g)
v = 55× (5/18) = 15.27 m/s
S = (15.27)2/ (2 × 0.6g)
S = 19.81 m
5.5 SUMMARY
In this chapter, the basic introduction about the braking system is discussed. The
hydraulic braking system and its components were also discussed. Further the
calculations that are essential for a braking system is derived and results are
made. Graphs are also plotted for various decelerations (in g units) with
corresponding dynamic loads for visual interpretation.