Introduction to Language

Introduction to Language

Language is the ability to produce and comprehend spoken and written words; linguistics is the
study of language.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Describe the key properties and features of language

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Grammar is a set of rules for generating logical communication.

 All languages have a grammar, and native speakers of a language have internalized the
rules of that language’s grammar.
 Every language has a lexicon, or the sum total of all the words in that language.
 Phonetics and phonemics are the study of individual units of sound in languages.
 Morphology is the study of words and other meaningful units of language.
 Syntax is the study of sentences and phrases, and the rules of grammar that sentences
obey.
 Semantics is the study of sentence meaning; pragmatics is the study of sentence
meaning in context.

Key Terms

 lexicon: The sum total of all words in a language.

 grammar: The set of rules a language obeys for creating words and sentences.

Language is the ability to produce and comprehend both spoken and written (and in the case of
sign language, signed) words. Understanding how language works means reaching across
many branches of psychology—everything from basic neurological functioning to high-level
cognitive processing. Language shapes our social interactions and brings order to our lives.
Complex language is one of the defining factors that makes us human. Two of the concepts that
make language unique are grammar and lexicon.

Grammar
Because all language obeys a set of combinatory rules, we can communicate an infinite number
of concepts. While every language has a different set of rules, all languages do obey rules.
These rules are known as grammar. Speakers of a language have internalized the rules and
exceptions for that language’s grammar. There are rules for every level of language—word
formation (for example, native speakers of English have internalized the general rule that -ed is
the ending for past-tense verbs, so even when they encounter a brand-new verb, they
automatically know how to put it into past tense); phrase formation (for example, knowing that
when you use the verb “buy,” it needs a subject and an object; “She buys” is wrong, but “She
buys a gift” is okay); and sentence formation.

Lexicon

Every language has its rules, which act as a framework for meaningful communication. But what
do people fill that framework up with? The answer is, of course, words. Every human language
has a lexicon—the sum total of all of the words in that language. By using grammatical rules to
combine words into logical sentences, humans can convey an infinite number of concepts.

Introduction to Linguistics

Language is such a special topic that there is an entire field, linguistics, devoted to its study.
Linguistics views language in an objective way, using the scientific method and rigorous
research to form theories about how humans acquire, use, and sometimes abuse language.
There are a few major branches of linguistics, which it is useful to understand in order to learn
about language from a psychological perspective.

Major levels of linguistics: This diagram outlines the various subfields of linguistics, the study
of language. These include phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and
pragmatics.

Phonetics and Phonology

Phonetics is the study of individual speech sounds; phonology is the study of phonemes, which
are the speech sounds of an individual language. These two heavily overlapping subfields cover
all the sounds that humans can make, as well as which sounds make up different languages. A
phonologist could answer the question, “Why do BAT and TAB have different meanings even
though they are made of the
same three sounds, A, B and T?”

Morphology

Morphology is the study of words and other meaningful units of language like suffixes and
prefixes. A morphologist would be interested in the relationship between words like “dog” and
“dogs” or “walk” and “walking,” and how people figure out the differences between those words.

Syntax

Syntax is the study of sentences and phrases, or how people put words into the right order so
that they can communicate meaningfully. All languages have underlying rules of syntax, which,
along with morphological rules, make up every language’s grammar. An example of syntax
coming into play in language is “Eugene walked the dog” versus “The dog walked Eugene.” The
order of words is not arbitrary—in order for the sentence to convey the intended meaning, the
words must be in a certain order.

Semantics and Pragmatics

Semantics, most generally, is about the meaning of sentences. Someone who studies
semantics is interested in words and what real-world object or concept those words denote, or
point to. Pragmatics is an even broader field that studies how the context of a sentence
contributes to meaning—for example, someone shouting “Fire!” has a very different meaning if
they are in charge of a seven-gun salute than it does if they are sitting in a crowded movie
theater.

The Structure of Language

All languages have underlying structural rules that make meaningful communication possible.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Explain the hierarchy of the building blocks of language

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points
  The five main components of language are phonemes, morphemes, lexemes, syntax, and
context. Along with grammar, semantics, and pragmatics, these components work
together to create meaningful communication among individuals.
 A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that may cause a change of meaning within a
language but that doesn’t have meaning by itself.
 A morpheme is the smallest unit of a word that provides a specific meaning to a string of
letters (which is called a phoneme). There are two main types of morpheme: free
morphemes and bound morphemes.
 A lexeme is the set of all the inflected forms of a single word.
 Syntax is the set of rules by which a person constructs full sentences.
 Context is how everything within language works together to convey a particular meaning.

Key Terms

 lexeme: The set of inflected forms taken by a single word.

 phoneme: An indivisible unit of sound in a given language.
 morpheme: The smallest linguistic unit within a word that can carry a meaning, such as
“un-“, “break”, and “-able” in the word “unbreakable.”

Every language is different. In English, an adjective comes before a noun (“red house”),
whereas in Spanish, the adjective comes after (“casa [house] roja [red].”) In German, you can
put noun after noun together to form giant compound words; in Chinese, the pitch of your voice
determines the meaning of your words; in American Sign Language, you can convey full,
grammatical sentences with tense and aspect by moving your hands and face. But all
languages have structural underpinnings that make them logical for the people who speak and
understand them.

Rapping in American Sign Language: Shelby Mitchusson performs an ASL translation of

“Lose Yourself” by Eminem. ASL and other sign languages have all the same structural
underpinnings that spoken languages do.

Five major components of the structure of language are phonemes, morphemes, lexemes,
syntax, and context. These pieces all work together to create meaningful communication among
individuals.

Major levels of linguistic structure: This diagram outlines the relationship between types of
linguistic units. Speech sounds make up phonemes, which make up words. Words make up
sentences, which have literal meanings and contextual meanings.

Phonemes

A phoneme is the basic unit of phonology. It is the smallest unit of sound that may cause a
change of meaning within a language, but that doesn’t have meaning by itself. For example, in
the words “bake” and “brake,” only one phoneme has been altered, but a change in meaning
has been triggered. The phoneme /r/ has no meaning on its own, but by appearing in the word it
has completely changed the word’s meaning!

Phonemes correspond to the sounds of the alphabet, although there is not always a one-to-one
relationship between a letter and a phoneme (the sound made when you say the word). For
example, the word “dog” has three phonemes: /d/, /o/, and / g /. However, the word “shape,”
despite having five letters, has only three phonemes: /sh/, /long-a/, and /p/. The English
language has approximately 45 different phonemes, which correspond to letters or
combinations of letters. Through the process of segmentation, a phoneme can have a particular
pronunciation in one word and a slightly different pronunciation in another.

Morphemes

Morphemes, the basic unit of morphology, are the smallest meaningful unit of language. Thus, a
morpheme is a series of phonemes that has a special meaning. If a morpheme is altered in any
way, the entire meaning of the word can be changed. Some morphemes are individual words
(such as “eat” or “water”). These are known as free morphemes because they can exist on their
own. Other morphemes are prefixes, suffixes, or other linguistic pieces that aren’t full words on
their own but do affect meaning (such as the “-s” at the end of “cats” or the “re-” at the
beginning of “redo.”) Because these morphemes must be attached to another word to have
meaning, they are called bound morphemes.

Within the category of bound morphemes, there are two additional subtypes: derivational and
inflectional. Derivational morphemes change the meaning or part of speech of a word when they
are used together. For example, the word “sad” changes from an adjective to a noun when “-
ness” (sadness) is added to it. “Action” changes in meaning when the morpheme “re-” is added
to it, creating the word “reaction.” Inflectional morphemes modify either the tense of a verb or
the number value of a noun; for example, when you add an “-s” to “cat,” the number of cats
changes from one to more than one.

Lexemes

Lexemes are the set of inflected forms taken by a single word. For example, members of the
lexeme RUN include “run” (the uninflected form), “running” (inflected form), and “ran.” This
lexeme excludes “runner (a derived term—it has a derivational morpheme attached).

Another way to think about lexemes is that they are the set of words that would be included
under one entry in the dictionary—”running” and “ran” would be found under “run,” but “runner”
would not.

Syntax

Syntax is a set of rules for constructing full sentences out of words and phrases. Every
language has a different set of syntactic rules, but all languages have some form of syntax. In
English, the smallest form of a sentence is a noun phrase (which might just be a noun or a
pronoun) and a verb phrase (which may be a single verb). Adjectives and adverbs can be
added to the sentence to provide further meaning. Word order matters in English, although in
some languages, order is of less importance. For example, the English sentences “The baby ate
the carrot” and “The carrot ate the baby” do not mean the same thing, even though they contain
the exact same words. In languages like Finnish, word order doesn’t matter for general
meaning—different word orders are used to emphasize different parts of the sentence.

Context

Context is how everything within language works together to convey a particular meaning.
Context includes tone of voice, body language, and the words being used. Depending on how a
person says something, holds his or her body, or emphasizes certain points of a sentence, a
variety of different messages can be conveyed. For example, the word “awesome,” when said
with a big smile, means the person is excited about a situation. “Awesome,” said with crossed
arms, rolled eyes, and a sarcastic tone, means the person is not thrilled with the situation.

Human Language

Introduction to Human Language

Human language is unique because it is generative, recursive, and has displacement.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Analyze the factors that distinguish human language

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Human language is generative, which means that it can communicate an infinite number
of ideas from a finite number of parts.
 Human language is recursive, which means that it can build upon itself without limits.
 Human language uses displacement, which means that it can refer to things that are not
directly present.
 The origins of human language are disputed because there is a lack of direct evidence.
 Proto-Indo-European is the ancestor language of hundreds of languages today.

Key Terms

 recursive: Used to describe a language with units (such as sentences or phrases) that
can contain themselves (such as sentences within sentences or phrases within phrases).
 generative: Used to describe a language that can convey an infinite number of ideas
based on different combinations of words or symbols.
 dead language: A language with no remaining native speakers.
 displacement: The ability of a language to describe things that are not present.
The world is full of communication. From sparrows chirping and talk radio in the morning to owls
hooting and The Tonight Show at night, people and animals are constantly exchanging
information through a wide variety of channels. However, there are some key differences
between how humans and animals communicate. Specifically, human language is unique on the
planet because it has the qualities of generativity, recursion, and displacement.

Generativity

Human language is generative, which means that it can communicate an infinite number of
ideas. This is because it is combinatorial: words can be combined in different orders to create
different larger meanings of a sentence. Animal communication does not have this freedom;
animals communicate within closed systems, with limited possible ideas to communicate. Birds
may have different chirps to signify danger or the location of food, but they cannot combine
those chirps together to convey a novel meaning.

Recursion

Human language is recursive. This means that we can put words, phrases, and sentences
inside of themselves without limits. For example, we can say the sentence “Mark likes
anchovies.” But we can also put that sentence inside of a sentence: “Carol thinks that Mark likes
anchovies.” Then we can put that sentence inside of another sentence: “Greg said that Carol
thinks that Mark likes anchovies,” and on and on forever. Obviously, the recursive abilities of
language are constrained by the limits of time and memory. But in theory, because units of
human language have the ability to be self-containing, we could have an infinite sentence.
Animal communication does not have this same flexibility.

Displacement

Human language has displacement. This means that through the power of language, we can
refer to things that aren’t present spatially or temporally. This is obviously a useful trait (it allows
us to ask questions like “Where did I leave my wallet?”), and it is one that is largely missing from
the animal kingdom. Bees actually do have limited displacement in their communication: They
perform a waggle-dance to communicate to other bees the location of the most recent food
source they have visited. However, there is no temporal nuance beyond this. Ants and ravens
also have limited displacement systems.

Human language is also modality-independent—that is, it is possible to use the features of

displacement, generativity, and recursion across multiple modes. Speaking is the auditory form
of language, but writing and sign language are visual forms. There are also tactile forms, like
Braille.

Origins of Human Language

The earliest origins of human language are hotly contested, as it is hard to find direct evidence
for when people first began to speak. It is also likely that there was an intermediate period
during which our communication systems were comparable to those of other primates, and even
if we did have knowledge of what this was like, it would be hard to say exactly when we crossed
over from animal communication to human language.

Proto-Indo-European

Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the name for the common ancestor of the Indo-European
language family. A language family is a group of languages descended from a common
language. The Indo-European language family contains 445 current languages, and all of them
are thought to have descended from PIE.

Not all languages that have ever been spoken are still commonly used. For example, Latin,
which was spoken in the Roman Empire, is now considered a dead language, or a language
that has no native speakers.

Human vs. Animal Language

While both animals and humans use systems of communication, the use of complex symbols
and open vocal systems is unique to humans.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Name differences between human language and animal communication

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Communication in both animals and humans consists of signals. Signals are sounds or
gestures that have meaning to those using them.
 Human communication consists of both signals and symbols. Symbols are sounds,
gestures, material objects, or written words that have specific meaning to a group of
people.
 Key differences between human communication and that of other primates are that (1)
humans have an open vocal system while other primates have a closed vocal system,
and (2) humans have a larger bank of symbols to use in communication.

Key Terms

 signal: A sound or gesture that has meaning to those using it.

 lexigram: A symbol that represents a word but is not necessarily indicative of the object
referenced by the word; used in studies of communication.
 symbol: Any object, typically material, that is meant to represent another (usually
abstract), even if there is no meaningful relationship.
All animals use some form of communication, although some animal communication is more
complex than others. Animal language is any form of communication that shows similarities to
human language; however, there are significant differences. Some animals use signs, signals,
or sounds to communicate. Lexigrams, or figures and symbols that represent words, are
commonly used by chimpanzees and baboons, while animals such as birds and whales use
song to communicate among one another. Bees uses complex “dances” to convey information
about location. Other animals use odors or body movements to communicate.

Honeybee communication: Bees use body movements to communicate with one another.

Communication in both animals and humans consists of signals. Signals are sounds or gestures
that have some meaning to those using them. The meaning is often self-evident based on
context: for example, many animals roar, growl, or groan in response to threats of danger;
similarly, humans may wave their arms or scream in the event of something dangerous. These
signals in these situations are designed to let others in the species know that something is
wrong and the animal or human needs help.

Human communication consists of both signals and symbols. Symbols are sounds or gestures
that have a specific meaning to a group of people. This meaning could be cultural, group-
related, or even related between two specific people. For example, two people may create a
“secret” handshake, or a group may develop a passcode that only members are aware of.
Symbols, unlike signals, must be taught and learned; they are not instinctual or self-evident.
The dog who knows 1,000 words: Meet Chaser, a dog that “knows” 1,000 words. Chaser’s
owners claim that he understands language, as evidenced by his ability to understand novel
linguistic stimuli (such as the names of unknown toys). Critics claim that Chaser is not
understanding language as humans can, but that he has been conditioned or trained to
discriminate between certain phoneme sounds.

What about nonhuman primates, who share many similarities with humans? Nonhuman
primates communicate in ways that are very similar to those used by humans; however, there
are important differences as well. First and foremost, humans use a larger repertoire of
symbols, and these symbols are substantially more complex. Second, and more importantly,
nonhuman primates (and other animals who communicate with one another) have what is
known as a closed vocal system: this means different sounds cannot be combined together to
produce new symbols with different meanings. Humans, by contrast, have open vocal systems,
which allow for combinations of symbols to create new symbols with a totally new meaning and
therefore allows for an infinite number of ideas to be expressed.

Human language is also the only kind that is modality-independent; that is, it can be used
across multiple channels. Verbal language is auditory, but other forms of language—writing and
sign language (visual), Braille (tactile)—are possible in more complex human language
systems.

One of the most famous case studies in the debate over how complex nonhuman-primate
language can be is Koko the gorilla. Koko is famous for having learned over a thousand signs of
“Gorilla Sign Language,” a simple sign language developed to try to teach nonhuman primates
complex language. Koko can respond in GSL to about two thousand words of spoken English.
However, it is generally accepted that she does not use syntax or grammar, and that her use of
language does not exceed that of a young human child.

Human Language Development

Humans, especially children, have an amazing capability to learn language, and several
theories exist to explain language development.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Differentiate among the major theories of human language acquisition

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 B. F. Skinner believed children learn language through operant conditioning —that

children receive “rewards” for using language in a functional manner.
 Noam Chomsky’s theory states that children have the innate biological ability to learn
language; however, his theory has not been supported by genetic or neurological studies.
 Jean Piaget’s theory of language development suggests that children use both
assimilation and accommodation to learn language.
  Lev Vygotsky’s theory of language development focused on social learning and the zone
of proximal development (ZPD).
 Several areas of the brain must function together in order for a person to develop, utilize,
and understand language, including Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, the primary auditory
cortex, and the angular gyrus.
 Damage to any of the areas of the brain involved in language development, such as
through illness or stroke, can result in problems with language and comprehension.

Key Terms

 assimilation: The absorption of new ideas into an existing cognitive structure.

 accommodation: The act of fitting or adapting, or the state of being fitted or adapted;
adaptation; adjustment.
 zone of proximal development: A concept developed by Soviet psychologist and social
constructivist Lev Vygotsky that describes the difference between what a learner can do
without help and what he or she can do with help.
 shaping: A method of positive reinforcement of behavior patterns in operant conditioning.

Theories of Language Development

Humans, especially children, have an amazing ability to learn language. Within the first year of
life, children will have learned many of the necessary concepts to have functional language,
although it will still take years for their capabilities to develop fully. Some people learn two or
more languages fluently over their lives (often starting from childhood); these people are
bilingual or multilingual. Multiple theories have been proposed to explain the development of
language, and related brain structures, in children.

Skinner: Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner believed that children learn language through operant conditioning; in other words,
children receive “rewards” for using language in a functional manner. For example, a child
learns to say the word “drink” when she is thirsty; she receives something to drink, which
reinforces her use of the word for getting a drink, and thus she will continue to do so. This
follows the four-term contingency that Skinner believed was the basis of language
development—motivating operations, discriminative stimuli , response, and reinforcing stimuli.
Skinner also suggested that children learn language through imitation of others, prompting, and
shaping.

Chomsky: Language Acquisition Device

Noam Chomsky’s work discusses the biological basis for language and claims that children
have innate abilities to learn language. Chomsky terms this innate ability the “language
acquisition device.” He believes children instinctively learn language without any formal
instruction. He also believes children have a natural need to use language, and that in the
absence of formal language children will develop a system of communication to meet their
needs. He has observed that all children make the same type of language errors, regardless of
the language they are taught. Chomsky also believes in the existence of a “universal grammar,”
which posits that there are certain grammatical rules all human languages share. However, his
research does not identify areas of the brain or a genetic basis that enables humans’ innate
ability for language.

Piaget: Assimilation and Accommodation

Jean Piaget’s theory of language development suggests that children use both assimilation and
accommodation to learn language. Assimilation is the process of changing one’s environment to
place information into an already-existing schema (or idea). Accommodation is the process of
changing one’s schema to adapt to the new environment. Piaget believed children need to first
develop mentally before language acquisition can occur. According to him, children first create
mental structures within the mind (schemas) and from these schemas, language development
happens.

Vygotsky: Zone of Proximal Development

Lev Vygotsky’s theory of language development focused on social learning and the zone of
proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD is a level of development obtained when children
engage in social interactions with others; it is the distance between a child’s potential to learn
and the actual learning that takes place. Vygotsky’s theory also demonstrated that Piaget
underestimated the importance of social interactions in the development of language.

Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories are often compared with each other, and both have been used
successfully in the field of education.

Language and Cognition

The following timeline gives an overview of the ages at which children generally acquire
language:

 4–6 months: Babbling using all sounds.

 6–9 months: Babbling becomes more focused—narrowing of sounds.
 10–12 months: First words develop.
 18–24 months: Children begin using two-word phrases (example: “Me up” or “Get milk”).
 2–3 years: Children begin using three-word phrases in correct order with inflection.
 4–5 years: Children start speaking with nearly complete syntax.
 5–7 years: Children begin using and understanding more complex language.
 9 years and older: Children understand almost all forms of language.

In language acquisition, there is a hypothesis that a “critical period,” or a time when it is optimal
to learn a language, exists in children. Part of this hypothesis is that if a child is not exposed to a
language in the early years of life, he or she will never have full intuitive command of a first
language.
One of the canonical case studies that supporters of the critical-period hypothesis turn to is
Genie the “feral child,” a young girl born in 1957 who, due to horrible abuse and neglect, never
learned a language. She never managed to fully acquire verbal language as a result.

Human Language and the Brain

Several areas of the brain must function together in order for a person to develop, use, and
understand language.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Describe the role each brain structure involved in language production

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Broca’s area is primarily responsible for language production; damage to this area results
in productive aphasia.
 Wernicke’s area is primarily responsible for language comprehension; damage to this
area results in receptive aphasia.
 The primary auditory cortex identifies pitch and loudness of sounds.
 The angular gyrus is responsible for several language processes, including (but not
limited to) attention and number processing.

Key Terms

 aphasia: A loss of the ability to produce or understand language.

Without the brain, there would be no language. The human brain has a few areas that are
specific to language processing and production. When these areas are damaged or injured,
capabilities for speaking or understanding can be lost, a disorder known as aphasia. These
areas must function together in order for a person to develop, use, and understand language.
Language and the brain: The areas of the brain necessary for processing language: Broca’s
area, Wernicke’s area, the primary motor cortex, the posterior middle temporal gyrus, and the
middle and posterior superior temporal gyrus.

Broca’s Area

Broca’s area, located in the frontal lobe of the brain, is linked to speech production, and recent
studies have shown that it also plays a significant role in language comprehension. Broca’s area
works in conjunction with working memory to allow a person to use verbal expression and
spoken words. Damage to Broca’s area can result in productive aphasia (also known as Broca’s
aphasia), or an inability to speak. Patients with Broca’s can often still understand language, but
they cannot speak fluently.

Wernicke’s Area

Wernicke’s area, located in the cerebral cortex, is the part of the brain involved in understanding
written and spoken language. Damage to this area results in receptive aphasia (also called
Wernicke’s aphasia). This type of aphasia manifests itself as a loss of comprehension, so
sometimes while the patient can apparently still speak, their language is nonsensical and
incomprehensible.
Language and the brain: The areas of the brain necessary for language. Spoken word,
cognition, and written word all are processed in different parts of the brain in different orders.

Auditory Cortex and Angular Gyrus

The primary auditory cortex, located in the temporal lobe and connected to the auditory system,
is organized so that it responds to neighboring frequencies in the other cells of the cortex. It is
responsible for identifying pitch and loudness of sounds.

The angular gyrus, located in the parietal lobe of the brain, is responsible for several language
processes, including number processing, spatial recognition and attention.

Linguistic Relativity

Language and thought tend to influence one another in a dual, cyclical relationship.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Characterize the relationship between language and thought in humans

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points
  The theory of linguistic relativity states that the structure of a language influences the way
its speakers conceptualize the world.
 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis discusses the grammatical structure of a particular language
and how it influences its speakers’ perceptions of the world.
 Cognitive -behavioral theory claims that what people think impacts what they say and do.
 According to behavioral economics, people are more likely to believe an event is true if it
is described vividly.

Key Terms

 cognitive distortion: Exaggerated and irrational thoughts, believed to perpetuate

psychological disorders.
 semantics: The study of the relationship between words and their meanings.

It is easy to wonder which comes first, the thought or the language. Does an individual first think
of an idea or did speaking, hearing, or reading about an idea spur a thought? Can thought exist
without language? You might as well ask which came first, the chicken or the egg.

Language and thought (or “cognition”) tend to interact in a dual and cyclical relationship, a
theory known overall as linguistic relativity. What one thinks becomes what one communicates,
and what one communicates can lead to new thoughts. There are several different theories that
aim to discuss the relationship between cognition and language, and each will be discussed in
this chapter.

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis states that the grammatical structure of a person’s language
influences the way he or she perceives the world. The hypothesis has been largely abandoned
by linguists as it has found at best very limited experimental support, and it does not hold much
merit in psychology. For instance, studies have not shown that speakers of languages lacking a
subjunctive mood (such as Chinese) experience difficulty with hypothetical problems. The
weaker version of this theory does have some merit, however. For example, different words
mean different things in different languages; not every word in every language has a one-to-one
exact translation in a different language. Because of these small but important differences,
using the wrong word within a particular language (because you believe it to mean something
else) can have dire consequences.

The canonical example of studying linguistic relativity is in the area of color naming. Sapir and
Whorf, as believers in linguistic relativity, would believe that people whose languages partition
the color spectrum along different lines actually perceive colors in a different way. However,
recent research has supported the idea that human color perception is governed more by
biological and physical rather than linguistic constraints, regardless of how many color words a
language has.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
According to the theory that drives cognitive-behavioral therapy, the way a person thinks has a
huge impact on what she or he says and does. Founded by Aaron T. Beck, this school of
thought discusses the interplay among emotion, behavior, language, and thought. Since internal
dialogue is a form of language, the way we speak to ourselves can influence our daily lives.
Problems with our internal dialogue, known as cognitive distortions, can lead to negative
behaviors or serious emotional problems.

Behavioral Economics

The field of behavioral economics studies the effect of psychological and cognitive factors on
individuals’ behavior in an economic context. In this field (and others), researchers have shown
that the more vividly an event is described, the more likely people will believe it is true. Thus,
people will draw different conclusions and make different choices about a situation based on the
language used to describe that situation.