CHAPTER 7

Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse

Trigonometric Functions

EXERCISE SET 7.1

1. (a) f (g(x)) = 4(x/4) = x, g(f (x)) = (4x)/4 = x, f and g are inverse functions
(b) f (g(x)) = 3(3x − 1) + 1 = 9x − 2 = x so f and g are not inverse functions


(c) f (g(x)) = 3 (x3 + 2) − 2 = x, g(f (x)) = (x − 2) + 2 = x, f and g are inverse functions
(d) f (g(x)) = (x1/4 )4 = x, g(f (x)) = (x4 )1/4 = |x| = x, f and g are not inverse functions

2. (a) They are inverse functions. 2

-2 2

-2

(b) The graphs are not reflections of each other 2

about the line y = x.

-2 2

-2

(c) They are inverse functions provided the domain of 5

g is restricted to [0, +∞)

0 5
0

(d) They are inverse functions provided the domain of f (x) 2

is restricted to [0, +∞)

0 2
0

3. (a) yes; all outputs (the elements of row two) are distinct
(b) no; f (1) = f (6)

263
264 Chapter 7

4. (a) no; it is easy to conceive of, say, 8 people in line at two different times
(b) no; perhaps your weight remains constant for more than a year
(c) yes, since the function is increasing, in the sense that the greater the volume, the greater the
weight

5. (a) yes (b) yes (c) no (d) yes (e) no (f ) no

6. (a) no, the horizontal line test fails (b) yes, horizontal line test
6 10

-1 3

-3 3

-2 -10

7. (a) no, the horizontal line test fails 8. (d) no, the horizontal line test fails
(b) no, the horizontal line test fails (e) no, the horizontal line test fails
(c) yes, horizontal line test (f ) yes, horizontal line test

9. (a) f has an inverse because the graph passes the horizontal line test. To compute f −1 (2) start
at 2 on the y-axis and go to the curve and then down, so f −1 (2) = 8; similarly, f −1 (−1) = −1
and f −1 (0) = 0.
(b) domain of f −1 is [−2, 2], range is [−8, 8] (c) y
8

4
x
-2 1 2
-4

-8

10. (a) the horizontal line test fails

(b) −∞ < x ≤ −1; −1 ≤ x ≤ 2; and 2 ≤ x < 4.

11. (a) f  (x) = 2x + 8; f  < 0 on (−∞, −4) and f  > 0 on (−4, +∞); not one-to-one
(b) f  (x) = 10x4 + 3x2 + 3 ≥ 3 > 0; f  (x) is positive for all x, so f is one-to-one
(c) f  (x) = 2 + cos x ≥ 1 > 0 for all x, so f is one-to-one

12. (a) f  (x) = 3x2 + 6x = x(3x + 6) changes sign at x = −2, 0, so f is not one-to-one
(b) f  (x) = 5x4 + 24x2 + 2 ≥ 2 > 0; f  is positive for all x, so f is one-to-one
1
(c) f  (x) = ; f is one-to-one because:
(x + 1)2
if x1 < x2 < −1 then f  > 0 on [x1 , x2 ], so f (x1 ) = f (x2 )
if −1 < x1 < x2 then f  > 0 on [x1 , x2 ], so f (x1 ) = f (x2 )
if x1 < −1 < x2 then f (x1 ) > 1 > f (x2 ) since f (x) > 1 on (−∞, −1) and f (x) < 1 on
(−1, +∞)

13. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = y 5 , y = x1/5 = f −1 (x)

Exercise Set 7.1 265

1
14. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 6y, y = x = f −1 (x)
6
1
15. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 7y − 6, y = (x + 6) = f −1 (x)
7
y+1 x+1
16. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = , xy − x = y + 1, (x − 1)y = x + 1, y = = f −1 (x)
y−1 x−1


17. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 3y 3 − 5, y = 3
(x + 5)/3 = f −1 (x)

√ 1 5
18. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 5
4y + 2, y = (x − 2) = f −1 (x)
4
√
19. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 3
2y − 1, y = (x3 + 1)/2 = f −1 (x)

5 5−x
20. y = f −1
(x), x = f (y) = 2 ,y= = f −1 (x)
y +1 x


21. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 3/y 2 , y = − 3/x = f −1 (x)
 
−1
2y, y≤0 −1
x/2, x ≤ 0
22. y = f (x), x = f (y) = 2
, y=f (x) = √
y , y>0 x, x > 0
 
5/2 − y, y<2 5/2 − x, x > 1/2
23. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = , y = f −1 (x) =
1/y, y≥2 1/x, 0 < x ≤ 1/2

24. y = p−1 (x), x = p(y) = y 3 − 3y 2 + 3y − 1 = (y − 1)3 , y = x1/3 + 1 = p−1 (x)

25. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = (y + 2)4 for y ≥ 0, y = f −1 (x) = x1/4 − 2 for x ≥ 16

√
26. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = y + 3 for y ≥ −3, y = f −1 (x) = x2 − 3 for x ≥ 0
√
27. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = − 3 − 2y for y ≤ 3/2, y = f −1 (x) = (3 − x2 )/2 for x ≤ 0

28. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 3y 2 + 5y − 2 for y ≥ 0, 3y 2 + 5y − 2 − x = 0 for y ≥ 0,

√
y = f −1 (x) = (−5 + 12x + 49)/6 for x ≥ −2

29. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = y − 5y 2 for y ≥ 1, 5y 2 − y + x = 0 for y ≥ 1,

√
y = f −1 (x) = (1 + 1 − 20x)/10 for x ≤ −4

5
30. (a) C = (F − 32)
9
(b) how many degrees Celsius given the Fahrenheit temperature
(c) C = −273.15◦ C is equivalent to F = −459.67◦ F, so the domain is F ≥ −459.67, the range
is C ≥ −273.15

104
31. (a) y = f (x) = (6.214 × 10−4 )x (b) x = f −1 (y) = y
6.214
(c) how many meters in y miles

32. f and f −1 are continuous so f (3) = lim f (x) = 7; then f −1 (7) = 3, and
  x→3
−1 −1 −1
lim f (x) = f lim x = f (7) = 3
x→7 x→7
266 Chapter 7

√ y
33. (a) f (g(x)) = f ( x) (b)
√
= ( x)2 = x, x > 1; y = f (x)

g(f (x)) = g(x2 )

√
= x2 = x, x > 1 y = g(x)

(c) no, because f (g(x)) = x for every x in the domain of g is not satisfied
(the domain of g is x ≥ 0)

34. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = ay 2 + by + c, ay 2 + by + c − x = 0, use the quadratic formula to get

−b ± b2 − 4a(c − x)
y= ;
2a



−1 −b + b2 − 4a(c − x) −1 −b − b2 − 4a(c − x)
(a) f (x) = (b) f (x) =
2a 2a

3−x
3−
35. (a) f (f (x)) = 1 − x = 3 − 3x − 3 + x = x so f = f −1
3−x 1−x−3+x
1−
1−x
(b) symmetric about the line y = x

36. y = m(x − x0 ) is an equation of the line. The graph of the inverse of f (x) = m(x − x0 ) will be the
reflection of this line about y = x. Solve y = m(x − x0 ) for x to get x = y/m + x0 = f −1 (y) so
y = f −1 (x) = x/m + x0 .

37. (a) f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2x = x(x − 1)(x − 2) so f (0) = f (1) = f (2) = 0 thus f is not one-to-one.
√
6 ± 36 − 24 √
(b) f  (x) = 3x2 − 6x + 2, f  (x) = 0 when x = = 1 ± 3/3. f  (x) > 0 (f is
√ 6 √ √
increasing) if x < 1 − 3/3, f  (x)
√ < 0 (f is decreasing) if 1√− 3/3 < x <√1 + 3/3, so f (x)
takes on values less than f (1 − 3/3) on both sides of 1 − 3/3 thus 1 − 3/3 is the largest
value of k.

38. (a) f (x) = x3 (x − 2) so f (0) = f (2) = 0 thus f is not one to one.

(b) f  (x) = 4x3 − 6x2 = 4x2 (x − 3/2), f  (x) = 0 when x = 0 or 3/2; f is decreasing on (−∞, 3/2]
and increasing on [3/2, +∞) so 3/2 is the smallest value of k.

39. if f −1 (x) = 1, then x = f (1) = 2(1)3 + 5(1) + 3 = 10

40. if f −1 (x) = 2, then x = f (2) = (2)3 /[(2)2 + 1] = 8/5

41. 6 42. 10

-5 10
-2 6

-2 -5
Exercise Set 7.1 267

43. 3 44. 6

0 3 0 6
0 0

dx dy 1
45. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 5y 3 + y − 7, = 15y 2 + 1, = ;
dy dx 15y 2 + 1
dy dy dy 1
check: 1 = 15y 2 + , =
dx dx dx 15y 2 + 1

dx dy
46. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 1/y 2 , = −2y −3 , = −y 3 /2;
dy dx
dy dy
check: 1 = −2y −3 , = −y 3 /2
dx dx
dx dy 1
47. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 2y 5 + y 3 + 1, = 10y 4 + 3y 2 , = ;
dy dx 10y + 3y 2
4

dy dy dy 1
check: 1 = 10y 4 + 3y 2 , =
dx dx dx 10y 4 + 3y 2

dx dy 1
48. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 5y − sin 2y, = 5 − 2 cos 2y, = ;
dy dx 5 − 2 cos 2y
dy dy 1
check: 1 = (5 − 2 cos 2y) , =
dx dx 5 − 2 cos 2y

49. f (f (x)) = x thus f = f −1 so the graph is symmetric about y = x.

50. (a) Suppose x1 = x2 where x1 and x2 are in the domain of g and g(x1 ), g(x2 ) are in the domain of
f then g(x1 ) = g(x2 ) because g is one-to-one so f (g(x1 )) = f (g(x2 )) because f is one-to-one
thus f ◦ g is one-to-one because (f ◦ g)(x1 ) = (f ◦ g)(x2 ) if x1 = x2 .
(b) f , g, and f ◦ g all have inverses because they are all one-to-one. Let h = (f ◦ g)−1 then
(f ◦ g)(h(x)) = f [g(h(x))] = x, apply f −1 to both sides to get g(h(x)) = f −1 (x), then apply
g −1 to get h(x) = g −1 (f −1 (x)) = (g −1 ◦ f −1 )(x), so h = g −1 ◦ f −1

51. y

52. Suppose that g and h are both inverses of f then f (g(x)) = x, h[f (g(x))] = h(x), but
h[f (g(x))] = g(x) because h is an inverse of f so g(x) = h(x).

53. F  (x) = 2f  (2g(x))g  (x) so F  (3) = 2f  (2g(3))g  (3). By inspection f (1) = 3, so g(3) = f −1 (3) = 1
and g  (3) = (f −1 ) (3) = 1/f  (f −1 (3)) = 1/f  (1) = 1/7 because f  (x) = 4x3 + 3x2 . Thus
F  (3) = 2f  (2)(1/7) = 2(44)(1/7) = 88/7.
F (3) = f (2g(3)), g(3) = f −1 (3); by inspection f (1) = 3, so g(3) = f −1 (3) = 1, F (3) = f (2) = 25.
268 Chapter 7

EXERCISE SET 7.2

1. (a) −4 (b) 4 (c) 1/4

2. (a) 1/16 (b) 8 (c) 1/3

3. (a) 2.9690 (b) 0.0341

4. (a) 1.8882 (b) 0.9381



1
4
5. (a) log2 16 = log2 (2 ) = 4 (b) log2 = log2 (2−5 ) = −5
32
(c) log4 4 = 1 (d) log9 3 = log9 (91/2 ) = 1/2

6. (a) log10 (0.001) = log10 (10−3 ) = −3 (b) log10 (104 ) = 4

√
(c) ln(e3 ) = 3 (d) ln( e) = ln(e1/2 ) = 1/2

7. (a) 1.3655 (b) −0.3011

8. (a) −0.5229 (b) 1.1447

1 1
9. (a) 2 ln a + ln b + ln c = 2r + s/2 + t/2 (b) ln b − 3 ln a − ln c = s − 3r − t
2 2
1 1
10. (a) ln c − ln a − ln b = t/3 − r − s (b) (ln a + 3 ln b − 2 ln c) = r/2 + 3s/2 − t
3 2
1 1
11. (a) 1 + log x + log(x − 3) (b) 2 ln |x| + 3 ln sin x − ln(x2 + 1)
2 2
1 1 1
12. (a) log(x + 2) − log cos 5x (b) ln(x2 + 1) − ln(x3 + 5)
3 2 2
√
24 (16) √ 100 x
13. log = log(256/3) 14. log x − log(sin3 2x) + log 100 = log
3 sin3 2x
√
3
x(x + 1)2
15. ln 16. 1 + x = 103 = 1000, x = 999
cos x
√
17. x = 10−1 = 0.1, x = 0.01 18. x2 = e4 , x = ±e2

19. 1/x = e−2 , x = e2 20. x = 7

21. 2x = 8, x = 4 22. log10 x3 = 30, x3 = 1030 , x = 1010

23. log10 x = 5, x = 105

4 4 √
24. ln 4x − ln x6 = ln 2, ln5
= ln 2, 5 = 2, x5 = 2, x = 5 2
x x



25. ln 2x2 = ln 3, 2x2 = 3, x2 = 3/2, x = 3/2 (we discard − 3/2 because it does not satisfy the
original equation)

ln 2
26. ln 3x = ln 2, x ln 3 = ln 2, x =
ln 3
Exercise Set 7.2 269

ln 3
27. ln 5−2x = ln 3, −2x ln 5 = ln 3, x = −
2 ln 5
1
28. e−2x = 5/3, −2x = ln(5/3), x = − ln(5/3)
2
1
29. e3x = 7/2, 3x = ln(7/2), x = ln(7/2)
3
30. ex (1 − 2x) = 0 so ex = 0 (impossible) or 1 − 2x = 0, x = 1/2

31. e−x (x + 2) = 0 so e−x = 0 (impossible) or x + 2 = 0, x = −2

32. e2x − ex − 6 = (ex − 3)(ex + 2) = 0 so ex = −2 (impossible) or ex = 3, x = ln 3

33. e−2x − 3e−x + 2 = (e−x − 2)(e−x − 1) = 0 so e−x = 2, x = − ln 2 or e−x = 1, x = 0

34. (a) y (b) y

2
x
2 6
-2 2

x
-2 2

35. (a) y (b) y

2
6
x
4
-4 2
2
x
-2 4
-4

36. (a) y (b) y

x
-1
x
3
-10 -1

37. log2 7.35 = (log 7.35)/(log 2) = (ln 7.35)/(ln 2) ≈ 2.8777;

log5 0.6 = (log 0.6)/(log 5) = (ln 0.6)/(ln 5) ≈ −0.3174

38. 10 39. 2

0 3

0 2

-5 -3
270 Chapter 7

40. (a) Let X = logb x and Y = loga x. Then bX = x and aY = x so aY = bX , or aY /X = b, which

loga x loga x
means loga b = Y /X. Substituting for Y and X yields = loga b, logb x = .
logb x loga b
(b) Let x = a to get logb a = (loga a)/(loga b) = 1/(loga b) so (loga b)(logb a) = 1.
(log2 81)(log3 32) = (log2 [34 ])(log3 [25 ]) = (4 log2 3)(5 log3 2) = 20(log2 3)(log3 2) = 20

41. (a) x = 3.6541, y = 1.2958 (b) x ≈ 332105.11, y ≈ 12.7132

2 12.7134

2 6 332085 332125
0.6 12.7130

42. Since the units are billions, one trillion is 1,000 units. Solve 1000 = 0.051517(1.1306727)x for x by
taking common logarithms, resulting in 3 = log 0.051517 + x log 1.1306727, which yields x ≈ 77.4,
so the debt first reached one trillion dollars around 1977.

43. (a) no, the curve passes through the origin (b) y = 2x/4
√
(c) y = 2−x (d) y = ( 5)x
5

-1 2
0

44. (a) As x → +∞ the function grows very slowly, but it is always increasing and tends to +∞. As
x → 1+ the function tends to −∞.
(b) y
5

x
1 2

-5

45. log(1/2) < 0 so 3 log(1/2) < 2 log(1/2)

46. Let x = logb a and y = logb c, so a = bx and c = by .

First, ac = bx by = bx+y or equivalently, logb (ac) = x + y = logb a + logb c.
Secondly, a/c = bx /by = bx−y or equivalently, logb (a/c) = x − y = logb a − logb c.
Next, ar = (bx )r = brx or equivalently, logb ar = rx = r logb a.
Finally, 1/c = 1/by = b−y or equivalently, logb (1/c) = −y = − logb c.

47. 75e−t/125 = 15, t = −125 ln(1/5) = 125 ln 5 ≈ 201 days.

Exercise Set 7.3 271

48. (a) a If t = 0, then Q = 12 grams

(b) b Q = 12e−0.055(4) = 12e−0.22 ≈ 9.63 grams
(c) 12e−0.055t = 6, e−0.055t = 0.5, t = −(ln 0.5)/(0.055) ≈ 12.6 hours

49. (a) 7.4; basic (b) 4.2; acidic (c) 6.4; acidic (d) 5.9; acidic

50. (a) log[H + ] = −2.44, [H + ] = 10−2.44 ≈ 3.6 × 10−3 mol/L

(b) log[H + ] = −8.06, [H + ] = 10−8.06 ≈ 8.7 × 10−9 mol/L

51. (a) 140 dB; damage (b) 120 dB; damage

(c) 80 dB; no damage (d) 75 dB; no damage

52. Suppose that I1 = 3I2 and β1 = 10 log10 I1 /I0 , β2 = 10 log10 I2 /I0 . Then
I1 /I0 = 3I2 /I0 , log10 I1 /I0 = log10 3I2 /I0 = log10 3 + log10 I2 /I0 , β1 = 10 log10 3 + β2 ,
β1 − β2 = 10 log10 3 ≈ 4.8 decibels.

53. Let IA and IB be the intensities of the automobile and blender, respectively. Then
log10 IA /I0 = 7 and log10 IB /I0 = 9.3, IA = 107 I0 and IB = 109.3 I0 , so IB /IA = 102.3 ≈ 200.

54. The decibel level of the nth echo is 120(2/3)n ;

log(1/12) log 12
120(2/3)n < 10 if (2/3)n < 1/12, n < = ≈ 6.13 so 6 echoes can be heard.
log(2/3) log 1.5

55. (a) log E = 4.4 + 1.5(8.2) = 16.7, E = 1016.7 ≈ 5 × 1016 J

(b) Let M1 and M2 be the magnitudes of earthquakes with energies of E and 10E,
respectively. Then 1.5(M2 − M1 ) = log(10E) − log E = log 10 = 1,
M2 − M1 = 1/1.5 = 2/3 ≈ 0.67.

56. Let E1 and E2 be the energies of earthquakes with magnitudes M and M + 1, respectively. Then
log E2 − log E1 = log(E2 /E1 ) = 1.5, E2 /E1 = 101.5 ≈ 31.6.

57. If t = −2x, then x = −t/2 and lim (1 − 2x)1/x = lim (1 + t)−2/t = lim [(1 + t)1/t ]−2 = e−2 .
x→0 t→0 t→0

58. If t = 3/x, then x = 3/t and lim (1 + 3/x)x = lim+ (1 + t)3/t = lim+ [(1 + t)1/t ]3 = e3 .
x→+∞ t→0 t→0

EXERCISE SET 7.3

1 1
1. (2) = 1/x 2. (3x2 ) = 3/x
2x x3
 
1 2 ln x 1
3. 2(ln x) = 4. (cos x) = cot x
x x sin x
 
1 sec2 x 1 1 1
5. (sec2 x) = 6. √ √ = √ √
tan x tan x 2+ x 2 x 2 x(2 + x)


1 (1 + x2 )(1) − x(2x) 1 − x2
7. 2 2 2
=
x/(1 + x ) (1 + x ) x(1 + x2 )
 
1 1 1 3x2 − 14x
8. = 9.
ln x x x ln x x3 − 7x2 − 3
272 Chapter 7

   
1 1 1 1
10. x3 + (3x2 ) ln x = x2 (1 + 3 ln x) 11. (ln x)−1/2 = √
x 2 x 2x ln x
1
2 2(ln x)(1/x) ln x 1
12.
=
13. − sin(ln x)
2
1 + ln x x 1 + ln2 x x

1 sin(2 ln x) sin(ln x2 )
14. 2 sin(ln x) cos(ln x) = =
x x x

−2x3
15. 3x2 log2 (3 − 2x) +
(ln 2)(3 − 2x)

3
2 2x − 2
16. log2 (x2 − 2x) + 3x log2 (x2 − 2x)
(x2 − 2x) ln 2

2x(1 + log x) − x/(ln 10)

17. 18. 1/[x(ln 10)(1 + log x)2 ]
(1 + log x)2
2
19. 7e7x 20. −10xe−5x

1 1/x
21. x3 ex + 3x2 ex = x2 ex (x + 3) 22. − e
x2

dy (ex + e−x )(ex + e−x ) − (ex − e−x )(ex − e−x )

23. =
dx (ex + e−x )2

(e2x + 2 + e−2x ) − (e2x − 2 + e−2x )

= = 4/(ex + e−x )2
(ex + e−x )2

24. ex cos(ex )

dy (ln x)ex − ex (1/x) ex (x ln x − 1)

25. (x sec2 x + tan x)ex tan x 26. = =
dx (ln x)2 x(ln x)2

15 2

x (1 + 5x3 )−1/2 exp( 1 + 5x3 )
3x
27. (1 − 3e3x )e(x−e )
28.
2
(x − 1)e−x x−1 1
29. = x 30. [− sin(ex )]ex = −ex tan(ex )
1 − xe−x e −x cos(ex )
 
dy 1 dy dy y
31. + x +y = 0, =−
dx xy dx dx x(y + 1)
 
dy 1 dy dy tan y
32. = x sec2 y + tan y , =
dx x tan y dx dx x(tan y − sec2 y)

d 1 2 3x
33. ln cos x − ln(4 − 3x ) = − tan x +
dx 2 4 − 3x2
   
d 1 1 1 1
34. [ln(x − 1) − ln(x + 1)] = −
dx 2 2 x−1 x+1


1 dy 1 2x
35. ln |y| = ln |x| + ln |1 + x2 |,
3
= x 1 + x2 +
3 dx x 3(1 + x2 )
Exercise Set 7.3 273

 
1 dy 1 x−1 1 1
36. ln |y| = [ln |x − 1| − ln |x + 1|], = 5
−
5 dx 5 x+1 x−1 x+1

1 1
37. ln |y| = ln |x2 − 8| + ln |x3 + 1| − ln |x6 − 7x + 5|
3 2
√ 
dy (x2 − 8)1/3 x3 + 1 2x 3x2 6x5 − 7
= + −
dx x6 − 7x + 5 3(x2 − 8) 2(x3 + 1) x6 − 7x + 5

1
38. ln |y| = ln | sin x| + ln | cos x| + 3 ln | tan x| − ln |x|
2

dy sin x cos x tan3 x 3 sec2 x 1
= √ cot x − tan x + −
dx x tan x 2x

1 
39. f  (x) = 2x ln 2; y = 2x , ln y = x ln 2, y = ln 2, y  = y ln 2 = 2x ln 2
y

1 
40. f  (x) = −3−x ln 3; y = 3−x , ln y = −x ln 3, y = − ln 3, y  = −y ln 3 = −3−x ln 3
y

41. f  (x) = π sin x (ln π) cos x;

1 
y = π sin x , ln y = (sin x) ln π, y = (ln π) cos x, y  = π sin x (ln π) cos x
y

42. f  (x) = π x tan x (ln π)(x sec2 x + tan x);

1 
y = π x tan x , ln y = (x tan x) ln π, y = (ln π)(x sec2 x + tan x)
y
y  = π x tan x (ln π)(x sec2 x + tan x)

1 dy 3x2 − 2 1
43. ln y = (ln x) ln(x3 − 2x), = 3 ln x + ln(x3 − 2x),
y dx x − 2x x
 2
dy 3x − 2 1
= (x3 − 2x)ln x 3 ln x + ln(x3 − 2x)
dx x − 2x x

1 dy sin x dy sin x
44. ln y = (sin x) ln x, = + (cos x) ln x, = xsin x + (cos x) ln x
y dx x dx x

1 dy 1
45. ln y = (tan x) ln(ln x), = tan x + (sec2 x) ln(ln x),
y dx x ln x

dy tan x tan x 2
= (ln x) + (sec x) ln(ln x)
dx x ln x

1 dy 2x 1
46. ln y = (ln x) ln(x2 + 3), = 2 ln x + ln(x2 + 3),
y dx x +3 x

dy 2x 1
= (x2 + 3)ln x 2 ln x + ln(x2 + 3)
dx x +3 x

47. f  (x) = exe−1

274 Chapter 7

48. (a) because xx is not of the form ax where a is constant

1 
(b) y = xx , ln y = x ln x, y = 1 + ln x, y  = xx (1 + ln x)
y

ln e 1 d 1
49. (a) logx e = = , [logx e] = −
ln x ln x dx x(ln x)2
ln 2 d ln 2
(b) logx 2 = , [logx 2] = −
ln x dx x(ln x)2
2
50. (a) ex (b) ln x

51. (a) f  (x) = kekx , f  (x) = k 2 ekx , f  (x) = k 3 ekx , . . . , f (n) (x) = k n ekx
(b) f  (x) = −ke−kx , f  (x) = k 2 e−kx , f  (x) = −k 3 e−kx , . . . , f (n) (x) = (−1)n k n e−kx

dy
52. = e−λt (ωA cos ωt − ωB sin ωt) + (−λ)e−λt (A sin ωt + B cos ωt)
dt
= e−λt [(ωA − λB) cos ωt − (ωB + λA) sin ωt]
  2   2
1 1 x − µ d 1 x − µ
53. f  (x) = √ exp − −
2πσ 2 σ dx 2 σ
  2     
1 1 x−µ x−µ 1
=√ exp − −
2πσ 2 σ σ σ
  2
1 1 x−µ
= −√ (x − µ) exp −
2πσ 3 2 σ

54. y = Aekt , dy/dt = kAekt = k(Aekt ) = ky

55. y = Ae2x + Be−4x , y  = 2Ae2x − 4Be−4x , y  = 4Ae2x + 16Be−4x so

y  + 2y  − 8y = (4Ae2x + 16Be−4x ) + 2(2Ae2x − 4Be−4x ) − 8(Ae2x + Be−4x ) = 0

56. (a) y  = −xe−x + e−x = e−x (1 − x), xy  = xe−x (1 − x) = y(1 − x)

2 2 2 2
(b) y  = −x2 e−x /2
+ e−x /2
= e−x /2
(1 − x2 ), xy  = xe−x /2
(1 − x2 ) = y(1 − x2 )

ln(1 + h) − ln 1 ln(1 + h) 1
57. (a) f (w) = ln w; f  (1) = lim = lim =  =1
h→0 h h→0 h w w=1
 
10h − 1 d w 
 
w 
(b) f (w) = 10 ; f (0) = lim = (10 ) = 10 ln 10
w
= ln 10
h→0 h dw w=0 w=0
 
ln(e2 + ∆x) − 2 d  1
58. (a) f (x) = ln x; f  (e2 ) = lim = (ln x) =  = e−2
∆x→0 ∆x dx x=e 2 x x=e 2

 
2 −2
w
d w  
(b) f (w) = 2w ; f  (1) = lim = (2 ) = 2w ln 2 = 2 ln 2
w→1 w − 1 dw w=1 w=1

59. 2 ln x + 3ex + C
 
1 −1 √ t 1 √
60. t − 2e dt = ln t − 2et + C
2 2
Exercise Set 7.3 275

 
1 1 1 1
61. (a) du = ln |u| + C = ln | ln x| + C (b) − eu du = − eu + C = − e−5x + C
u 5 5 5

1 1 1 1
62. (a) − du = − ln |u| + C = − ln |(1 + cos 3θ)| + C
3 u 3 3

du
(b) = ln u + C = ln(1 + ex ) + C
u

1 1 1
63. u = 2x, du = 2dx; eu du = eu + C = e2x + C
2 2 2

1 1 1 1
64. u = 2x, du = 2dx; du = ln |u| + C = ln |2x| + C
2 u 2 2

65. u = sin x, du = cos x dx; eu du = eu + C = esin x + C


1 1 u 1 4
4
66. u = x , du = 4x dx; 3
eu du = e + C = ex + C
4 4 4

1 1 1 3
67. u = −2x3 , du = −6x2 , − eu du = − eu + C = − e−2x + C
6 6 6

1  
68. u = ex − e−x , du = (ex + e−x )dx, du = ln |u| + C = ln ex − e−x  + C
u
 
69. e−x dx; u = −x, du = −dx; − eu du = −eu + C = −e−x + C

 
√
70. ex/2 dx; u = x/2, du = dx/2; 2 eu du = 2eu + C = 2ex/2 + C = 2 ex + C


√ 1 √
71. u = y + 1, du = √ dy, 2 eu du = 2eu + C = 2e y+1 + C
2 y+1
 
√ 1 1 √
72. u = y, du = √ dy, 2 u
du = 2 e−u du = −2e−u + C = −2e− y + C
2 y e
  
1
73. 1+ dt = t + ln |t| + C
t
 
ln x2 2 ln x 1 3
74. e 2 ln x
=e 2
= x , x > 0, so e dx = x2 dx = x +C
3

75. ln(ex ) + ln(e−x ) = ln(ex e−x ) = ln 1 = 0 so [ln(ex ) + ln(e−x )]dx = C

 
cos x 1
76. dx; u = sin x, du = cos xdx; du = ln |u| + C = ln | sin x| + C
sin x u
3 1
77. 5ex = 5e3 − 5(2) = 5e3 − 10 78. (ln x)/2 = (ln 2)/2
ln 2 1/2

 1 
1 1
1 u  1  2
3
79. (a) u
e du = e  = e − e−1 (b) udu =
2 −1 2  2 1 2
−1
276 Chapter 7

 6

80. 36 − u2 du = π(6)2 /2 = 18π
−6

1 13
81. u = ex + 4, du = ex dx, u = e− ln 3 + 4 =+4= when x = − ln 3,
3 3
 7 7
1
ln 3
u = e + 4 = 3 + 4 = 7 when x = ln 3, du = ln u = ln(7) − ln(13/3) = ln(21/13)
13/3 u 13/3

82. u = 3 − 4ex , du = −4ex dx, u = −1 when x = 0, u = −17 when x = ln 5

 −17
1 −17 1
− u du = − u2 = −36
4 −1 8 −1

e √2
1 2
83. ln(x + e) = ln(2e) − ln e = ln 2 84. − e−x = (e−1 − e−2 )/2
0 2 1
ln 2  
1 1 1 1
85. − e−3x = − (e−3 ln 2 − e0 ) = − −1 = 7/24
3 0 3 3 8
 0  1 0 1
86. (1 − ex )dx + (ex − 1)dx = (x − ex ) + (ex − x) = −1 − (−1 − e−1 ) + e − 1 − 1 = e + 1/e − 2
−1 0 −1 0

87. (a) y 88. y

6 4

2
x x
-1 1 2 -4 4

(b) f (x) = ex /2 + 1/2


2 2
89. (a) y(t) = 2e−t dt = −2e−t + C, y(1) = − + C = 3 − , C = 3; y(t) = −2e−t + 3
 e e
(b) y(t) = t−1 dt = ln |t| + C, y(−1) = C = 5, C = 5; y(t) = ln |t| + 5

EXERCISE SET 7.4

-- - 0 + + +
1. (a) critical point x = 0; f  : 0
x = 0: relative minimum
(b) critical point x = ln 2: f  : -- - 0 + + +
x = ln 2: relative minimum ln 2

2. (a) critical points x = −1, 1:f  : - - -0+ + + 0- - -

x = −1: relative minimum; -1 1
x = 1: relative maximum
(b) x = 1: neither -- - 0 -- -
1
Exercise Set 7.4 277

3. f  (x) = x2 (2x − 3)e−2x , f  (x) = 0 for x in [1, 4] when x = 3/2; 0.2

27
if x = 1, 3/2, 4, then f (x) = e−2 , e−3 , 64e−8 ;
8
27 −3
critical point at x = 3/2; absolute maximum of e at x = 3/2,
8
−8
absolute minimum of 64e at x = 4

1 4
0

4. f  (x) = (1 − ln 2x)/x2 , f  (x) = 0 on [1, e] for x = e/2; 0.76

if x = 1, e/2, e then f (x) = ln 2, 2/e, (ln 2 + 1)/e;
1 + ln 2
absolute minimum of at x = e,
e
absolute maximum of 2/e at x = e/2

1 2.7
0.64

y
5. (a) lim xex = +∞, lim xex = 0
x→+∞ x→−∞
1
(b) y = xex ; -5 -3
y  = (x + 1)ex ; x

y  = (x + 2)ex
(-2, -0.27) -1
(-1, -0.37)

6. (a) lim xe−2x = 0, lim xe−2x = −∞ y

x→+∞ x→−∞ 0.3
  (0.5, 0.18)
1 −2x 
(b) y = xe−2x ; y  = −2 x − e ; y = 4(x − 1)e−2x 0.1 (1, 0.14)
x
2 -3 1 3

-0.3

x2 x2
7. (a) lim = 0, lim = +∞ y
x→+∞ e2x x→−∞ e2x
0.3
(b) y = x2 /e2x = x2 e−2x ;
y  = 2x(1 − x)e−2x ; (1, 0.14)
(1.71, 0.10)
y  = 2(2x2 − 4x + 1)e−2x ; x
1 2 3
y  = 0 if 2x2 − 4x + 1 = 0, when (0, 0)
√ (0.29, 0.05)
4 ± 16 − 8 √
x= = 1 ± 2/2 ≈ 0.29, 1.71
4

8. (a) lim x2 e2x = +∞, lim x2 e2x = 0. y

x→+∞ x→−∞
0.3
(b) y = x2 e2x ; (-1, 0.14) 0.2
 2x (-1.71, 0.10)
y = 2x(x + 1)e ; x
 2 2x -3 -2 -1 (0, 0)
y = 2(2x + 4x + 1)e ;
(-0.29, 0.05)
y  = 0 if 2x2 + 4x + 1 = 0, when
√
−4 ± 16 − 8 √
x= = −1 ± 2/2 ≈ −0.29, −1.71
4
278 Chapter 7

9. (a) lim f (x) = +∞, lim f (x) = −∞ y

x→+∞ x→−∞
2
100
(b) y = xex ;
2 (0,0)
y  = (1 + 2x2 )ex ; x
2
y  = 2x(3 + 2x2 )ex -2 2
no relative extrema, inflection point at (0, 0)
-100

10. (a) lim f (x) = 1

x→±∞ y
 −3 −1/x2   1
(b) f (x) = 2x e so f (x) < 0 for x < 0 and f (x) > 0
0.8
for x > 0. Set u = x2 and use the given result to find
lim f  (x) = 0, so (by the First Derivative Test) f (x)
x→0 0.4
2
has a minimum at x = 0. f  (x) = (−6x−4 −6 −1/x

+ 4x )e , (-√2/3, e-3/2) (√2/3, e-3/2)
so f (x) has points of inflection at x = ± 2/3. x
-10 -5 5 10
(0, 0)

11. lim f (x) = +∞, lim f (x) = 0 y

x→+∞ x→−∞
x−1 x − 2x + 2
2
f  (x) = ex 2 , f  (x) = ex 6
x x3
critical point at x = 1;
(1, e)
relative minimum at x = 1 x
no points of inflection –2 1 3
vertical asymptote x = 0,
–4
horizontal asymptote y = 0 for x → −∞

12. lim f (x) = 0, lim f (x) = −∞ y

(1, e1)
x→+∞ x→−∞
f (x) = (1 − x)e , f (x) = (x − 2)e−x
 −x  (2, e22)
0.2
critical point at x = 1; relative maximum at x = 1 x
point of inflection at x = 2 1 2
horizontal asymptote y = 0 as x → +∞

-0.8

13. lim f (x) = 0, lim f (x) = +∞ y

x→+∞ x→−∞ 1.8

f (x) = x(2 − x)e 1−x 
, f (x) = (x − 4x + 2)e
2 1−x (2, 4e )
critical points at x = 0, 2;
relative minimum at x = 0, 1 (3.41, 1.04)
relative maximum at x = 2 √
0.6
points of inflection at x = 2 ± 2 ≈ 0.59, 3.41 (0.59, 0.52)
horizontal asymptote y = 0 as x → +∞ x
(0, 0) 1 2 3 4
Exercise Set 7.4 279

14. lim f (x) = +∞, lim f (x) = 0 y

x→+∞ x→−∞
 
f (x) = x2 (3 + x)e x−1
, f (x) = x(x2 + 6x + 6)ex−1 0.8
critical points at x = −3, 0; 0.4
relative minimum at x = −3 √ (0, 0) x
points of inflection at x = 0, −3 ± 3 ≈ 0, −4.7, −1.27 -4 -2 1
horizontal asymptote y = 0 as x → −∞ -0.4 (–1.27, –0.21)
(–4.7, –0.35)
(–3, –0.49)

ln x 1/x
15. (a) lim+ y = lim+ x ln x = lim+ = lim+ = 0;
x→0 x→0 x→0 1/x x→0 −1/x2 y
lim y = +∞
x→+∞

(b) y = x ln x, x
y  = 1 + ln x, 1
y  = 1/x, (e-1, -e-1)
y  = 0 when x = e−1

ln x 1/x
16. (a) lim y = lim = lim = 0, y
x→0+ x→0+ 1/x2 x→0+ −2/x3
lim y = +∞ 0.2
x→+∞
0.1
x
(b) y = x2 ln x, y  = x(1 + 2 ln x),
(e-3/2, - 32 e-3)-0.1 1
y  = 3 + 2 ln x,
y  = 0 if x = e−1/2 , -0.2
(e-1/2, -12 e-1)
y  = 0 if x = e−3/2 ,
lim y  = 0
x→0+

ln x
17. (a) lim y = lim+ = −∞; y
x→0+ x→0 x2 0.4 (e1/2, 12 e-1)
ln x 1/x 0.3
lim y = lim 2
= lim =0 0.2 (e5/6, 56 e-5/3)
x→+∞ x→+∞ x x→+∞ 2x
0.1 x
ln x 1 − 2 ln x 1 2 3
(b) y = 2 , y  = , -0.1
x x3 -0.2
6 ln x − 5 -0.3
y  = , -0.4
x4
y  = 0 if x = e1/2 ,
y  = 0 if x = e5/6
√ √
18. (a) Let u = 1/x, lim+ (ln x)/ x = lim − u ln u = −∞ by inspection,
√
x→0 u→+∞
lim (ln x)/ x = 0, by the rule given.
x→+∞ y (e2, 2/e)
(e8/3, 83 e-4/3)
ln x 2 − ln x
(b) y = √ , y  = 0.5
x 2x3/2 x
−8 + 3 ln x
y  = 2 6 10 14
4x5/2
y  = 0 if x = e2 , -1
y  = 0 if x = e8/3
280 Chapter 7

19. (a) lim x2 ln x = 0 by the rule given, lim x2 ln x = +∞ by inspection, and f (x) not defined
x→0+ x→+∞
for x < 0
(b) y = x2 ln 2x, y  = 2x ln 2x + x y
y  = 2 ln 2x + 3 √
y  = 0 if x = 1/(2 e),
y  = 0 if x = 1/(2e3/2 )
(2e1 , – 8e3 )
3/2 3
x
1
2

(21 e, – 8e1 )
√

20. (a) lim f (x) = +∞; lim f (x) = 0 y

x→+∞ x→0

(b) y = ln(x2 + 1), y  = 2x/(x2 + 1)

x2 − 1 2
y  = −2 2
(x + 1)2
 1
y = 0 if x = 0 (–1, ln 2) (1, ln 2)
y  = 0 if x = ±1 x
–2 (0, 0) 2

21. (a) 0.4 (b) y  = (1 − bx)e−bx , y  = b2 (x − 2/b)e−bx ;

relative maximum at x = 1/b, y = 1/be;
point of inflection at x = 2/b, y = 2/be2 .
Increasing b moves the relative maximum
-0.5 3 and the point of inflection to the left and
down, i.e. towards the origin.
-0.2

2
22. (a) 1 (b) y  = −2bxe−bx ,
2
y  = 2b(−1 + 2bx2 )e−bx ;
relative maximum at x
= 0, y = 1; points
√
of inflection at x = ± 1/2b, y = 1/ e.
Increasing b moves the points of inflection
towards the y-axis; the relative maximum
-2 2
0 doesn’t move.

23. (a) The oscillations of ex cos x about zero in- (b) y

crease as x → +∞ so the limit does not 6
(0,1)
exist, and lim ex cos x = 0. 4
(1.52, 0.22)
x→−∞
x
-2 -1 1 2
-2
Exercise Set 7.4 281

(c) The curve y = eax cos bx oscillates between y = eax and y = −eax . The frequency of
oscillation increases when b increases.
y y a=3
b=3
5 10

x 5 a=2
-1 2 a=1
x
b=1 -1 0.5 1
-5 b=2 b=1
a=1

24. Let P (x0 , y0 ) be a point on y = e3x then y0 = e3x0 . dy/dx = 3e3x so mtan = 3e3x0 at P and an
equation of the tangent line at P is y − y0 = 3e3x0 (x − x0 ), y − e3x0 = 3e3x0 (x − x0 ). If the line
passes through the origin then (0, 0) must satisfy the equation so −e3x0 = −3x0 e3x0 which gives
x0 = 1/3 and thus y0 = e. The point is (1/3, e).

dy 1 1 dy dy
25. (b) y (c) = − so < 0 at x = 1 and > 0 at x = e
dx 2 x dx dx
6

2
x
1 2 3 4

(d) The slope is a continuous function which goes from a negative value to a positive value;
therefore it must take the value zero in between, by the Intermediate Value Theorem.
dy
(e) = 0 when x = 2
dx

dC K  −at  dC ln(a/b)
26. (a) = ae − be−bt so = 0 at t = . This is the only stationary point and
dt a−b dt a−b
C(0) = 0, lim C(t) = 0, C(t) > 0 for 0 < t < +∞, so it is an absolute maximum.
t→+∞

(b) 0.7

0 10
0

27. (a) 100

0 8
20
282 Chapter 7

(b) as t tends to +∞, the population tends to 19

95 95 95
lim P (t) = lim −t/4
= −t/4
= = 19
t→+∞ t→+∞ 5 − 4e 5 − 4 lim e 5
t→+∞
0
0 8
(c) the rate of population growth tends to zero

-80

28. (a) 12

0 9
0

60 60 60
(b) P tends to 12 as t gets large; lim P (t) = lim = = = 12
t→+∞ t→+∞ 5 + 7e−t 5 + 7 lim e−t 5
t→+∞
(c) the rate of population growth tends to zero
3.2

0 9
0

29. t = 7.67 1000

0 15
0

dN
30. (a) = 250(20 − t)e−t/20 = 0 at t = 20, N (0) = 125,000, N (20) ≈ 161,788, and
dt
N (100) ≈ 128,369; the absolute maximum is N = 161,788 at t = 20, the absolute
minimum is N = 125,000 at t = 0.

dN d2 N
(b) The absolute minimum of occurs when = 12.5(t − 40)e−t/20 = 0, t = 40.
dt dt2
Exercise Set 7.4 283

LAke−kt LAk
31. (a) y  (t) = S, so y  (0) =
(1 + Ae−kt )2 (1 + A)2
(b) The rate of growth increases to its maximum, which occurs when y is halfway between 0 and
1
L, or when t = ln A; it then decreases back towards zero.
k
dy
(c) From (2) one sees that is maximized when y lies half way between 0 and L, i.e. y = L/2.
dt
This follows since the right side of (2) is a parabola (with y as independent variable) with
1
y-intercepts y = 0, L. The value y = L/2 corresponds to t = ln A, from (4).
k

32. Since 0 < y < L the right-hand side of (3) can change sign only if the factor L − 2y changes sign,
L L 1
which it does when y = L/2. From (1) we have = −kt
, 1 = Ae−kt , t = ln A.
2 1 + Ae k

 
dk q(T − T0 )  q  qk0 q(T − T0 )
33. = k0 exp − − 2 = − 2 exp −
dT 2T0 T 2T 2T 2T0 T

dβ 10
34. β = 10 log I − 10 log I0 , =
dI I ln 10

dβ 1 dβ 1
(a) = db/W/m2 (b) = db/W/m2
dI I=10I0 I0 ln 10 dI I=100I0 10I0 ln 10

dβ 1
(c) = db/W/m2
dI I=100I0 100I0 ln 10

dy dx dy dy dx dx
35. Solve =3 given y = x ln x. Then = = (1 + ln x) , so 1 + ln x = 3, ln x = 2,
dt dt dt dx dt dt
x = e2 .

36. v(t) = (1 − t)e−t , a(t) = (t − 2)e−t

0.4 1 0.1
0 6

0 8
0 10
0 -0.2 -2
s(t) v(t) a(t)

(a) v = 0 at t = 1 (b) s = 1/e at t = 1

(c) a changes sign at t = 2, so the particle is speeding up for 1 < t < 2 and slowing down for
0 < t < 1 and 2 < t

 3 3  5 5
x x 3 1
37. e dx = e =e −e 38. dx = ln x = ln 5 − ln 1 = ln 5
1 1 1 x 1
284 Chapter 7

  e
ln 2  e
dy
39. A = e2x − ex dx 40. A = = ln y = 1
y 1
 ln 2
0 1

1 2x y
= e − ex = 1/2
2 e
0
y

y = e2x 1
4
x
1/e 1
2
y = ex
x
ln 2

 0  1
41. A = A1 + A2 = (1 − ex )dx + (ex − 1)dx = 1/e + e − 2
−1 0

 1  2  
1−x x−1 1
42. A = A1 + A2 = dx + dx = − − ln 2 + (1 − ln 2) = 1/2
1/2 x 1 x 2
 e
1 1 1 1
43. fave = dx = (ln e − ln 1) =
e−1 1 x e−1 e−1

1 ln 5
1 5 − e−1
44. fave = ex dx = (5 − e−1 ) =
ln 5 − (−1) −1 ln 5 + 1 1 + ln 5

 4
1 4
1 1 − e−8
45. fave = e−2x dx = − e−2x =
4−0 0 8 0 8
 k k
1 2x 1 1
46. e2x dx = 3, e = 3, (e2k − 1) = 3, e2k = 7, k = ln 7
0 2 0 2 2

47. y(t) = (802.137) e1.528t dt = 524.959e1.528t + C; y(0) = 750 = 524.959 + C, C = 225.041,

y(t) = 524.959e1.528t + 225.041, y(12) = 48, 233, 525, 650

 10 10
275000 −0.17t −0.17t
48. Vave = e dt = −161764.7059e = $132, 212.96
10 − 0 0 0

49. s(t) = (25 + 10e−0.05t )dt = 25t − 200e−0.05t + C
√
(a) s(10) − s(0) = 250 − 200(e−0.5 − 1) = 450 − 200/ e ≈ 328.69 ft
(b) yes; without it the distance would have been 250 ft
 3
50. (a) displacement = (et − 2)dt = e3 − 7
0
 3  ln 2  3
distance = |v(t)|dt = − v(t)dt + v(t)dt = e3 − 9 + 4 ln 2
0 0 ln 2
Exercise Set 7.4 285

 3  
1 1
(b) displacement = − dt = 1 − ln 3
1 2 t
 3  2  3
distance = |v(t)|dt = − v(t)dt + v(t)dt = 2 ln 2 − ln 3
1 1 2

51. (a) From the graph the velocity is positive, so the displacement v
is always increasing and is therefore positive. 0.4

0.2

x
2 4

(b) s(t) = t/2 + (t + 1)e−t

52. (a) If t0 < 1 then the area between the velocity curve and the v
0.1
t-axis, between t = 0 and t = t0 , will always be negative,
t
so the displacement will be negative.
0.2 0.6 1
-0.1

-0.2

 
t2 1 t2 t 1
(b) s(t) = − ln(t + 0.1) − + − ln 10
2 200 4 20 200

53. x = 0; also set 25


f (x) = 1 − e cos x, f (x) = e (sin x − cos x),
x x

1 − ex cos x
xn+1 = xn − x
e (sin x − cos x)
x1 = 1, x2 = 1.572512605,
0 c
x3 = 1.363631415, x7 = x8 = 1.292695719
-5

54. The graphs of y = e−x and y = ln x intersect near x = 1.3; 1

let f (x) = e−x − ln x, f  (x) = −e−x − 1/x, x1 = 1.3, 0 2

e−xn − ln xn
xn+1 = xn + −xn , x2 = 1.309759929,
e + 1/xn
x4 = x5 = 1.309799586

-4

55. A graphing utility shows that there are two inflection points at x ≈ −0.25, 1.25. These points
ex
are the zeros of f  (x) = (x4 − 4x3 + 8x2 − 4x − 1) 2 . It is equivalent to find the zeros of
(x + 1)3
g(x) = x4 − 4x3 + 8x2 − 4x − 1. One root is x = 1 by inspection. Since g  (x) = 4x3 − 12x2 + 16x − 4,
286 Chapter 7

Newton’s Method becomes

x4n−1 − 4x3n−1 + 8x2n−1 − 4xn−1 − 1
xn = xn−1 −
4x3n−1 − 12x2n−1 + 16xn−1 − 4

With x0 = −0.25, x1 = −0.18572695, x2 = −0.179563312, x3 = −0.179509029,

x4 = x5 = −0.179509025. So the points of inflection are at x ≈ −0.18, x = 1.

56. (a) Let h(x) = ex − 1 − x for x ≥ 0. Then h(0) = 0 and h (x) = ex − 1 ≥ 0 for x ≥ 0, so h(x) is
increasing.
(b) Let h(x) = ex −1−x− 12 x2 . Then h(0) = 0 and h (x) = ex −1−x. By Part (a), ex −1−x ≥ 0
for x ≥ 0, so h(x) is increasing.

(c) 6 6

0 2 0 2
0 0

 ln 3 ln 3  1
π π
57. V = π e dx = e2x
2x
= 4π 58. V = π e−4x dx = (1 − e−4 )
0 2 0 0 4
y
1

x
1

-1

  √
x 1 3
2 2
√3
59. V = 2π 2
dx 60. V = 2πxex dx = πex = π(e3 − e)
0 x +1 1 1
1 y
= π ln(x2 + 1) = π ln 2
0 20 2
y = ex
y
1 y= 1
x2 + 1 10

x x
-1 1 -√3 -1 1 √3

61. (dx/dt)2 + (dy/dt)2 = [et (cos t − sin t)]2 + [et (cos t + sin t)]2 = 2e2t ,
 π/2 √ √
L= 2et dt = 2(eπ/2 − 1)
0
Exercise Set 7.5 287

 4
62. (dx/dt)2 + (dy/dt)2 = (2et cos t)2 + (−2et sin t)2 = 4e2t , L = 2et dt = 2(e4 − e)
1

sec x tan x
√
63. dy/dx = = tan x, 1 + (y  )2 = 1 + tan2 x = sec x when 0 < x < π/4, so
sec x
 π/4 √
L= sec x dx = ln(1 + 2)
0

cos x
√
64. dy/dx = = cot x, 1 + (y  )2 = 1 + cot2 x = csc x when π/4 < x < π/2, so
sin x
 π/2 √ 
√ 2−1 √ √
L= csc x dx = − ln( 2 − 1) = − ln √ ( 2 + 1) = ln(1 + 2)
π/4 2+1
 1

 
65. f (x) = e , x 2 2x
1 + [f (x)] = 1 + e , S = 2πex 1 + e2x dx ≈ 22.94
0
 e

 
66. x = g(y) = ln y, g (y) = 1/y, 1 + [g (y)] = 1 + 1/y ; S = 2 2
2π 1 + 1/y 2 ln y dy ≈ 7.05
1

67. x = et (cos t − sin t), y  = et (cos t + sin t), (x )2 + (y  )2 = 2e2t

 π/2 √ √  π/2 2t
S = 2π (et sin t) 2e2t dt = 2 2π e sin t dt
0 0
 π/2 √
√ 1 2t 2 2
= 2 2π e (2 sin t − cos t) = π(2eπ + 1)
5 0 5

EXERCISE SET 7.5

1. (a) y (b) y (c) y

3 3 3

2 2 2

1 1 1

t t t
1 2 3 0.5 1 1 e2

2. y
3

1
t
2 1 3
3 2

ac 1/c
3. (a) ln t = ln(ac) = ln a + ln c = 7 (b) ln t = ln(1/c) = −5
1 1
a/c a3
(c) ln t = ln(a/c) = 2 − 5 = −3 (d) ln t = ln a3 = 3 ln a = 6
1 1
288 Chapter 7

√a 1 2a
4. (a) ln t = ln a1/2 = ln a = 9/2 (b) ln t = ln 2 + 9
1 2 1
2/a a
(c) ln t = ln 2 − 9 (d) ln t = 9 − ln 2
1 2

5. ln 5 ≈ 1.603210678; ln 5 = 1.609437912; magnitude of error is < 0.0063

6. ln 3 ≈ 1.098242635; ln 3 = 1.098612289; magnitude of error is < 0.0004

7. (a) x−1 , x > 0 (b) x2 , x = 0

(c) −x2 , −∞ < x < +∞ (d) −x, −∞ < x < +∞
3
(e) x , x > 0 (f ) ln x + x, x > 0
√ ex
(g) x − 3 x, −∞ < x < +∞ (h) ,x>0
x

8. (a) f (ln 3) = e−2 ln 3 = eln(1/9) = 1/9

(b) f (ln 2) = eln 2 + 3e− ln 2 = 2 + 3eln(1/2) = 2 + 3/2 = 7/2
√ √
9. (a) 3π = eπ ln 3 (b) 2 2
=e 2 ln 2

10. (a) π −x = e−x ln π (b) x2x = e2x ln x

 x 2   x 2
1 1
11. (a) lim 1+ = lim 1+ = e2
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
 2
2/y 1/y
(b) y = 2x, lim (1 + y) = lim (1 + y) = e2
y→0 y→0

 y/3  y 1/3   y 1/3

1 1 1
12. (a) y = 3x, lim 1+ = lim 1+ = lim 1+ = e1/3
y→+∞ y y→+∞ y y→+∞ y
 1/3
1/3x 1/x
(b) lim (1 + x) = lim (1 + x) = e1/3
x→0 x→0

13. g  (x) = x2 − x 14. g  (x) = 1 − cos x

1 3 1
15. (a) 3
(3x2 ) = (b) eln x =1
x x x
   
√ 1 1
16. (a) 2x x2 + 1 (b) − sin
x2 x

cos x −(x2 + 3) sin x − 2x cos x

17. F  (x) = , F 
(x) =
x2 + 3 (x2 + 3)2

(a) 0 (b) 1/3 (c) 0

√ 3x
18. F  (x) = 3x2 + 1, F  (x) = √
3x2 + 1
√ √
(a) 0 (b) 13 (c) 6/ 13
Exercise Set 7.5 289

 x2


d √
19. (a) t 1 + tdt = x2 1 + x2 (2x) = 2x3 1 + x2
dx 1
 x2 √
√ 2 2 3/2 2 2 5/2 4 2
(b) t 1 + tdt = − (x + 1) + (x + 1) −
1 3 5 15
 a  x
d d
20. (a) f (t)dt = − f (t)dt = −f (x)
dx x dx a
 a  g(x)
d d
(b) f (t)dt = − f (t)dt = −f (g(x))g  (x)
dx g(x) dx a

tan2 x
21. (a) − sin x2 (b) − sec2 x = − tan2 x
1 + tan2 x
  
1 1 cos3 (1/x)
22. (a) −(x2 + 1)40 (b) − cos 3
− 2 =
x x x2
3x − 1 x2 − 1
23. −3 2
+ 2x 4
9x + 1 x +1

24. If f is continuous on an open interval I and g(x), h(x), and a are in I then
 g(x)  a  g(x)  h(x)  g(x)
f (t)dt = f (t)dt + f (t)dt = − f (t)dt + f (t)dt
h(x) h(x) a a a
 g(x)
d
so f (t)dt = −f (h(x))h (x) + f (g(x))g  (x)
dx h(x)

25. (a) sin2 (x3 )(3x2 ) − sin2 (x2 )(2x) = 3x2 sin2 (x3 ) − 2x sin2 (x2 )
1 1 2
(b) (1) − (−1) =
1+x 1−x 1 − x2
1 1
26. F  (x) = (3) − (1) = 0 so F (x) is constant on (0, +∞). F (1) = ln 3 so F (x) = ln 3 for all x > 0.
3x x
 3  5  7  10
27. from geometry, f (t)dt = 0, f (t)dt = 6, f (t)dt = 0; and f (t)dt
0 3 5 7
 10
= (4t − 37)/3dt = −3
7
(a) F (0) = 0, F (3) = 0, F (5) = 6, F (7) = 6, F (10) = 3
(b) F is increasing where F  = f is positive, so on [3/2, 6] and [37/4, 10], decreasing on [0, 3/2]
and [6, 37/4]
(c) critical points when F  (x) = f (x) = 0, so x = 3/2, 6, 37/4; maximum 15/2 at x = 6, minimum
−9/4 at x = 3/2
(d) F(x)

6
4
2
x
2 4 6 8 10
-2
290 Chapter 7

 10
1 1
28. fave = f (t)dt = F (10) = 0.3
10 − 0 0 10
 x x
1 2 1
29. x < 0 : F (x) = (−t)dt = − t = (1 − x2 ),
−1 2 −1
2
 0  x 
1 1 2 (1 − x2 )/2, x<0
x ≥ 0 : F (x) = (−t)dt + t dt = + x ; F (x) =
−1 0 2 2 (1 + x2 )/2, x≥0
 x
1 2
30. 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 : F (x) = t dt = x ,
0 2
  
2 x x2 /2, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
x > 2 : F (x) = t dt + 2 dt = 2 + 2(x − 2) = 2x − 2; F (x) =
0 2 2x − 2, x > 2
 x x
1/3 3 5 3 4/3
31. y(x) = 2 + t dt = 2 + t4/3 = + x
1 4 1 4 4
 x
2 3/2 2 2 8
32. y(x) = (t1/2 + t−1/2 )dt = x − + 2x1/2 − 2 = x3/2 + 2x1/2 −
1 3 3 3 3
 x √
33. y(x) = 1 + (sec2 t − sin t)dt = tan x + cos x − 2/2
π/4

 x  x
t2 1 2 1
34. y(x) = te dt = e−x − 35. P (x) = P0 + r(t)dt individuals
0 2 2 0

 T
36. s(T ) = s1 + v(t)dt
1

37. II has a minimum at x = 12, and I has a zero there, so I could be the derivative of II; on the other
hand I has a minimum near x = 1/3, but II is not zero there, so II could not be the derivative of
x
I, so I is the graph of f (x) and II is the graph of 0 f (t) dt.

1 k d 
38. (b) lim (x − 1) = xt t=0 = ln x
k→0 k dt

39. (a) where f (t) = 0; by the First Derivative Test, at t = 3

(b) where f (t) = 0; by the First Derivative Test, at t = 1, 5
(c) at t = 0, 1 or 5; from the graph it is evident that it is at t = 5
(d) at t = 0, 3 or 5; from the graph it is evident that it is at t = 3
(e) F is concave up when F  = f  is positive, i.e. where f is increasing, so on (0, 1/2) and (2, 4);
it is concave down on (1/2, 2) and (4, 5)
(f ) F(x)
1
0.5
x
1 2 3 5
-0.5
-1
Exercise Set 7.5 291

40. (a) 1
erf(x)

x
-4 -2 2 4

-1

(c) erf  (x) > 0 for all x, so there are no relative extrema
2 √
(e) erf  (x) = −4xe−x / π changes sign only at x = 0 so that is the only point of inflection
(g) lim erf(x) = +1, lim erf(x) = −1
x→+∞ x→−∞

41. C  (x) = cos(πx2 /2), C  (x) = −πx sin(πx2 /2)

(a) cos t goes from negative to positive at 2kπ − π/2, and from positive to negative
√ at
t = 2kπ + π/2, so C(x) has relative minima when πx2 /2 = 2kπ − π/2, x = ± √4k − 1,
k = 1, 2, . . ., and C(x) has relative maxima when πx2 /2 = (4k + 1)π/2, x = ± 4k + 1,
k = 0, 1, . . ..
√
(b) sin t changes sign at t = kπ, so C(x) has inflection points at πx2 /2 = kπ, x = ± 2k,
k = 1, 2, . . .; the case k = 0 is distinct due to the factor of x in C  (x), but x changes sign at
x = 0 and sin(πx2 /2) does not, so there is also a point of inflection at x = 0
 x  x+h
F (x + h) − F (x) 1
42. Let F (x) = ln tdt, F  (x) = lim = lim ln tdt; but F  (x) = ln x so
1 h→0 h h→0 h x
 x+h
1
lim ln tdt = ln x
h→0 h x

 x  x x
3t 3t
43. Differentiate: f (x) = 3e , so 2 + 3x
f (t)dt = 2 + 3e dt = 2 + e = 2 + e3x − e3a = e3x
a a a
provided e3a = 2, a = (ln 2)/3.

44. (a) The area under 1/t for x ≤ t ≤ x + 1 is less than the area of the rectangle with altitude 1/x
and base 1, but greater than the area of the rectangle with altitude 1/(x + 1) and base 1.
 x+1 x+1
1
(b) dt = ln t = ln(x + 1) − ln x = ln(1 + 1/x), so
x t x
1/(x + 1) < ln(1 + 1/x) < 1/x for x > 0.
(c) from Part (b), e1/(x+1) < eln(1+1/x) < e1/x , e1/(x+1) < 1 + 1/x < e1/x ,
ex/(x+1) < (1 + 1/x)x < e; by the Squeezing Theorem, lim (1 + 1/x)x = e.
x→+∞

(d) Use the inequality ex/(x+1) < (1 + 1/x)x to get e < (1 + 1/x)x+1 so
(1 + 1/x)x < e < (1 + 1/x)x+1 .
  50 

 1 
45. From Exercise 44(d) e − 1 +  < y(50), 0.2
 50 

and from the graph y(50) < 0.06

0 100
0
292 Chapter 7

46. F  (x) = f (x), thus F  (x) has a value at each x in I because f is continuous on I so F is continuous
on I because a function that is differentiable at a point is also continuous at that point

EXERCISE SET 7.6

1. (a) −π/2 (b) π (c) −π/4 (d) 0

2. (a) π/3 (b) π/3 (c) π/4 (d) 2π/3

√ √ √
3. θ = −π/3; cos θ = 1/2, tan θ = − 3, cot θ = −1/ 3, sec θ = 2, csc θ = −2/ 3
√ √ √ √
4. θ = π/3; sin θ = 3/2, tan θ = 3, cot θ = 1/ 3, sec θ = 2, csc θ = 2/ 3

5. tan θ = 4/3, 0 < θ < π/2; use the triangle shown to

get sin θ = 4/5, cos θ = 3/5, cot θ = 3/4, sec θ = 5/3,
csc θ = 5/4
5 4

␪
3

6. sec θ = 2.6, 0 < θ < π/2; use the triangle shown to get
sin θ = 2.4/2.6 = 12/13, cos θ = 1/2.6 = 5/13,
tan θ = 2.4 = 12/5, cot θ = 5/12, csc θ = 13/12 2.6
2.4

␪
1

7. (a) π/7
(b) sin−1 (sin π) = sin−1 (sin 0) = 0
(c) sin−1 (sin(5π/7)) = sin−1 (sin(2π/7)) = 2π/7
(d) Note that π/2 < 630 − 200π < π so
sin(630) = sin(630 − 200π) = sin(π − (630 − 200π)) = sin(201π − 630) where
0 < 201π − 630 < π/2; sin−1 (sin 630) = sin−1 (sin(201π − 630)) = 201π − 630.

8. (a) π/7
(b) π
(c) cos−1 (cos(12π/7)) = cos−1 (cos(2π/7)) = 2π/7
(d) Note that −π/2 < 200 − 64π < 0 so cos(200) = cos(200 − 64π) = cos(64π − 200) where
0 < 64π − 200 < π/2; cos−1 (cos 200) = cos−1 (cos(64π − 200)) = 64π − 200.

9. (a) 0 ≤ x ≤ π (b) −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
(c) −π/2 < x < π/2 (d) −∞ < x < +∞

10. Let θ = sin−1 (−3/4) then sin θ = −3/4, −π/2 < θ < 0 and
√
(see figure) sec θ = 4/ 7
√7
␪
-3
4
Exercise Set 7.6 293

11. Let θ = cos−1 (3/5), sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ = 2(4/5)(3/5) = 24/25

5 4

␪
3

√
−1
√ −1 1 − x2
12. (a) sin(cos x) = 1− x2 (b) tan(cos x) =
x

1 √1 - x2 1 √1 - x2

cos-1 x
cos-1 x
x
x
√
1 + x2 x
(a) csc(tan−1 x) = (d) sin(tan−1 x) = √
x 1 + x2

√1 + x2 x 1 + x2 x

tan-1 x tan-1 x
1 1

√
−1 1 −1 1 − x2
13. (a) cos(tan x) = √ (b) tan(cos x) =
1 + x2 x

1
1 + x2
x 1 – x2

cos-1 x
tan-1 x
x
1
√
−1 x2 − 1 1
(c) sin(sec x) = (d) cot(sec−1 x) = √
x x2 −1

x x
x2 - 1
x2 – 1

sec-1 x sec-1 x
1 1
294 Chapter 7

14. (a) x −1.00 −0.80 −0.6 −0.40 −0.20 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
sin−1 x −1.57 −0.93 −0.64 −0.41 −0.20 0.00 0.20 0.41 0.64 0.93 1.57
cos−1 x 3.14 2.50 2.21 1.98 1.77 1.57 1.37 1.16 0.93 0.64 0.00

(b) y (c) y
3
2
1
1
x
x
0.5 1
1
-1

c
15. (a) y y
c/2

x
c/2 5

x
-10 10

(b) The domain of cot−1 x is (−∞, +∞), the range is (0, π); the domain of csc−1 x is
(−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞), the range is [−π/2, 0) ∪ (0, π/2].

16. (a) y = cot−1 x; if x > 0 then 0 < y < π/2 and x = cot y, tan y = 1/x, y = tan−1 (1/x);
1
if x < 0 then π/2 < y < π and x = cot y = cot(y − π), tan(y − π) = 1/x, y = π + tan−1
x
(b) y = sec−1 x, x = sec y, cos y = 1/x, y = cos−1 (1/x)
(c) y = csc−1 x, x = csc y, sin y = 1/x, y = sin−1 (1/x)

17. (a) 55.0◦ (b) 33.6◦ (c) 25.8◦

18. (a) Let x = f (y) = cot y, 0 < y < π, −∞ < x < +∞. √ Then f is differentiable and one-to-one
x2 + 1

and f  (f −1 (x)) = cot(cot−1 x) cos(cot−1 x) = −x = − x2 + 1 = 0, and
x


d  1
[cot−1 x] = lim  −1 = − lim x2 + 1 = −1.
dx x=0
x→0 f (f (x)) x→0

(b) If x = 0 then, from Exercise 16(a),

d d 1 1 1 1
cot−1 x = tan−1 = − 2
= −√ . For x = 0, Part (a) shows the
dx dx x x 1 + (1/x)2 2
x +1
d 1
same; thus for −∞ < x < +∞, [cot−1 x] = − √ .
dx 2
x +1

d 1 du
(c) For −∞ < u < +∞, by the chain rule it follows that [cot−1 u] = − √ .
dx u + 1 dx
2
Exercise Set 7.6 295

d 1 1 −1
19. (a) By the chain rule, [csc−1 x] = − 2
= √
dx x 1 − (1/x)2 |x| x2 − 1
d du d −1 du
(b) By the chain rule, [csc−1 u] = [csc−1 u] = √
dx dx du |u| u2 − 1 dx

20. (a) x = π − sin−1 (0.37) ≈ 2.7626 rad (b) θ = 180◦ + sin−1 (0.61) ≈ 217.6◦

21. (a) x = π + cos−1 (0.85) ≈ 3.6964 rad (b) θ = − cos−1 (0.23) ≈ −76.7◦

22. (a) x = tan−1 (3.16) − π ≈ −1.8773 (b) θ = 180◦ − tan−1 (0.45) ≈ 155.8◦

1


23. (a)
(1/3) = 1/ 9 − x2 (b) −2/ 1 − (2x + 1)2
1− x2 /9
 
1 1 −1/2 1
24. (a) 2x/(1 + x ) 4
(b) − x =− √
1+x 2 2(1 + x) x

1 7 √
25. (a) √ (7x6 ) = √ (b) −1/ e2x − 1
|x|7 x −1
14 |x| x14 − 1

26. (a) y = 1/ tan x = cot x, dy/dx = − csc2 x

 
1
(b) y = (tan−1 x)−1 , dy/dx = −(tan−1 x)−2
1 + x2

1 1 sin x sin x 1, sin x > 0
27. (a)
(−1/x ) = − √ 2
(b) √ = =
1 − 1/x2 |x| x2 − 1 1 − cos x
2 | sin x| −1, sin x < 0
1 1
28. (a) − √ (b) − √
−1
(cos x) 1 − x2 −1
2 cot x(1 + x2 )
ex 3x2 (sin−1 x)2
29. (a) √ + ex sec−1 x (b) √ + 2x(sin−1 x)3
|x| x2 − 1 1 − x2

30. (a) 0 (b) 0

x (3x2 + tan−1 y)(1 + y 2 )

31. x3 + x tan−1 y = ey , 3x2 + y  + tan−1 y = ey y  , y  =
1+y 2 (1 + y 2 )ey − x

1 1
32. sin−1 (xy) = cos−1 (x − y),
(xy  + y) = −
(1 − y  ),
1 − x2 y 2 1 − (x − y)2



 y 1 − (x − y)2 + 1 − x2 y 2
y =


1 − x2 y 2 − x 1 − (x − y)2

1/√2
−1
√
33. sin x = sin−1 (1/ 2) − sin−1 0 = π/4
0

1 1 1
34. u = 2x, √ du = sin−1 (2x) + C
2 1 − u2 2
1
−1
35. tan x = tan−1 1 − tan−1 (−1) = π/4 − (−π/4) = π/2
−1
296 Chapter 7


1 1 1
36. u = 4x, 2
du = tan−1 (4x) + C
4 1+u 4
2
√
37. sec−1 x √ = sec−1 2 − sec−1 2 = π/3 − π/4 = π/12
2

−2/√3
√ √
38. − sec−1 x √ = − sec−1 (−2/ 3) + sec−1 (− 2) = −5π/6 + 3π/4 = −π/12
− 2

1
39. u = tan x, √ du = sin−1 (tan x) + C
1 − u2

 √ √3/2 √
3/2
1 3 1 π π π
40. u = e −x
, − √ du = − sin−1 u = − sin −1
+ sin−1 = − + = −
1/2 1 − u2 1/2
2 2 3 6 6


1
41. u = ex , du = tan−1 (ex ) + C
1 + u2

1 1 1
42. u = t2 , du = tan−1 (t2 ) + C
2 u2 + 1 2

 √ √3
√ 3
1 √
43. u = x, 2 2
du = 2 tan−1 u = 2(tan−1 3 − tan−1 1) = 2(π/3 − π/4) = π/6
1 u +1
1


1
44. u = cos θ, − du = − tan−1 (cos θ) + C
u2 + 1

1
45. u = ln x, √ du = sin−1 (ln x) + C
1 − u2

1
46. u = 3x, √ du = sec−1 (3x) + C if x > 0; − sec−1 (3x) + C if x < 0
u u2 − 1

du u
47. u = a sin θ, du = a cos θ dθ; √ = aθ + C = sin−1 + C
a2−u 2 a

du 1 1 u
48. If u > 0 then u = a sec θ, du = a sec θ tan θ dθ, √ = θ = sec−1 + C
u u −a
2 2 a a a
√ √
49. (a) sin−1
√ (x/3) + C √ (b) (1/ 5) tan−1 (x/ 5) + C
(c) (1/ π) sec−1 (x/ π) + C

1 1
50. (a) u = e , x
2
du = tan−1 (ex /2) + C
4+u 2

1 1 1
(b) u = 2x, √ du = sin−1 (2x/3) + C,
2 9−u 2 2
 √ √
√ 1 1
(c) u = 5y, √ du = √ sec−1 ( 5y/ 3) + C
u u2 − 3 3
Exercise Set 7.6 297

 √ √3
√ 1 3
1 1 u 1 π π
51. u = 3x2 , √ √ du = √ sin−1 = √ = √
2 3 0 4−u 2 2 3 2
0
2 3 3 6 3

 √ √2
√ 2
1 u
52. u = x, 2 √ du = 2 sin−1 = 2(π/4 − π/6) = π/6
1 4 − u2 2
1

 √ 2√3
2 3
1 1 1 u 1π 1
53. u = 3x, 2
du = tan−1 = =
3 0 4+u 6 2 63 18π
0

 3 3
1 1 1 u 1 π
54. u = x , 2
2
du = √ tan−1 √ = √ (π/3 − π/6) = √
2 1 3+u 2 3 3 1 2 3 12 3

55. (a) y (b) y

c/2 c/2
x
-0.5 0.5 x

– c/2
– c/2

56. (a) sin−1 0.9 > 1, so it is not in the domain of sin−1 x

(b) −1 ≤ sin−1 x ≤ 1 is necessary, or −0.841471 ≤ x ≤ 0.841471

R 6378
57. (b) θ = sin−1 = sin−1 ≈ 23◦
R+h 16, 378



58. (a) If γ = 90◦ , then sin γ = 1, 1 − sin2 φ sin2 γ = 1 − sin2 φ = cos φ,
D = tan φ tan λ = (tan 23.45◦ )(tan 65◦ ) ≈ 0.93023374 so h ≈ 21.1 hours.
(b) If γ = 270◦ , then sin γ = −1, D = − tan φ tan λ ≈ −0.93023374 so h ≈ 2.9 hours.

59. sin 2θ = gR/v 2 = (9.8)(18)/(14)2 = 0.9, 2θ = sin−1 (0.9) or 2θ = 180◦ − sin−1 (0.9) so
θ = 12 sin−1 (0.9) ≈ 32◦ or θ = 90◦ − 12 sin−1 (0.9) ≈ 58◦ . The ball will have a lower
parabolic trajectory for θ = 32◦ and hence will result in the shorter time of flight.

60. 42 = 22 + 32 − 2(2)(3) cos θ, cos θ = −1/4, θ = cos−1 (−1/4) ≈ 104◦

√
61. y = 0 when x2 = 6000v 2
√ /g, x = 10v 60/g
√ = 1000 30 for v = 400 and g = 32;
tan θ = 3000/x = 3/ 30, θ = tan−1 (3/ 30) ≈ 29◦ .

x x
62. (a) θ = α − β, cot α = and cot β = so
a+b b
x   a
−1 −1 x
θ = cot − cot
a+b b
  ␪
b
dθ 1 1 1 1
(b) =− 2 2
− ␣
␤
dx a + b 1 + x /(a + b) b 1 + (x/b)2
x
a+b b
=− 2 2
− 2
(a + b) + x b + x2
which is negative for all x. Thus θ is a decreasing function of x, and it has no maximum
since lim θ = +∞.
x→0+
298 Chapter 7

 0.8 0.8
1 −1
63. (a) A = √ dx = sin x = sin−1 (0.8)
0 1 − x2 0
(b) The calculator was in degree mode instead of radian mode; the correct answer is 0.93.
 1/6  1/2 1/2
1 1 1 1
64. A = √ dx = √ du = sin−1 u = π/18
0 1 − 9x2 3 0 1−u 2 3 0

 k

65. The area is given by (1/ 1 − x2 − x)dx = sin−1 k − k 2 /2 = 1; solve for k to get
0
k = 0.997301.
 π/2 π/2
66. x = sin y, A = sin y dy = − cos y =1
0 0

67. The curves intersect at x = a = 0 and x = b = 0.838422 so the area is

 b
(sin 2x − sin−1 x)dx = 0.174192.
a

68. The displacement of the particle during the time interval [0, T ] is given by
 T
v(t)dt = 3 tan−1 T − 0.25T 2 . The particle is 2 cm from its starting position when
0
3 tan−1 T − 0.25T 2 = 2 or when 3 tan−1 T − 0.25T 2 = −2; solve for T to get
T = 0.90, 2.51, and 4.95 sec.
 2 2
1 π −1
69. V = π 2
dx = tan (x/2) = π 2 /4
−2 4 + x 2 −2

 b 
x b
−1 2 −1 2 π
70. (a) V = 2π 4
dx = π tan (x ) = π tan (b ) −
1 1+x 1 4
π π 1
(b) lim V = π − = π2
b→+∞ 2 4 4
 2 √ √
71. The area is given by 1/(1 + kx2 )dx = (1/ k) tan−1 (2 k) = 0.6; solve for k to get
0
k = 5.081435.
 1  π/2
72. (a) π (sin−1 x)2 dx = 1.468384. (b) 2π y(1 − sin y)dy = 1.468384.
0 0

73. θ = π − (α + β) y
5−x B(5, 4)
= π − cot−1 (x − 2) − cot−1 , P(x, 0)
4
dθ 1 −1/4 A(2, 1)
= + ␪
dx 1 + (x − 2)2 1 + (5 − x)2 /16 ␣ ␤ x
2 5
3(x − 2x − 7) 2
x-2 5-x
=−
[1 + (x − 2)2 ][16 + (5 − x)2 ]
√
2 ± 4 + 28 √ √
dθ/dx = 0 when x = = 1 ± 2 2, only 1 + 2 2 is in [2, 5]; dθ/dx > 0 for x in
2
√ √ √
[2, 1 + 2 2), dθ/dx < 0 for x in (1 + 2 2, 5], θ is maximum when x = 1 + 2 2.
Exercise Set 7.6 299

74. θ = α − β
= cot−1 (x/12) − cot−1 (x/2)
dθ 12 2
=− + 10
dx 144 + x2 4 + x2
10(24 − x2 ) ␣
=
(144 + x2 )(4 + x2 ) ␪
2
√ √ ␤
dθ/dx = 0 when x = 24 = 2 6, by the first x
derivative test θ is maximum there.

75. By the Mean-Value Theorem on the interval [0, x],

tan−1 x − tan−1 0 tan−1 x 1
= = for c in (0, x), but
x−0 x 1 + c2
1 1 1 tan−1 x x
2
< 2
< 1 for c in (0, x) so 2
< < 1, < tan−1 x < x.
1+x 1+c 1+x x 1 + x2

n 1 1  n
n  n
1 k 1
76. = so = f (x∗k )∆x where f (x) = , x∗ = , and ∆x =
2
n +k 2 2 2
1 + k /n n 2
n +k 2 1 + x2 k n n
k=1 k=1
n  n  1
n ∗ 1 π
for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. Thus lim 2 2
= lim f (xk )∆x = 2
dx = .
n→+∞ n +k n→+∞ 0 1+x 4
k=1 k=1

77. (a) Let θ = sin−1 (−x) then sin θ = −x, −π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2. But sin(−θ) = − sin θ and
−π/2 ≤ −θ ≤ π/2 so sin(−θ) = −(−x) = x, −θ = sin−1 x, θ = − sin−1 x.
(b) proof is similar to that in Part (a)

78. (a) Let θ = cos−1 (−x) then cos θ = −x, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π. But cos(π − θ) = − cos θ and
0 ≤ π − θ ≤ π so cos(π − θ) = x, π − θ = cos−1 x, θ = π − cos−1 x
(b) Let θ = sec−1 (−x) for x ≥ 1; then sec θ = −x and π/2 < θ ≤ π. So 0 ≤ π − θ < π/2 and
π − θ = sec−1 sec(π − θ) = sec−1 (− sec θ) = sec−1 x, or sec−1 (−x) = π − sec−1 x.

x
79. (a) sin−1 x = tan−1 √ (see figure)
1 − x2
x
(b) sin−1 x + cos−1 x = π/2; cos−1 x = π/2 − sin−1 x = π/2 − tan−1 √
1 − x2 1 x

sin-1 x

√1 - x2

tan α + tan β
80. tan(α + β) = ,
1 − tan α tan β
tan(tan−1 x) + tan(tan−1 y) x+y
tan(tan−1 x + tan−1 y) = =
1 − tan(tan−1 x) tan(tan−1 y) 1 − xy
x+y
so tan−1 x + tan−1 y = tan−1
1 − xy
300 Chapter 7

1 1 1/2 + 1/3
81. (a) tan−1 + tan−1 = tan−1 = tan−1 1 = π/4
2 3 1 − (1/2) (1/3)
1 1 1 1/3 + 1/3 3
(b) 2 tan−1 = tan−1 + tan−1 = tan−1 = tan−1 ,
3 3 3 1 − (1/3) (1/3) 4
1 1 3 1 3/4 + 1/7
2 tan−1 + tan−1 = tan−1 + tan−1 = tan−1 = tan−1 1 = π/4
3 7 4 7 1 − (3/4) (1/7)
  2 √
−1 −1 1 x2 − 1
82. sin(sec x) = sin(cos (1/x)) = 1− =
x |x|

EXERCISE SET 7.7

x2 − 4 (x − 2)(x + 2) x+2 2
1. (a) lim = lim = lim =
x→2 x2 + 2x − 8 x→2 (x + 4)(x − 2) x→2 x + 4 3
5
2x − 5 2 − lim 2
x→+∞ x
(b) lim = =
x→+∞ 3x + 7 7 3
3 + lim
x→+∞ x

sin x cos x sin x

2. (a) = sin x = cos x so lim = lim cos x = 1
tan x sin x x→0 tan x x→0
x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1) x+1 x2 − 1 2
(b) = = so lim =
x3 − 1 (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1) x2 + x + 1 x→1 x3 − 1 3

1/x 2 cos 2x
3. lim =1 4. lim = 2/5
x→1 1 x→0 5 cos 5x

ex 1
5. lim =1 6. lim = 1/5
x→0 cos x x→3 6x − 13

sec2 θ tet + et
7. lim =1 8. lim = −1
θ→0 1 t→0 −et

cos x cos x
9. lim = −1 10. lim = +∞
x→π + 1 x→0+ 2x

1/x 3e3x 9e3x

11. lim =0 12. lim = lim = +∞
x→+∞ 1 x→+∞ 2x x→+∞ 2

− csc2 x −x −1
13. lim+ = lim+ 2 = lim+ = −∞
x→0 1/x x→0 sin x x→0 2 sin x cos x

−1/x x
14. lim = lim+ 1/x = 0
x→0+ (−1/x2 )e1/x x→0 e

100x99 (100)(99)x98 (100)(99)(98) · · · (1)

15. lim x
= lim x
= · · · = lim =0
x→+∞ e x→+∞ e x→+∞ ex
Exercise Set 7.7 301

√
cos x/ sin x 2/ 1 − 4x2
16. lim = lim cos2 x = 1 17. lim =2
x→0+ sec2 x/ tan x x→0+ x→0 1

1
1− 1 1 x 1
18. lim 1 + x2 = lim = 19. lim xe−x = lim = lim x = 0
x→0 3x 2 2
x→0 3(1 + x ) 3 x→+∞ x→+∞ ex x→+∞ e

x−π 1
20. lim (x − π) tan(x/2) = lim = lim = −2
x→π x→π cot(x/2) x→π −(1/2) csc2 (x/2)

sin(π/x) (−π/x2 ) cos(π/x)

21. lim x sin(π/x) = lim = lim = lim π cos(π/x) = π
x→+∞ x→+∞ 1/x x→+∞ −1/x2 x→+∞

ln x 1/x − sin2 x −2 sin x cos x

22. lim tan x ln x = lim = lim+ = lim+ = lim+ =0
x→0+ + x→0 cot x x→0 − csc x x→0
2 x x→0 1

cos 5x −5 sin 5x −5(+1) 5

23. lim sec 3x cos 5x = lim = lim − = =−
x→(π/2)− x→(π/2)− cos 3x x→(π/2) −3 sin 3x (−3)(−1) 3

x−π 1
24. lim (x − π) cot x = lim = lim =1
x→π x→π tan x x→π sec2 x

ln(1 − 3/x) −3
25. y = (1 − 3/x)x , lim ln y = lim = lim = −3, lim y = e−3
x→+∞ x→+∞ 1/x x→+∞ 1 − 3/x x→+∞

3 ln(1 + 2x) 6
26. y = (1 + 2x)−3/x , lim ln y = lim − = lim − = −6, lim y = e−6
x→0 x→0 x x→0 1 + 2x x→0

ln(ex + x) ex + 1
27. y = (ex + x)1/x , lim ln y = lim = lim x = 2, lim y = e2
x→0 x→0 x x→0 e + x x→0

b ln(1 + a/x) ab
28. y = (1 + a/x)bx , lim ln y = lim = lim = ab, lim y = eab
x→+∞ x→+∞ 1/x x→+∞ 1 + a/x x→+∞

ln(2 − x) 2 sin2 (πx/2)

29. y = (2 − x)tan(πx/2) , lim ln y = lim = lim = 2/π, lim y = e2/π
x→1 x→1 cot(πx/2) x→1 π(2 − x) x→1

2 ln cos(2/x) (−2/x2 )(− tan(2/x))

30. y = [cos(2/x)]x , lim ln y = lim = lim
x→+∞ x→+∞ 1/x2 x→+∞ −2/x3
− tan(2/x) (2/x2 ) sec2 (2/x)
= lim = lim = −2, lim y = e−2
x→+∞ 1/x x→+∞ −1/x2 x→+∞

 
1 1 x − sin x 1 − cos x sin x
31. lim − = lim = lim = lim =0
x→0 sin x x x→0 x sin x x→0 x cos x + sin x x→0 2 cos x − x sin x

1 − cos 3x 3 sin 3x 9 9
32. lim = lim = lim cos 3x =
x→0 x2 x→0 2x x→0 2 2

(x2 + x) − x2 x 1
33. lim √ = lim √ = lim
= 1/2
x→+∞ x2 + x + x x→+∞ x2 + x + x x→+∞ 1 + 1/x + 1

ex − 1 − x ex − 1 ex
34. lim = lim = lim = 1/2
x→0 xex − x x→0 xex + ex − 1 x→0 xex + 2ex
302 Chapter 7

ex
35. lim [x − ln(x2 + 1)] = lim [ln ex − ln(x2 + 1)] = lim ln ,
x→+∞ x→+∞ x→+∞ x2 + 1
x x x
e e e
lim = lim = lim = +∞ so lim [x − ln(x2 + 1)] = +∞
x→+∞ x2 + 1 x→+∞ 2x x→+∞ 2 x→+∞

x 1
36. lim ln = lim ln = ln(1) = 0
x→+∞ 1+x x→+∞ 1/x + 1

ln x 1/x 1
38. (a) lim
n
= lim n−1
= lim =0
x
x→+∞ x→+∞ nx x→+∞ nxn
xn nxn−1
(b) lim = lim = lim nxn = +∞
x→+∞ ln x x→+∞ 1/x x→+∞

3x2 − 2x + 1 0
39. (a) L’Hôpital’s Rule does not apply to the problem lim because it is not a form.
x→1 3x − 2x
2 0
3x2 − 2x + 1
(b) lim =2
x→1 3x2 − 2x

4x3 − 12x2 + 12x − 4 12x2 − 24x + 12 24x − 24

40. lim = lim = lim =0
x→1 4x3 − 9x2 + 6x − 1 x→1 12x2 − 18x + 6 x→1 24x − 18

1/(x ln x) 2
41. lim √ = lim √ =0 0.15
x→+∞ 1/(2 x) x→+∞ x ln x

100 10000
0

ln x
42. y = xx , lim ln y = lim = lim −x = 0, lim y = 1 1
x→0+ x→0+ 1/x x→0+ x→0+

0 0.5
0

43. y = (sin x)3/ ln x , 25

3 ln sin x x
lim ln y = lim+ = lim+ (3 cos x) = 3,
x→0+ x→0 ln x x→0 sin x
lim y = e3
x→0+

0 0.5
19

4 sec2 x 4
44. lim = lim =4
x→π/2− sec x tan x x→π/2− sin x
Exercise Set 7.7 303

1 e−x ln x − 1
45. ln x − ex = ln x − = ; 0
e−x e−x 0 3

ln x 1/x
lim e−x ln x = lim = lim = 0 by L’Hôpital’s Rule,
x→+∞ x→+∞ ex x→+∞ ex

e−x ln x − 1
so lim [ln x − ex ] = lim = −∞
x→+∞ x→+∞ e−x
-16

ex
46. lim [ln ex − ln(1 + 2ex )] = lim ln -0.6
x→+∞ x→+∞ 1 + 2ex 0 12
1 1
= lim ln = ln ;
x→+∞ e−x + 2 2
horizontal asymptote y = − ln 2

-1.2

47. y = (ln x)1/x , 1.02

ln(ln x) 1
lim ln y = lim = lim = 0;
x→+∞ x→+∞ x x→+∞ x ln x
lim y = 1, y = 1 is the horizontal asymptote
x→+∞

100 10000
1

 x x+1
x+1 ln
48. y = , lim ln y = lim x+2
1
x+2 x→+∞ x→+∞ 1/x
−x2
= lim = −1;
x→+∞ (x + 1)(x + 2)

lim y = e−1 is the horizontal asymptote

x→+∞

0 50
0

49. (a) 0 (b) +∞ (c) 0 (d) −∞ (e) +∞ (f ) −∞

(ln a) ln x (ln a)/x

50. (a) Type 00 ; y = x(ln a)/(1+ln x) ; lim ln y = lim = lim = lim ln a = ln a,
x→0+ x→0+ 1 + ln x x→0+ 1/x x→0+
lim y = eln a = a
x→0+

(b) Type ∞0 ; same calculation as Part (a) with x → +∞

(ln a) ln(x + 1) ln a
(c) Type 1∞ ; y = (x + 1)(ln a)/x , lim ln y = lim = lim = ln a,
x→0 x→0 x x→0 x + 1

lim y = eln a = a
x→0
304 Chapter 7

 
1 + 2 cos 2x x + sin 2x sin 2x
51. lim does not exist, nor is it ±∞; lim = lim 1+ =1
x→+∞ 1 x→+∞ x x→+∞ x

2 − cos x 2x − sin x 2 − (sin x)/x 2

52. lim does not exist, nor is it ±∞; lim = lim =
x→+∞ 3 + cos x x→+∞ 3x + sin x x→+∞ 3 + (sin x)/x 3

x(2 + sin 2x) 2 + sin 2x

53. lim (2 + x cos 2x + sin 2x) does not exist, nor is it ±∞; lim = lim ,
x→+∞ x→+∞x+1 x→+∞ 1 + 1/x
which does not exist because sin 2x oscillates between −1 and 1 as x → +∞
 
1 1 sin x
54. lim + cos x + does not exist, nor is it ±∞;
x→+∞ x 2 2x
x(2 + sin x) 2 + sin x
lim 2
= lim =0
x→+∞ x +1 x→+∞ x + 1/x

V t −Rt/L
L e Vt
55. lim+ =
R→0 1 L

π/2 − x −1
56. (a) lim (π/2 − x) tan x = lim = lim = lim sin2 x = 1
x→π/2 cot x
x→π/2 x→π/2 − csc2 x x→π/2
   
1 1 sin x cos x − (π/2 − x) sin x
(b) lim − tan x = lim − = lim
x→π/2 π/2 − x x→π/2 π/2 − x cos x x→π/2 (π/2 − x) cos x
−(π/2 − x) cos x
= lim
x→π/2 −(π/2 − x) sin x − cos x
(π/2 − x) sin x + cos x
= lim =0
x→π/2 −(π/2 − x) cos x + 2 sin x

(c) 1/(π/2 − 1.57) ≈ 1255.765849, tan 1.57 ≈ 1255.765592;

1/(π/2 − 1.57) − tan 1.57 ≈ 0.000265

kt − 1 (ln k)k t
57. (b) lim x(k 1/x − 1) = lim+ = lim = ln k
x→+∞ t→0 t t→0+ 1
 √ 
(c) ln 0.3 = −1.20397, 1024 1024 0.3 − 1 = −1.20327;
 √ 
ln 2 = 0.69315, 1024 1024 2 − 1 = 0.69338

58. (a) No; sin(1/x) oscillates as x → 0. (b) 0.05

-0.35 0.35

-0.05

(c) For the limit as x → 0 use the Squeezing Theorem together with the inequalities
+

−x2 ≤ x2 sin(1/x) ≤ x2 . For x → 0− do the same; thus lim f (x) = 0.

x→0

k + cos 9x
59. If k = −1 then lim (k + cos 9x) = k + 1 = 0, so lim = ±∞. Hence k = −1, and by the
x→0 x→0 x2
rule
−1 + cos 9x −9 sin 9x −92 cos 9x 92 √
lim = lim = lim = − = −4 if 9 = ±2 2.
x→0 x2 x→0 2x x→0 2 2
Exercise Set 7.8 305

− cos(1/x) + 2x sin(1/x)
60. (a) Apply the rule to get lim which does not exist (nor is it ±∞).
x→0 cos x
 x  x 1
(b) Rewrite as lim [x sin(1/x)], but lim = lim = 1 and lim x sin(1/x) = 0,
x→0 sin x x→0 sin x x→0 cos x x→0
 x 
thus lim [x sin(1/x)] = (1)(0) = 0
x→0 sin x

sin(1/x) sin x
61. lim , lim = 1 but lim sin(1/x) does not exist because sin(1/x) oscillates between
x→0+ (sin x)/x x→0+ x x→0+

x sin(1/x)
−1 and 1 as x → +∞, so lim+ does not exist.
x→0 sin x

EXERCISE SET 7.8

1. (a) sinh 3 ≈ 10.0179 2. (a) csch(−1) ≈ −0.8509

(b) cosh(−2) ≈ 3.7622 (b) sech(ln 2) = 0.8
(c) tanh(ln 4) = 15/17 ≈ 0.8824 (c) coth 1 ≈ 1.3130
(d) sinh−1 (−2) ≈ −1.4436 1
(d) sech−1 ≈ 1.3170
(e) cosh−1 3 ≈ 1.7627 2
3 (e) coth−1 3 ≈ 0.3466
(f ) tanh−1 ≈ 0.9730 √
4 (f ) csch−1 (− 3) ≈ −0.5493

 
1 1 1 4
3. (a) sinh(ln 3) = (eln 3 − e− ln 3 ) = 3− =
2 2 3 3
 
1 1 1 5
(b) cosh(− ln 2) = (e− ln 2 + eln 2 ) = +2 =
2 2 2 4
e2 ln 5 − e−2 ln 5 25 − 1/25 312
(c) tanh(2 ln 5) = 2 ln 5 −2 ln 5
= =
e +e 25 + 1/25 313
 
1 −3 ln 2 3 ln 2 1 1 63
(d) sinh(−3 ln 2) = (e −e )= −8 =−
2 2 8 16
 
1 ln x 1 1 x2 + 1
4. (a) (e + e− ln x ) = x+ = ,x>0
2 2 x 2x
 
1 ln x 1 1 x2 − 1
(b) (e − e− ln x ) = x− = ,x>0
2 2 x 2x
e2 ln x − e−2 ln x x2 − 1/x2 x4 − 1
(c) = = ,x>0
e2 ln x + e−2 ln x x2 + 1/x2 x4 + 1
 
1 − ln x ln x 1 1 1 + x2
(d) (e +e )= +x = ,x>0
2 2 x 2x

5. sinh x0 cosh x0 tanh x0 coth x0 sech x0 csch x0

(a) 2 √5 2 /√5 √5 / 2 1/√5 1/ 2
(b) 3/ 4 5/ 4 3/ 5 5/3 4/5 4/3
(c) 4/3 5/ 3 4/5 5/4 3/ 5 3/ 4
306 Chapter 7

√
(a) cosh2 x0 = 1 + sinh2 x0 = 1 + (2)2 = 5, cosh x0 = 5
25 9 3
(b) sinh2 x0 = cosh2 x0 − 1 = −1= , sinh x0 = (because x0 > 0)
16 16 4
 2
4 16 9 3
(c) sech2 x0 = 1 − tanh2 x0 = 1 − =1− = , sech x0 = ,
5 25 25 5
  
1 5 sinh x0 5 4 4
cosh x0 = = , from = tanh x0 we get sinh x0 = =
sech x0 3 cosh x0 3 5 3

d d 1 cosh x
6. cschx = =− = − coth x csch x for x = 0
dx dx sinh x sinh2 x
d d 1 sinh x
sech x = =− = − tanh x sech x for all x
dx dx cosh x cosh2 x
d d cosh x sinh2 x − cosh2 x
coth x = = = − csch2 x for x = 0
dx dx sinh x sinh2 x
dy dx dy
7. (a) y = sinh−1 x if and only if x = sinh y; 1 = = cosh y; so
dx dy dx
d dy 1 1 1
[sinh−1 x] = = =
=√ for all x.
dx dx cosh y 2
1 + sinh y 1 + x2
dy dx dy
(b) Let x ≥ 1. Then y = cosh−1 x if and only if x = cosh y; 1 = = sinh y, so
dx dy dx
d dy 1 1 1
[cosh−1 x] = = =
= 2 for x ≥ 1.
dx dx sinh y 2
cosh y − 1 x −1
(c) Let −1 < x < 1. Then y = tanh−1 x if and only if x = tanh y; thus
dy dx dy dy d dy 1
1= = sech2 y = (1 − tanh2 y) = 1 − x2 , so [tanh−1 x] = = .
dx dy dx dx dx dx 1 − x2
1
9. 4 cosh(4x − 8) 10. 4x3 sinh(x4 ) 11. − csch2 (ln x)
x
sech2 2x 1
12. 2 13. csch(1/x) coth(1/x) 14. −2e2x sech(e2x ) tanh(e2x )
tanh 2x x2

2 + 5 cosh(5x) sinh(5x)
15.  16. 6 sinh2 (2x) cosh(2x)
4x + cosh2 (5x)

√ √ √
17. x5/2 tanh( x) sech2 ( x) + 3x2 tanh2 ( x)
 

1 1
18. −3 cosh(cos 3x) sin 3x 19.
= 1/ 9 + x2
1 + x2 /9 3

1 1
√ 
20.
(−1/x2 ) = − √ 21. 1/ (cosh−1 x) x2 − 1
1 + 1/x2 |x| x2 + 1


√
22. 1/ (sinh−1 x)2 − 1 1 + x2 23. −(tanh−1 x)−2 /(1 − x2 )


sinh x sinh x 1, x>0
24. 2(coth−1 x)/(1 − x2 ) 25.
= =
2
cosh x − 1 | sinh x| −1, x<0
Exercise Set 7.8 307

ex
26. (sech2 x)/ 1 + tanh2 x 27. − √ + ex sech−1 x
2x 1 − x
 
−1 x −1
28. 10(1 + x csch x) 9
− √ + csch x
|x| 1 + x2

1 1 2
31. sinh7 x + C 32. sinh(2x − 3) + C 33. (tanh x)3/2 + C
7 2 3

1 1
34. − coth(3x) + C 35. ln(cosh x) + C 36. − coth3 x + C
3 3

ln 3 ln 3
1 3
37. − sech x = 37/375 38. ln(cosh x) = ln 5 − ln 3
3 ln 2 0


1 1 1
39. u = 3x, √ du = sinh−1 3x + C
3 1+u 2 3
 √ 
√ 2 1 √
40. x = 2u, √ du = √ du = cosh−1 (x/ 2) + C
2u2 − 2 u2 − 1

1
41. u = e , x √ du = − sech−1 (ex ) + C
u 1 − u2

1
42. u = cos θ, − √ du = − sinh−1 (cos θ) + C
1 + u2

du
43. u = 2x, √ = −csch−1 |u| + C = −csch−1 |2x| + C
u 1 + u2
 
5/3 1 1 1
44. x = 5u/3, √ du = √ du = cosh−1 (3x/5) + C
25u − 25
2 3 u2 −1 3
1/2 1 1 + 1/2 1
45. tanh−1 x = tanh−1 (1/2) − tanh−1 (0) = ln = ln 3
0 2 1 − 1/2 2

√3 √ √
−1
46. sinh t = sinh−1 3 − sinh−1 0 = ln( 3 + 2)
0

 ln 3 ln 3
1 1
49. A = sinh 2x dx = cosh 2x = [cosh(2 ln 3) − 1],
0 2 0 2
1 ln 9 1 1
but cosh(2 ln 3) = cosh(ln 9) = (e + e− ln 9 ) = (9 + 1/9) = 41/9 so A = [41/9 − 1] = 16/9.
2 2 2
 ln 2 ln 2
2
50. V = π sech x dx = π tanh x = π tanh(ln 2) = 3π/5
0 0

 5  5
2 2
51. V = π (cosh 2x − sinh 2x)dx = π dx = 5π
0 0
308 Chapter 7

 1 1
1 1
52. cosh ax dx = 2, sinh ax = 2, sinh a = 2, sinh a = 2a;
0 a 0 a
sinh an − 2an
let f (a) = sinh a − 2a, then an+1 = an − , a1 = 2.2, . . . , a4 = a5 = 2.177318985.
cosh an − 2

53. y  = sinh x, 1 + (y  )2 = 1 + sinh2 x = cosh2 x

 ln 2 ln 2  
1 1 1 3
L= cosh x dx = sinh x = sinh(ln 2) = (eln 2 − e− ln 2 ) = 2− =
0 0 2 2 2 4

54. y  = sinh(x/a), 1 + (y  )2 = 1 + sinh2 (x/a) = cosh2 (x/a)

 x1 x1
L= cosh(x/a)dx = a sinh(x/a) = a sinh(x1 /a)
0 0

1 −x 1
55. sinh(−x) = (e − ex ) = − (ex − e−x ) = − sinh x
2 2
1 −x 1
cosh(−x) = (e + ex ) = (ex + e−x ) = cosh x
2 2
1 x 1
56. (a) cosh x + sinh x = (e + e−x ) + (ex − e−x ) = ex
2 2
1 x 1
(b) cosh x − sinh x = (e + e−x ) − (ex − e−x ) = e−x
2 2
1 1
(c) sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y = (ex − e−x )(ey + e−y ) + (ex + e−x )(ey − e−y )
4 4
1 x+y
= [(e − e−x+y + ex−y − e−x−y ) + (ex+y + e−x+y − ex−y − e−x−y )]
4
1 (x+y)
[e= − e−(x+y) ] = sinh(x + y)
2
(d) Let y = x in Part (c).
(e) The proof is similar to Part (c), or: treat x as variable and y as constant, and differentiate
the result in Part (c) with respect to x.
(f ) Let y = x in Part (e).
(g) Use cosh2 x = 1 + sinh2 x together with Part (f).
(h) Use sinh2 x = cosh2 x − 1 together with Part (f).

57. (a) Divide cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1 by cosh2 x.

sinh x sinh y
+
sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y cosh x cosh y tanh x + tanh y
(b) tanh(x + y) = = =
cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y sinh x sinh y 1 + tanh x tanh y
1+
cosh x cosh y
(c) Let y = x in Part (b).

1
58. (a) Let y = cosh−1 x; then x = cosh y = (ey + e−y ), ey − 2x + e−y = 0, e2y − 2xey + 1 = 0,
√ 2
2x ± 4x2 − 4

y
e = = x ± x2 − 1. To determine which sign to take, note that y ≥ 0
2 √
so e−y ≤ ey , x = (ey + e−y )/2 ≤ (ey + ey )/2 = ey , hence ey ≥ x thus ey = x + x2 − 1,
√
y = cosh−1 x = ln(x + x2 − 1).
Exercise Set 7.8 309

ey − e−y e2y − 1
(b) Let y = tanh−1 x; then x = tanh y = y −y
= 2y , xe2y + x = e2y − 1,
e +e e +1
1+x 1 1+x
1 + x = e2y (1 − x), e2y = (1 + x)/(1 − x), 2y = ln , y = ln .
1−x 2 1−x
√
d 1 + x/ x2 − 1

−1
59. (a) (cosh x) = √ = 1/ x2 − 1
dx x + x2 − 1
  
d d 1 1 1 1
(b) (tanh−1 x) = (ln(1 + x) − ln(1 − x)) = + = 1/(1 − x2 )
dx dx 2 2 1+x 1−x

60. Let y = sech−1 x then x = sech y = 1/ cosh y, cosh y = 1/x, y = cosh−1 (1/x); the proofs for the
remaining two are similar.

du
61. If |u| < 1 then, by Theorem 8.8.6, = tanh−1 u + C.
1 − u2

du
For |u| > 1, = coth−1 u + C = tanh−1 (1/u) + C.
1 − u2

d d √ 1 x 1
62. (a) (sech−1 |x|) = (sech−1 x2 ) = − √ √ √ =− √
dx dx x 1−x
2 2 x 2 x 1 − x2
(b) Similar to solution of Part (a)

1 x
63. (a) (e − e−x ) = +∞ − 0 = +∞
lim sinh x = lim
x→+∞ 2 x→+∞
1 x
(b) lim sinh x = lim (e − e−x ) = 0 − ∞ = −∞
x→−∞ x→−∞ 2

ex − e−x ex − e−x
(c) lim tanh x = lim x = 1 (d) lim tanh x = lim = −1
x→+∞ x→+∞ e + e−x x→−∞ x→−∞ ex + e−x


(e) lim sinh−1 x = lim ln(x + x2 + 1) = +∞
x→+∞ x→+∞
1
lim− tanh−1 x = lim− [ln(1 + x) − ln(1 − x)] = +∞
(f )
x→1 x→1 2


64. (a) lim (cosh−1 x − ln x) = lim [ln(x + x2 − 1) − ln x]
x→+∞ x→+∞
√
x + x2 − 1

= lim ln = lim ln(1 + 1 − 1/x2 ) = ln 2
x→+∞ x x→+∞

cosh x ex + e−x 1
(b) lim x
= lim = lim (1 + e−2x ) = 1/2
x→+∞ e x→+∞ 2ex x→+∞ 2

65. For |x| < 1, y = tanh−1 x is defined and dy/dx = 1/(1 − x2 ) > 0; y  = 2x/(1 − x2 )2 changes sign
at x = 0, so there is a point of inflection there.
 
1 a
66. Let x = −u/a, √ du = − √ dx = − cosh−1 x + C = − cosh−1 (−u/a) + C.
u2 − a2 a x2 − 1
 √
−1

a u + u2 − a2
− cosh (−u/a) = − ln(−u/a + u /a − 1) = ln
2 2 √ √
−u + u2 − a2 u + u2 − a2



 
= ln u + u2 − a2  − ln a = ln |u + u2 − a2 | + C1
 

1  
so √ du = ln u + u2 − a2  + C2 .
u2 − a2
310 Chapter 7

67. Using sinh x + cosh x = ex (Exercise 56a), (sinh x + cosh x)n = (ex )n = enx = sinh nx + cosh nx.
 a a
1 1 at 2 sinh at
68. e dx = etx
tx
= (e − e−at ) = for t = 0.
−a t −a
t t

69. (a) y  = sinh(x/a), 1 + (y  )2 = 1 + sinh2 (x/a) = cosh2 (x/a)

 b b
L=2 cosh(x/a) dx = 2a sinh(x/a) = 2a sinh(b/a)
0 0

(b) The highest point is at x = b, the lowest at x = 0,

so S = a cosh(b/a) − a cosh(0) = a cosh(b/a) − a.

70. From Part (a) of Exercise 69, L = 2a sinh(b/a) so 120 = 2a sinh(50/a), a sinh(50/a) = 60. Let
u = 50/a, then a = 50/u so (50/u) sinh u = 60, sinh u = 1.2u. If f (u) = sinh u − 1.2u, then
sinh un − 1.2un
un+1 = un − ; u1 = 1, . . . , u5 = u6 = 1.064868548 ≈ 50/a so a ≈ 46.95415231.
cosh un − 1.2
From Part (b), S = a cosh(b/a) − a ≈ 46.95415231[cosh(1.064868548) − 1] ≈ 29.2 ft.

71. From Part (b) of Exercise 69, S = a cosh(b/a) − a so 30 = a cosh(200/a) − a. Let u = 200/a,
then a = 200/u so 30 = (200/u)[cosh u − 1], cosh u − 1 = 0.15u. If f (u) = cosh u − 0.15u − 1,
cosh un − 0.15un − 1
then un+1 = un − ; u1 = 0.3, . . . , u4 = u5 = 0.297792782 ≈ 200/a so
sinh un − 0.15
a ≈ 671.6079505. From Part (a), L = 2a sinh(b/a) ≈ 2(671.6079505) sinh(0.297792782) ≈ 405.9 ft.

72. (a) When the bow of the boat is at the point (x, y) and the person has walked a distance D,
then the person is located at the point (0, D), the line segment connecting (0, D) and (x, y)
√
has length a; thus a2 = x2 + (D − y)2 , D = y + a2 − x2 = a sech−1 (x/a).


−1 1 + 5/9
(b) Find D when a = 15, x = 10: D = 15 sech (10/15) = 15 ln ≈ 14.44 m.
2/3
 2
a2 x 1 a 1
2
(c) dy/dx = − √ +√ =√ − +x =− a − x2 ,
x a −x
2 2 a −x
2 2 a −x
2 2 x x
 15 15
 2 a2 − x2 a2 225 225
1 + [y ] = 1 + = 2 ; with a = 15 and x = 5, L = dx = − = 30 m.
x2 x 5 x2 x 5

CHAPTER 7 SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES

1. (a) f (g(x)) = x for all x in the domain of g, and g(f (x)) = x for all x in the domain of f .
(b) They are reflections of each other through the line y = x.
(c) The domain of one is the range of the other and vice versa.
(d) The equation y = f (x) can always be solved for x as a function of y. Functions with no
inverses include y = x2 , y = sin x.
(e) Yes, g is continuous; this is evident from the statement about the graphs in Part (b) above.
(f ) Yes, g must be differentiable (where f  = 0); this can be inferred from the graphs. Note that
if f  = 0 at a point then g  cannot exist (infinite slope).

2. (a) For sin x, −π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2; for cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π; for tan x, −π/2 < x < π/2; for sec x,
0 ≤ x < π/2 or π/2 < x ≤ π.
Chapter 7 Supplementary Exercises 311

(b) y y = sin-1 x y = cos-1 x y

1 y = sin x
x
c/2
x
-1 c
-1
y = cos x

y y
y = tan x y = sec-1 x y = sec x
2 2
y = tan -1 x y = sec-1 x
x
x
- c/2 c/2
c/2
-2 -1
y = sec x

 1/3
−1 x+1 1
3. (a) x = f (y) = 8y − 1; y = f 3
(x) = = (x + 1)1/3
8 2
(b) f (x) = (x − 1)2 ; f does not have an inverse because f is not one-to-one, for example
f (0) = f (2) = 1.
√
(c) x = f (y) = (ey )2 + 1; y = f −1 (x) = ln x − 1 = 12 ln(x − 1)
y+2 x+2
(d) x = f (y) = ; y = f −1 (x) =
y−1 x−1

ad − bc
4. f  (x) = ; if ad − bc = 0 then the function represents a horizontal line, no inverse.
(cx + d)2
ay + b
If ad − bc = 0 then f  (x) > 0 or f  (x) < 0 so f is invertible. If x = f (y) = then
cy + d
b − xd
y = f −1 (x) = .
xc − a
 
5. 3 ln e2x (ex )3 + 2 exp(ln 1) = 3 ln e2x + 3 ln(ex )3 + 2 · 1 = 3(2x) + (3 · 3)x + 2 = 15x + 2

6. Draw equilateral triangles of sides 5, 12, 13, and 3, 4, 5. Then sin[cos−1 (4/5)] = 3/5,
sin[cos−1 (5/13)] = 12/13, cos[sin−1 (4/5)] = 3/5, cos[sin−1 (5/13)] = 12/13
(a) cos[cos−1 (4/5) + sin−1 (5/13)] = cos(cos−1 (4/5)) cos(sin−1 (5/13))
− sin(cos−1 (4/5)) sin(sin−1 (5/13))
4 12 3 5 33
= − = .
5 13 5 13 65
(b) sin[sin−1 (4/5) + cos−1 (5/13)] = sin(sin−1 (4/5)) cos(cos−1 (5/13))
+ cos(sin−1 (4/5)) sin(cos−1 (5/13))
4 5 3 12 56
= + = .
5 13 5 13 65

7. (a) cosh 3x = cosh(2x + x) = cosh 2x cosh x + sinh 2x sinh x

= (2 cosh2 x − 1) cosh x + (2 sinh x cosh x) sinh x
= 2 cosh3 x − cosh x + 2 sinh2 x cosh x
= 2 cosh3 x − cosh x + 2(cosh2 x − 1) cosh x = 4 cosh3 x − 3 cosh x
312 Chapter 7

x x
(b) from Theorem 7.8.2 with x replaced by : cosh x = 2 cosh2 − 1,
2 2
x x 1
2 cosh2 = cosh x + 1, cosh2 = (cosh x + 1),
2 2 2
x 1 x
cosh = (cosh x + 1) (because cosh > 0)
2 2 2
x x
(c) from Theorem 7.8.2 with x replaced by : cosh x = 2 sinh2 + 1,
2 2

x x 1 x 1
2 sinh2 = cosh x − 1, sinh2 = (cosh x − 1), sinh = ± (cosh x − 1)
2 2 2 2 2

8. Y = ln(Cekt ) = ln C + ln ekt = ln C + kt, a line with slope k and Y -intercept ln C

9. (a) y
2

x
4

-2

(b) The curve y = e−x/2 sin 2x has x-intercepts at x = −π/2, 0, π/2, π, 3π/2. It intersects the
curve y = e−x/2 at x = π/4, 5π/4, and it intersects the curve y = −e−x/2 at x = −π/4, 3π/4.

10. (a) y (b) y

c/2

c/2
x x
1 1

(c) y (d) y
c/2
x
1
x
5

-c/2

11. Set a = 68.7672, b = 0.0100333, c = 693.8597, d = 299.2239.

 d

(a) 650 (b) L = 2 1 + a2 b2 sinh2 bx dx
0

= 1480.2798 ft

-300 300
0
Chapter 7 Supplementary Exercises 313

(c) x = 283.6249 ft (d) 82◦

ln x 1 y
x
12. (a) If xk = ex then k ln x = x, or = . The steps are reversible.
x k 2
(b) By zooming it is seen that the maximum value of y is -2
approximately 0.368 (actually, 1/e), so there are two distinct
solutions of xk = ex whenever k > 1/0.368 ≈ 2.717.
(c) x ≈ 1.155

13. (a) The function ln x − x0.2 is negative at x = 1 and positive at x = 4, so it must be zero in
between (IVT).
(b) x = 3.654

14. (a) r (b) r = 1 when t ≈ 0.673080 s.

2 (c) dr/dt = 4.48 m/s.

t
1

abe−x
15. (a) y = x3 + 1 so y  = 3x2 . (b) y  =
(1 + be−x )2
1 1
(c) y = ln x + ln(x + 1) − ln sin x + ln cos x, so
2 3
1 1 cos x sin x 5x + 3
y = + − − = − cot x − tan x.
2x 3(x + 1) sin x cos x 6x(x + 1)
ln(1 + x) y  x/(1 + x) − ln(1 + x) 1 ln(1 + x)
(d) ln y = , = 2
= − ,
x y x x(1 + x) x2

dy 1 (1 + x)(1/x)
= (1 + x)(1/x)−1 − ln(1 + x)
dx x x2
     x 
y 1 dy x 1 x
(e) ln y = ex ln x, = ex + ln x , = xe ex + ln x = ex xe −1 + xe ln x
y x dx x
1 dy 1 −2 2
(f ) y = sinh−1 , =
=− √
x2 dx 1 + (1/x2 )2 x3 x x4 + 1

16. y  = aeax sin bx + beax cos bx and y  = (a2 − b2 )eax sin bx + 2abeax cos bx, so y  − 2ay  + (a2 + b2 )y
= (a2 − b2 )eax sin bx + 2abeax cos bx − 2a(aeax sin bx + beax cos bx) + (a2 + b2 )eax sin bx = 0.

√ √ 1 −2x
17. sin(tan−1 x) = x/ 1 + x2 and cos(tan−1 x) = 1/ 1 + x2 , and y  = , y  = , hence
1 + x2 (1 + x2 )2
−2x x 1
y  + 2 sin y cos3 y = 2 2
+ 2√ = 0.
(1 + x ) 1 + x (1 + x2 )3/2
2
314 Chapter 7

18. y  = a cosh ax, y  = a2 sinh ax = a2 y

1
19. Set y = logb x and solve y  = 1: y  = = 1 y
x ln b
1
so x = . The curves intersect when (x, x) lies
ln b 2
on the graph of y = logb x, so x = logb x. From
ln x x
Formula (9), Section 7.2, logb x = from which 2
ln b
ln x = 1, x = e, ln b = 1/e, b = e1/e
≈ 1.4447.

√ y
20. (a) Find the point of intersection: f (x) = x + k = ln x. The
1 1 √ 2
slopes are equal, so m1 = = m2 = √ , x = 2, x = 4. x
√ x 2 x
2
Then ln 4 = 4 + k, k = ln 4 − 2.

k 1 √
(b) Since the slopes are equal m1 = √ = m2 = , so k x = 2. y
√ 2 x x
2
At the point of intersection k x = ln x, 2 = ln x, x = e2 ,
x
k = 2/e.
0 5

ex (x − 2)
21. lim+ f (x) = lim f (x) = +∞ and f  (x) = , stationary point at x = 2. We know f (x)
x→0 x→+∞ x3
has no maximum and an absolute minimum; by Theorem 4.5.5 f (x) has an absolute minimum at
x = 2, and m = e2 /4.

22. f  (x) = (1 + ln x)xx , critical point at x = 1/e; lim f (x) = lim ex ln x = 1, lim f (x) = +∞; no
+ + x→0 x→0 x→+∞
absolute maximum, absolute minimum m = e−1/e at x = 1/e
 e e
1 1 1 1 1 1
23. fave = dx = ln x = ; ∗ = , x∗ = e − 1
e−1 1 x e−1 1 e − 1 x e − 1

24. Find t so that N  (t) is maximum. The size of the population is increasing most rapidly when
t = 8.4 years.
 2 2
1
25. u = ln x, du = (1/x)dx; du = ln u = ln 2
1 u 1

 1 √
26. e−x/2 dx = 2(1 − 1/ e)
0

 1/4  
1 3 1 1
27. u = e−2x , du = −2e−2x dx; − (1 + cos u)du = + sin 1 − sin
2 1 8 2 4

e2x 3ex
28. Divide ex + 3 into e2x to get x = ex − x so
e +3 e +3
  
e2x ex
x
dx = ex dx − 3 x
dx = ex − 3 ln(ex + 3) + C
e +3 e +3
Chapter 7 Supplementary Exercises 315

29. Since y = ex and y = ln x are inverse functions, their graphs y

e
are symmetric with respect to the line y = x; consequently the
A1
areas A1 and A3 are equal (see figure). But A1 + A2 = e, so
 e  1 1
A2
ln xdx + ex dx = A2 + A3 = A2 + A1 = e A3 x
1 0
1 e


n
ek/n 
n
30. = f (x∗k )∆x where f (x) = ex , x∗k = k/n, and ∆x = 1/n for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. Thus
n
k=1 k=1


n  n  1
ek/n
lim = lim f (x∗k )∆x = ex dx = e − 1.
n→+∞ n n→+∞ 0
k=1 k=1

1
31. Since f (x) = is positive and increasing on the interval [1, 2], the left endpoint approximation
x
1
overestimates the integral of and the right endpoint approximation underestimates it.
x

(a) For n = 5 this becomes

  2 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.2 + + + + < dx < 0.2 + + + +
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 1 x 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
 2
1
(b) For general n the left endpoint approximation to dx = ln 2 is
1 x
1   1
n n n−1
1 1
= = and the right endpoint approximation is
n 1 + (k − 1)/n n+k−1 n+k
k=1 k=1 k=0


n 
n  2  1
n−1
1 1 1
. This yields < dx < which is the desired inequality.
n+k n+k 1 x n+k
k=1 k=1 k=0

1 1 1 1
(c) By telescoping, the difference is − = so ≤ 0.1, n ≥ 5
n 2n 2n 2n
(d) n ≥ 1000

32. (a) x∗k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4


4
 
f (x∗k )∆x = e0 + e1 + e2 + e3 + e4 (1) = (1 − e5 )/(1 − e) = 85.791
k=1

(b) x∗k = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

4
 
f (x∗k )∆x = e1 + e2 + e3 + e4 + e5 (1) = e(1 − e5 )/(1 − e) = 233.204
k=1

(c) x∗k = 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, 7/2, 9/2

4  
f (x∗k )∆x = e1/2 + e3/2 + e5/2 + e7/2 + e9/2 (1) = e1/2 (1 − e5 )/(1 − e) = 141.446
k=1

33. 0.351220577, 0.420535296, 0.386502483

34. 1.63379940, 1.805627583, 1.717566087

316 Chapter 7

 n  1
1
x
35. f (x) = e , [a, b] = [0, 1], ∆x = ; lim f (x∗k ) = ex dx = e − 1
n n→+∞ 0
k=1

36. In the case +∞ − (−∞) the limit is +∞; in the case −∞ − (+∞) the limit is −∞, because
large positive (negative) quantities are added to large positive (negative) quantities. The cases
+∞ − (+∞) and −∞ − (−∞) are indeterminate; large numbers of opposite sign are subtracted,
and more information about the sizes is needed.

37. (a) when the limit takes the form 0/0 or ∞/∞
(b) Not necessarily; only if lim f (x) = 0. Consider g(x) = x; lim g(x) = 0. For f (x) choose
x→a x→0
cos x x2 |x|1/2
cos x, x , and |x|
2 1/2
. Then: lim does not exist, lim = 0, and lim = +∞.
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x2

ex ex ex
38. (a) lim (ex − x2 ) = lim x2 (ex /x2 − 1), but lim = lim = lim = +∞
x→+∞ x→+∞ x→+∞ x2 x→+∞ 2x x→+∞ 2

so lim (ex /x2 − 1) = +∞ and thus lim x2 (ex /x2 − 1) = +∞

x→+∞ x→+∞
 
ln x 1/x 1 ln x ln x 1
(b) lim 4 = lim = ; lim = lim =
x→1 x − 1 x→1 4x3 4 x→1 x4 − 1 x→1 x4 − 1 2

(c) lim ax ln a = ln a
x→0