Guidelines On Air Pollution Control Techniques

Guidelines on Air
Pollution Control
Techniques and
Devices
Air Quality Management
October 2008
Abbreviations
1 INTRODUCTION ___________________________________________________ 2
2 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNIQUES______________________________ 4

2.1 Background ...................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Controls to Reduce Impacts ............................................................................................. 4
2.3 Engineering Controls ........................................................................................................ 4
2.4 Operating and Management Procedures ......................................................................... 5
2.5 Inspection and Performance Monitoring .......................................................................... 5
2.6 Contingency Plans ........................................................................................................... 5
2.7 Cleaner Production .......................................................................................................... 6
3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS __________________________________________ 7

3.1 Types of Air Pollution Control Devices ............................................................................. 7
3.2 Fabric Filtration ................................................................................................................ 8
3.3 Electrostatic Precipitators ............................................................................................... 14
3.4 Cyclonic Separators for Particulates .............................................................................. 16
3.5 Particulate Scrubbers ..................................................................................................... 19
3.6 Ceramic Filters ............................................................................................................... 23
3.7 Particulate Pre-Treatment Systems ............................................................................... 23
3.8 Biofiltration ..................................................................................................................... 23
3.9 Thermal Oxidation of Gaseous Contaminants ............................................................... 26
3.10 Scrubbing and Adsorption Systems ............................................................................... 31
3.11 Adsorption Systems ....................................................................................................... 33
3.12 Fugitive Dust Control ...................................................................................................... 34
4 MANAGEMENT OF FUEL BURNING __________________________________ 36

4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 36
4.2 Boiler Combustion Efficiency Testing and Tuning .......................................................... 36
4.3 Fuel Switching ................................................................................................................ 39
4.4 Control of NOx ............................................................................................................... 40
5 OPERATION AND MANAGEMENT PLANS _____________________________ 42

5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 42
5.2 Contents of Operations and Management Plan ............................................................. 42
5.3 Bag Filter Unit ................................................................................................................ 43
5.4 Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP) .................................................................................... 46
Table of Contents
5.5 Cyclones and Multi-cyclones .......................................................................................... 48
5.6 Venturi Particulate Scrubber .......................................................................................... 50
5.7 Biofilter ........................................................................................................................... 51
5.8 Packed Tower Chemical Scrubber ................................................................................. 53
6 CONTINGENCY PLANNING _________________________________________ 55

6.1 Contents of a Contingency Plan ..................................................................................... 55
7 COMPLAINTS ____________________________________________________ 57
8 REFERENCES ____________________________________________________ 58
Appendix A Example of Air Pollution Control Inspection Checklist ______________ 59
Appendix B Risk Management Principles and Procedures ___________________ 61
Appendix C Example of Evacuation Procedures for a Site Contingency

Plan ____________ ________________________________________________ 65
Appendix D Guidance on Costs of Pollution Control Equipment _______________ 68

D1. Filtration Equipment __________________________________________________ 68
D2. Electrostatic Precipitators ______________________________________________ 69
D3. Cyclonic Separators __________________________________________________ 69
D4. Particulate Scrubbers _________________________________________________ 70
D5. Thermal Oxidation ____________________________________________________ 72
D6. Chemical Scrubbing __________________________________________________ 73
Abbreviations
Abbreviation Abbreviation Definition
BACT Best Available Control Technology
CAA Clean Air Act
CEMS Continuous Emission Monitoring System
DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EMB Environmental Management Bureau
EOP Emergency Operating Procedures
ESP Electrostatic Precipitator
IRR Implementing Rules and Regulations
LAER Lowest Achievable Emission Rate
MAS Mechanically-aided scrubber
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NESSAP National Emission Standard for Source Specific Air Pollutants
NOx Nitrogen Oxide
OMP Operation and Management Plan
VOC Volatile Organic Compound
WG Water Gauge
1 INTRODUCTION
The management and control of air emissions from industrial sources is subject to the
Implementing Rules (IRR) and Regulations made under RA 8749: the Philippines Clean Air Act of
1999 (CAA). Industrial activities that discharge pollutants to air must comply with the ―National
Emission Standards for Source Specific Air Pollutants‖ (NESSAP) and ―National Ambient Air
Quality Standards for Source Specific Air Pollutants from Industrial Sources/Operations‖
(NAAQS), as prescribed in Rules XXV and XXVI of the IRR.
New or modified industrial sources that emit contaminants to air require a Permit to Operate from
the regulatory authority (EMB). The proponent of the new industrial activity (permit applicant)
may sometimes be required by EMB to undertake a study to determine the potential impact of the
emissions from their industrial sources on the surrounding air quality and/or to demonstrate the
compliance of new/modified sources with the NAAQS, especially where larger or more
environmentally significant emissions sources are involved.
Although individual sources are currently issued with permits, it is the off-site impact of all of the
emission sources in aggregate from the site on the environment that must be assessed. Therefore,
atmospheric dispersion modelling of all emission sources at the site is undertaken to demonstrate
compliance with the NAAQS. The atmospheric dispersion modelling should be carried out in
accordance with EMB‘s ―Guidelines on Dispersion Modelling‖. The emissions from all point, area
and volume sources at the site in aggregate can be assessed by the dispersion modelling process.
Although each source is subject to specific emission limits, it is the impact of all of the sources
from the site that is considered by EMB in determining the permit application.
Once a permit has been obtained, the permit holder needs to manage its site, activities and
emission sources to ensure that the NESSAP and NAAQS continue to be complied with over the
operating life of the plant. The company needs to manage and control its emissions via the
selection of appropriate combustion, process equipment, fuels and materials, the installation,
operation and maintenance of appropriate air pollution control devices, and the implementation of
site operation and management plans. The company should also ensure that fuel burning
equipment is well tuned and operating efficiently, contingency plans have been developed and
implemented to manage the effects of unexpected or abnormal discharges that may result from the
failure of control devices or other events, and have inspection and monitoring systems in place to
check and verify that these actions are occurring.
EMB also has an important monitoring role in ensuring through regular inspections that operating
facilities are complying with regulatory requirements and permit conditions. An example
inspection protocol is provided in Appendix A. EMB has also developed a ―Procedural Manual for
Multi-Media Inspections‖ and associated inspection checklists for various industry sectors.
Section 11 of the Philippines Clean Air Act requires the Department of the Environment and
Natural Resources (DENR) to revise and issue guidance on air pollution control techniques. The
section states that:
“The information shall include:
a) Best available technology and alternative methods of prevention, management and
control of air pollution;
b) Best available technology economically achievable which shall refer to the
technological basis/standards for emission limits applicable to existing, direct
industrial emitters of non-conventional and toxic pollutants; and
c) Alternative fuels, processes and operating methods which will result in the
elimination or significant reduction of emissions”
Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices -2-

The guidance on air pollution control techniques in these Guidelines has been developed by EMB
in accordance with Section 11 of the CAA. The aim is to provide guidance on the selection and
operation of air pollution devices, the performance criteria that should be applied in the assessment
of proposals to install these devices, and the ongoing monitoring of emission control performance
that should be undertaken.
EMB has also identified through its stack testing programs that guidance on the management of
fuel burning equipment in terms of maintenance, tuning and efficiency monitoring, and the use of
cleaner fuels, is required to reduce emissions and achieve reductions in fuel consumption which
will have immediate benefits to the air quality in the Metro-Manila region.
The Guidelines also provide an environmental management framework within the CAA regulatory
regime to ensure that air pollution control devices are appropriate to the type, size and scale of the
industrial activity, they are operated in accordance with manufacturers‘ instructions and well
maintained, their performance is adequately monitored, and contingency plans are in place to
manage any failures of the control devices should they occur, in order to limit the adverse impact
on the environment. It also provides guidance on the selection of fuels and the maintenance and
tuning of fuel burning equipment.
Also, a risk assessment and management process is included in the guidelines to assist in the
operators of industrial sites to prioritise actions and resources based on the level of risk posed by
their site‘s activities and the individual emission sources. For larger sources, risk assessment and
management programs may be required by EMB as part of its permitting and monitoring
programs.
It is not the intent of these guidelines to provide definitive guidance on the selection and design of
air pollution control devices. For further technical information on air pollution controls the reader
should refer to reference books on the subject or recognised environmental engineering consultants
and equipment suppliers.
Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices -3–

2 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNIQUES
2.1 Background
There are a large range of air pollution control techniques and devices available to reduce
emissions from industrial and commercial sources. The air pollution control devices selected and
installed at a site have to be appropriate to the pollutants being discharged, the size and scale of the
activity being undertaken and the emission source.
EMB has identified that guidance on fuel burning equipment in terms of maintenance, efficiency
monitoring and tuning, and the use of cleaner fuels, are practices that if followed can reduce
emissions and achieve reductions in fuel consumption which will have immediate benefit to the air
quality in the Metro-Manila region. This guidance is provided in Section 4 of the guidelines.
2.2 Controls to Reduce Impacts

An application for a Permit to Operate must cover the plant processes and operations and the air
pollution control devices that will generate, manage and control emissions to air from the plant.
Options available for managing, controlling and reducing emissions include:
 Engineering Controls
 Operating Procedures and Practices
 Inspection, Maintenance and Performance Monitoring
 Emergency Contingency Plans (based on risk management).
2.3 Engineering Controls

Engineering controls offer the most effective emissions reduction option as, if designed and
implemented well, they offer a reliable method of controlling emissions to air from the process. It
is of note however, that they should normally be seen as additional to operating procedures and
practices. There are many existing regulations and standard industry practices that require devices
to be designed so as to be safe, mostly resulting from previous accidents. Examples include the
fitting of relief valves to pressure vessels, and annual inspections and testing of potentially lethal
equipment. However, despite these accepted regulatory methods more plant specific controls are
invariably appropriate. Control devices are typically essential to ensure discharges of contaminants
into air are kept within appropriate levels and that an activity complies with the conditions of a
permit.
Best Available Control Technology (BACT) is defined under the Clean Air Act as: ―refers to
approaches, techniques or equipment which when used, result in lower air emissions but in a cost-
effective manner‖. The intention of the BACT principle is to attain emission rates that may be
lower than those specified in the National Emission Standards. BACT must be considered when
designing sources and selecting air pollution control equipment for new or modified sources of 100
tons per year or more of emissions of a regulated pollutant, whether these sources are to be
established in attainment areas or areas for which the attainment status has not yet been
determined. New or modified sources in non-attainment areas require the use of superior
technology that complies with the ―lowest achievable emission rate‖ (LAER) requirement in Rule
XIII of the IRR.
The concept of ‗Best Practice‘ should always be considered when reading these guidelines. ‗Best
Practice‘ is the undertaking of an activity in the best possible and practical way to ensure that
emissions and their impacts are minimised. Best practice should always be employed by operators
of existing sources. It is the minimum standard acceptable for the management and control of
emissions from industrial facilities and other stationary sources.

Best practice requires an approach of ‗continuous improvement‘ of on-site operations, emission
control techniques and management practices. Meeting best practice should not incur excessive
costs as it is usually the way an activity is heading and may actually be the norm rather than not.
Best practice varies significantly for different types of activities. Not meeting best practice could
include a spray painter that does not spray within an enclosed paint booth; a new thermal power
station not using low NOx technology; or during construction, a developer not using enough water
to control off-site dust emissions.
When selecting air pollution control devices the total cost of the device needs to be considered,
including purchase cost, cost of operating, maintaining and monitoring the unit through its
operational life, plus the cost associated with disposal of waste materials collected or created by
the control device. For example, for a chemical scrubber the additional costs for disposal for the
scrubber liquor needs to be factored in to the cost benefit analysis performed. Additional on-site
waste liquor treatment will be required, before the liquor is of a quality that it is acceptable for
disposal. The costs of installing the treatment plant and its operation need to be factored into the
comparative calculations.
2.4 Operating and Management Procedures

Good practice with respect to the control and management of emissions to air from industrial
activities requires the development of comprehensive operating and management procedures.
These should be readily accessible to all employees who work or maintain the processes. They
need to be reviewed and updated to take into account changes in the processes, or changes
imposed by the result of safety or environmental audits. These procedures should identify critical
pieces of process equipment and this in most circumstances should include air pollution control
devices, i.e. how the process and control devices will be operated, and maintained.
2.5 Inspection and Performance Monitoring

It order to determine that air pollution control devices are operating correctly and operated in
accordance with specified operating procedures, an internal monitoring and inspections regime
should be developed and implemented. The monitoring and inspection regimes need to be carried
out on a regular basis following a systematic method. Corrective actions identified by the
monitoring and inspection of air pollution control devices need to be implemented within the time
frames set in the site‘s Operation and Management Plan (OMP). EMB may require the
development and implementation of an OMP as a Permit condition.
In addition to the internal monitoring and inspection regime, there is also routine stack testing
conducted to meet CAA requirements in terms of emission standards and limits. All results should
be analysed, failures investigated and corrective actions implemented to reduce emissions to
permitted levels. This reporting and analysis should be included in the establishment‘s quarterly
Self-Monitoring Report, while specific testing requirements may be specified as a condition in the
Permit to Operate.
2.6 Contingency Plans

Contingency plans should be developed by the operators of all establishments with emissions to
the air. These Plans should address the site‘s environmental risk, activities undertaken, processes
employed and nature of control devices installed. EMB may require the development of a
Contingency Plan as a condition of a Permit to operate, where it considers that significant
environmental risks are associated with the operation of its pollution sources and emission control
devices.
A suitable Contingency Plan may consist of the following elements:
 Procedures for informing the public and emergency services about releases.

 Documentation of actions and responsibilities of site personnel in dealing with the failure
of an air pollution control device.
 Procedures and measures for emergency response, including shutting down the plant
 Procedures for dealing with air pollution control device failures.
 Procedures for using inspections, testing and maintaining emergency response equipment.
 Training for all employees in relevant procedures.
 Procedures to review and update the Plan as appropriate.
A Contingency Plan required by a Permit should be developed in consultation with EMB and other
relevant government agencies.
2.7 Cleaner Production

‗Cleaner Production‘ was formulated under the auspices of the United Nations Environmental
Programme and is defined as
“… the conceptual and procedural approach to production that demands that all phases of the life
cycle of a product or process should be addressed with the objective of prevention or minimisation
of short and long term risks to humans and to the environment.”
In other words cleaner production means:
 Avoiding or reducing the amount of waste produced;
 Using energy and resources efficiently;
 Producing environmentally sound products and services; and
 Achieving less waste, lower costs and higher profits per unit of goods.
The goal of cleaner production is to reduce the adverse impact of production and service activities
on the environment. Implementing cleaner production practices has shown consistently significant
reductions in waste, emissions and costs. Many of these improvements result from simple ‗good
housekeeping‘ changes, and implementing ideas from workers themselves.
The discharge of contaminants into the air from industrial processes is, after minimising quantities
of waste and applying control technology to meet emission standards (or better), a common means
of dealing with residuals from the production process. Cleaner production offers the potential to
achieve this in a more cost effective manner, but by definition it must consider production and
waste generation in a multi-media manner. Consequently, whilst a preventative approach can
generate benefits to the air environment, it generally requires this to be considered in conjunction
with water, solid waste and other environmental concerns. However, although cleaner production
is not directly covered in these guidelines the fundamentals of Cleaner Production are used
throughout.
EMB should consider the application of Cleaner Production principles in assessing major new
industrial developments and their associated EISs and Permit applications.

3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS
3.1 Types of Air Pollution Control Devices

EMB considers that the reduction of air pollution at the source (e.g. through a Cleaner production
approach) should be a priority for all industrial activities. Section 3 of the Clean Air Act says that
it is the policy of the State to ―focus primarily on pollution prevention rather than on control‖.
Notwithstanding this, air pollution control devices are often required to ensure the emission of
pollutants into air from an activity are minimised and significant adverse impacts are avoided.
Therefore, EMB believes it is sensible to encourage operators to employ measures that reduce
discharges into air using reliable and effective control technologies. Air pollution control devices
are confined to a relatively limited range of technologies that have been used for many years. Most
are well understood and have proven performance. There are two main categories of air pollution
control devices to control and reduce:
1) Particulate emissions; and
2) Chemical contaminants from the gas stream including odorous substances.
For the control of particulate emissions the types of air pollution control devices commonly
installed include:
 Fabric filtration including pulsejet and mechanical bag filter units;
 Electrostatic precipitators;
 Inertial separators which includes cyclones;
 Water scrubbing devices; and
 Ceramic filters.
For the control of gaseous chemical contaminants the types of air pollution devices commonly
installed include
 Biofiltration;
 Incineration/thermal oxidation including afterburners;
 Chemical scrubbing devices;
 Adsorption (e.g. carbon adsorption).
This section focuses on promoting the use of efficient and effective air pollution control
technology. Also EMB sets out what is considered to be the minimum design and operating criteria
for a range of air pollution control devices. Any Permit applications for these types of control
devices will be assessed against these minimum criteria. EMB generally regards air pollution
control devices that do not meet these minimum criteria as not meeting best practice and therefore
emissions will not be minimised. Best practice is defined in Section 2 of these guidelines.
Operators of industrial activities should ensure that air pollution devices installed at the site are
operated within the criteria specified in these guidelines and that any control devices will be able
to comply with the criteria over the life of the devices. In the event that control devices comply
with the criteria given within this section but the emissions from the site are still causing a
significant adverse impact, additional controls will need to be taken. In some instances a
precautionary approach may be taken regarding the emission of pollutants into the air and the
proposed control devices, particularly if an activity is within a very sensitive location or there is
the potential for cumulative impacts. In these cases EMB may require more stringent criteria than
given in these guidelines.
Air pollution control technology is complex and an experienced accredited engineer should design
air pollution control devices. Installation of any air pollution control device should also be

supervised and signed off by an accredited engineer. Once the appropriate pollution control device
has been selected and installed to be effective it is vital that it is correctly operated and maintained.
Typical monitoring requirements for these devices are given in this Section 5 of the guideline. If
an activity has a good history of reliable plant operation and the control devices in question are not
being used for primary control then monitoring conditions may be relaxed. Conversely, more
monitoring may be required for some activities where a precautionary approach is warranted,
particularly if the control devices are for primary control, or if an activity is in a sensitive location
or has a bad track record in non-conformance with emission limits.
Indicative costs as sourced from the US EPA Air Pollution Control Technology Fact Sheets for a
number of the control devices discussed in this section are provided in Appendix D. The costs are
for the purchase, installation, annual operation and maintenance, annualised, and effectiveness per
cubic metre of air treated. These prices are for the purchase and operation of the control devices in
the US and are based on 2002 figures.
A dispersion modelling assessment should also be carried out for significant new or modified
sources, following a tiered approach to assess contaminant concentrations against CAA air quality
standards. This tiered approach follows the approach recommended by the US Environmental
Protection Agency and includes:
 Screening-level dispersion modelling techniques conducted using worst-case or default
input data rather than site-specific data, and
 Refined level dispersion modelling techniques conducted using site specific meteorological
data or derived regional meteorological data.
A fundamental assumption of the tiered approach to model selection is that the simpler modelling
techniques always yield more conservative results. It was assumed that screening level models
would always predict higher ground-level concentrations than refined modelling techniques, and
that the refined models would predict higher impacts than the ‗best-estimate‘ models.
3.2 Fabric Filtration

Fabric filters are a common means to remove particulate matter from a gas stream because of their
high efficiency and applicability to many situations. During fabric filtration particulate laden gas is
drawn or pushed through the fabric by fans. The fabric is responsible for some filtration, but more
significantly it acts as a support for the dust layer that accumulates. The layer of dust, known as a
cake, is a highly efficient filter, even for sub-micron particles. Fabric filters can be made of either
woven or felted fabrics and may be in the form of sheets, cartridges, or most commonly cylindrical
bags with a number of individual fabric filter units housed together in a group, hence the terms
‗bag filters‘ or ‗baghouses‘.
Fabric filters possess key advantages over other types of particulate collection devices:
 Very high collection efficiencies;
 Flexibility to treat many types of dusts;
 Ability to handle a wide range of volumetric gas flows; and
 Low pressure drops.
The gas-to-cloth ratio is an important design consideration and has a major effect on particle
collection mechanisms. The majority of the dust that penetrates a well designed and maintained
filter is a result of dust that is dislodged during the cleaning cycle. Seepage occurs when particles
migrate through the filter cake and the fabric by continuous capture and re-entrainment. Seepage is
more common with smooth particles and with a lack of significant electrostatic forces.

To operate a fabric filter continuously, the collected dust must be dislodged from the filters and
removed from the fabric filter on a regular basis. Fabric filters are frequently classified primarily
by their cleaning method and with a secondary classification relating to the type of media. The
three major types of fabric filter cleaning mechanisms are
 Mechanical shaker,
 Reverse-air, and
 Pulse-jet.
These types are discussed below along with a brief discussion of other less common types of
cleaning methods and fabric filter configurations.
Site-specific criteria may be necessary for specialist applications where extremely high efficiencies
are necessary. In some circumstances it may be necessary to impose performance criteria in the
permit that can be monitored by filter pressure drop indicators or broken bag detectors. When
operating normally, fabric filter systems generally achieve very high control efficiencies and the
more important element may be to ensure consistent operation. It is therefore advisable to employ
systems that are able to detect equipment faults.
 Shaker Type Bag Filters. As the name implies, a shaking process dislodges collected
particulate in shaker-type fabric filters. For small units, shaking can be accomplished
manually, while large fabric filters require mechanical shaking.
The tops of the bags are usually attached to a shaker bar. When the bags are cleaned, the
bar is moved briskly, which flexes the fabric, causing the dust cake to crack and fall into
the hopper. The amount of dust that is removed during cleaning can be controlled by
regulating the frequency, amplitude, and duration of the shaking cycles. The flow of gas
through the bags must be stopped during the cleaning cycle to allow the filter cake to
release from the fabric and to prevent dust from working through the bag during the
shaking. In order to accomplish this, shaker-cleaned fabric filters are often designed with
several separate compartments. Each compartment can then be isolated from the gas flow
and cleaned while the other compartments continue to filter the stream (off-line cleaning).
Typical new equipment design efficiencies are between 99 and 99.9%. Good quality
existing devices have a range of actual operating efficiencies of 95 to 99.9%. Both shaker
bag filter units and reverse air bag filters can be assisted by the use of ―sonic horns‖ to
enhance the collection efficiency. A number of older shaker bag filter units are being
replaced by pulse-jet bag filter units, which are becoming the industry norm for bag
filtration technology.
 Reverse Air Bag Filters. Most reverse-air fabric filters operate in a manner similar to
shaker-cleaned fabric filters. The bags are open on the bottom, closed on top and the gas
flows from the inside to the outside of the bags with dust being captured on the inside.
However, some reverse-air designs collect dust on the outside of the bags. In either design,
reverse-air cleaning is performed by forcing clean air through the filters in the opposite
direction of the dusty gas flow.
The change in direction of the gas flow causes the bag to flex and crack the filter cake. As
with mechanical shaker-cleaned fabric filters, the most common approach is to have
separate compartments within the fabric filter so that each compartment can be isolated
and cleaned separately while the other compartments continue to treat the dusty gas.
Reverse-air cleaning alone is used only in cases where the dust releases easily from the
fabric. Reverse air units normally operate on a low gas-to-cloth ratio (velocity of gas
through the bag), generally less than 1.2 m3/min of gas per m2 of cloth (m/min). In
comparison pulse-jet units may operate on gas-to-cloth ratios as high as 3.0 m/min. The
efficiency of the units is similar to mechanical and pulse jet systems. The units perform

well where the particle density is low, such as collection of fine material in pneumatic
conveying air from timber processing industries.
Figure 1: Reverse Air Bag Filter
 Pulse-Jet Bag Filters. Pulse-jet cleaning of fabric filters can treat high dust loadings,
operate at constant pressure drop, and occupy less space than other types of fabric filters.
During pulse-jet cleaning a short burst of high pressure air is injected into the bags (about
6 bar for 0.03 to 0.1 seconds). The pulse is blown through a venturi nozzle at the top of the
bags and this generates a shock wave that continues on to the bottom of the bag. The wave
flexes the fabric, pushing it away from the cage, and then snaps it back, thus dislodging the
dust cake.
The cleaning pulse is very brief, and as a result the flow of dusty gas does not have to be
stopped during cleaning. The other bags continue to filter, taking on extra duty because of
the bags being cleaned. This enables the pulse-jet fabric filters to operate on a continuous
basis with solenoid valves as the only significant moving parts. Pulse-jet cleaning is also
more intense and occurs with greater frequency than the other fabric filter cleaning
methods. As a result, pulse-jet filters cannot rely on a dust cake to provide filtration. Felted
fabrics are used because they do not require a dust cake to achieve high collection
efficiencies. Woven fabrics are not as satisfactory with pulse-jet fabric filters because they
leak a great deal of dust after they are cleaned.
Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices - 10 -

Figure 2: Pulse-Jet Bag Filter
A disadvantage of pulse-jet units that use very high gas velocities is that the dust from the
cleaned bags can be drawn immediately to the other bags. If this occurs, little of the dust
falls into the hopper and the dust layers on the bags becomes too thick. To prevent this,
pulse-jet fabric filters can be designed with separate compartments that can be isolated for
cleaning.
Typically, pulse-jet filters operate at gas temperatures up to about 260°C, with surges to
about 300°C. However higher temperatures are possible with specialist fabrics. The
minimum temperature of the pollutant stream must remain above the dew point of any
condensable in the stream. The bag filter unit and associated ductwork should be insulated
and possibly heated if potential for condensation exists.
Typical inlet concentrations for bag filter units are 1 to 20 g/m3 but in extreme cases, inlet
conditions may vary between 0.1 to more than 200 g/m3.
 Cartridge Collectors. Cartridge collectors have the filter media contained in completed
closed containers, or cartridges. These collectors offer high efficiency filtration combined
with a significant size reduction in the fabric filter unit. Cartridge collectors can operate at
higher gas-to-cloth ratios than bag filter systems. Cartridges can be pulse cleaned, and
some types can be washed and reused.
There are a wide variety of cartridge designs and dimensions. Typical designs include flat
panels, V-shaped packs or cylindrical packs. Cartridge filters are relatively insensitive to
fluctuations in particulate loading. Filter outlet air may be sufficiently clean to be re-
circulated within the plant in many cases (for energy conservation) but this should not be
used when collecting toxic contaminants.
Achievable emission reductions for older existing cartridge collector types are in the range
of 99 to 99.9%. Typical new devices design efficiencies are between 99.99 and 99.999+%.
In addition, commercially available designs are able to control submicron particulate with
a removal efficiency of 99.999+%. Standard cartridge collectors are factory-built, off the
shelf units. They may handle air flow rates upward of 0.10 m³/s.
Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices - 11 –

The type of filter media and sealants used in the cartridge limits the temperature range
cartridge filters can operate in. Standard cartridges utilising paper filter media can
accommodate gas temperatures up to about 95°C. Cartridge filters utilising synthetic non-
woven media, such as needle-punched felts fabricated of polyester or Nomex, can
withstand temperatures of up to 200°C.
Typical inlet concentrations to paper cartridge collectors are 1 to 20 g/m³. Filters that
utilise synthetic, non-woven media are able to handle inlet concentrations up to 50g/m³.
Figure 3: Cartridge Filter
 Static Bag Filters. In a static bag filter the bags are suspended in an enclosure on wires or
springs and fixed to the bag filter unit structure. The filter cake collects on the inside of the
bag. Movement of the bag within the air stream and stretching due to the increase in
weight periodically contributes to the dust cake detaching from the bag and falling into the
hopper. Removal can be assisted by manually shaking or rapping the outside surface. The
bags being accessed from doors on the outside of the structure
Static bag filter unit efficiency should be better than 90% if carefully maintained. The
system is only suitable for small applications with relatively low inlet dust burdens and is
generally limited to air flows of less than 5 m³/s. They are frequently used to clean air
displaced from cement and other powder silos.
3.2.1 Suitable Applications for Fabric Filtration
Although fabric filters can be used in many different conditions, there are some factors which limit
their application.
 Both the performance and application of fabric filter equipment is very dependent on the
type of filter material that is used. The fabric type must also fit the cleaning method, and
the stream and particle characteristics.
 The characteristics of the dust are one factor. Some particulates are too adhesive for fabric
filters. While such particles are easily collected, they are too difficult to remove from the
bags.
 Some fabrics are flammable, and some dusts and stream components may form explosive
mixtures. If a fabric filter is chosen to control explosive mixtures, care must be taken when
designing and operating the fabric filters to eliminate conditions that could ignite the dust,
the stream, and the bags.

 Temperature of the gas stream. There are few fabric filters that can handle temperatures
above 300°C for long periods of time. At all temperatures care needs to be taken that the
appropriate filter is being used.
 Chemical composition of the gases. While some fabrics have resistance to acid conditions,
the most popular fabrics have poor resistance. Lime injection may be necessary to
counteract excessive acidity for some applications using Nomex fabric bags.
 Humidity of the gas stream. Gas streams with high humidity can require the bag filter unit
to be insulated or heated to maintain temperatures well above the dew point to prevent
condensation. Moist gas streams can also clog the bags.
 Spark carryover from the process, which may cause a fire within the bags.
Provided the bag filter units and filters are appropriately designed, bag filter units can be used in
most particulate streams including asphalt plants, concrete batching plants, solid fuel-fired
combustion processes, metallurgical process, wood and wood product processing and grain
milling.
3.2.2 Recommended Performance Criteria for Fabric Filtration
Well-designed and maintained fabric filters that are operated correctly should collect greater than
99 percent of particles ranging in size from sub-micron to hundreds of micrometers. Specialist
units, such as cartridge filters with non-woven HEPA and ULPA filters can achieve significantly
higher efficiencies. Well-designed and operated bag filter units have been shown to be capable of
reducing overall particulate emissions to less than 50 mg/m 3 at 25°C, 1 atmosphere pressure, dry
gas basis and will with careful design and operation achieve levels as low as 1 - 10 mg/m3 at 25°C,
1 atmosphere pressure, dry gas basis.
The EMB's general design and operating criteria for fabric filtration units are:
 Maximum total particulate discharge of 50 mg/m3 (25°C, 1 atmosphere pressure, dry gas
basis). If metals are present in the particulate stream (e.g. foundries, and galvanising
plants) maximum particulate emission limit (including metals) of 10 mg/m3 (25°C, 1
atmosphere pressure, dry gas basis);
 Designed to achieve a collection efficiency of at least 99.9% (shakers, pulse jet and reverse
air baghouses). Cartridge filters should be designed to achieve a collection efficiency of at
least 99.99%. Static fabric filters should only be used for small activities with minor
effects should be designed to achieve a collection efficiency of at least 90%;
 Maximum air to cloth ratio of 1.0 m3 per min of gas per m2 of cloth (m/min) (3.5ft.min) for
reverse air bag filters and a maximum air to cloth ratio of 3.0 m/min (10 ft.min) for pulse
jet bag filter units;
 Appropriate cleaning regimes including a sealed collection unit that does not discharge
into the air (if the particulate is not being recycled into the process);
 Bag filter unit compartments able to be isolated from main gas stream for cleaning
purposes; and
 Bag filter units, bags and cleaning systems maintained to ensure adequate removal of
particulate at all times
EMB‘s general monitoring requirements for bag filter units include:
 Pressure drop across the bag filter unit. For major or critical bag filter units pressure drop
should be continuously monitored and recorded and where necessary alarmed, particularly
for metal dusts or hazardous air pollutants. For small, non critical bag filter units pressure
drop should be monitored at least weekly and preferably daily;

 For hot gas streams, continuous monitoring and recording of the bag filter unit inlet and
outlet temperatures;
 Regular monitoring of the bags within the bag filter unit, this may include visual
observations, dye testing or broken bag detectors.
 Particulate sampling will be required for large or critical bag filter units. Sampling of
particulate in stack should be undertaken using an appropriate sampling method. EMB
prefers USEPA Method 5 .sampling should be undertaken isokinetically to ensure that
representative samples are taken.
3.3 Electrostatic Precipitators

An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) uses electrical forces to remove particulate matter entrained
within a gas stream. Particles are given an electrical charge when they pass through a corona
(region consisting of charged ions) and then attach to an opposite-charged collector plate
(electrode). Electrodes are maintained at high voltage. Particulate is cleaned from the plates by
knocking or rapping so material slides down into the collection hopper without being re-entrained
in the gas stream. This process may be assisted in some ESPs by intermittent or continuous
washing with water (wet ESP).
A major factor in the performance of the ESP is the resistivity of the particles. In general higher
resistivities are preferred because low resistivity particles are held loosely on collection plates and
can re-entrain in the exhaust gas during rapping. Very high resistivity is also a problem however,
due to a phenomenon known as ―back corona‖. This is caused by an electric field being formed in
particulate layer which can build up on the plates. In general, dry ESPs operate most efficiently
with dust resistivities between 5 x 103 and 2 x 1010 ohm-cm. Dust resistivity is generally not such a
factor for wet ESPs.
Operating gas temperature and chemical composition of the dust are also key factors and must be
carefully considered in the design of an ESP.
The various types of precipitator may be configured as:
 Plate-Wire — the gas flows between parallel plates of sheet metal and high voltage
electrodes in the form of long wires tensioned by weights. The wires hang between the
plates. The plate-wire ESP allows for flow lanes in parallel and can handle large volumes
of gas. Rapping to remove the collected material is carried out in sequence through the
unit. The units normally operate with three or four wire sections in series (often called
stages).
 Flat-Plate — use flat plates instead of wires for the high voltage electrodes. The plates
increase the field that can be used to collect the particles and provide an increased surface
for collection of particles. Corona generating electrodes are placed ahead of the plates. Flat
plate units have an application for high resistivity dusts. Low flow velocities are required
to prevent high rapping losses.
 Tubular Precipitator — essentially a single stage unit and is unique in having all the gas
pass through the electrode. This type of unit is normally used only where special
requirements demand eg sticky or wet particulate. The units are usually cleaned with water
and have very low re-entrainment losses.
 Two Stage Precipitator — these are normally smaller units (< 25 m³/s) constructed in
package form and delivered to the site. The units are two stages with the discharge
electrode preceding the collector electrodes.

Figure 4: Schematic of an Electrostatic Precipitator
Figure 5: ESP Fitted to a Power Station
The particle size distribution impacts on the overall performance of an ESP. In general, the most
difficult particles to collect are those with aerodynamic diameters between 0.1 and 1.0 µm.
Particles between 0.2 and 0.4 µm usually show the most penetration. This is most likely a result of
the transition region between field and diffusion charging.
Typical new equipment design efficiencies are between 99 and 99.9%. Good quality existing
equipment has a range of actual operating efficiencies of 90 to 99.9%.
3.3.1 Suitable Applications for ESPs
ESPs can be used for the collection of submicron particles such as mists, smoke and fume.
Common applications of dry wire-plate ESPs are large solid fuel-fired boilers such as coal-fired

power stations or recovery boilers at pulp and paper mills. They are also common in the cement
industry and used to some degree in the metallurgical and chemical industries.
Wet ESPs are suitable for the wood products industry to remove blue haze or mist and fume
control from sulphonic acid manufacture. In many of these applications using chemical such as
sodium hydroxide can enhance the collector washing process. Other applications of wet wire-plate
ESPs are similar to dry ESPs and tend to be used when higher control efficiencies are necessary.
ESPs are more common for very large applications. However smaller units are used in the wood
processing and chemical industry. Wire-plate ESPs can operate at very high temperatures, up to
700°C.
3.3.2 Recommended Performance Criteria for ESPs
Because of the range of design options it is not possible to stipulate general design criteria for
ESPs. However, with the above collection efficiencies, particulate emissions between 50 and 100
mg/m3 adjusted to 25°C, 1 atmosphere pressure, dry gas basis would be expected in many
applications. For certain applications, such as ESPs used for fume or aerosol capture, site specific
criteria are necessary and should be included as permit conditions.
For large processes such as cement pants and power stations that use ESPs to control particulate
emissions, EMB requires that the particulate concentration from the ESP should be continuously
monitored using continuous emission monitoring systems (CEMSs).
Alarms shall be installed and monitored to indicate when an ESP unit has tripped out (is not
operating). Process shutdown procedures in accordance with the sites Contingency Plan will be
instigated after 5 minutes, if the ESP can not be restarted.
Annual particulate sampling should be required of all ESPs. Sampling of particulates in stacks
should be undertaken using an appropriate sampling method. EMB prefers USEPA Method 5 and
sampling should be undertaken isokinetically to ensure that representative samples are taken.
3.4 Cyclonic Separators for Particulates

Inertial separators are the most widely used collectors being suitable for medium to large size
particles. They fall into two categories:
 Mechanically aided separators that involve the use of a rotary vane (e.g. radial blade fan)
to mechanically impart a centrifugal force on the particles in the gas stream, which causes
them to separate from the gas;
 Cyclonic type separators, which have no moving parts, where the mechanical force is
generated by the velocity of the gas stream.
Cyclones are also referred to as cyclone collectors, cyclone separators, centrifugal separators, and
inertial separators. In applications where many (usually small) cyclones are operating in parallel,
the entire system is called a multiple tube cyclone, multiple cyclone, or multi-cyclone. Cyclones
use inertia to remove particles from a spinning gas stream. Within a cyclone, the gas stream is
forced to spin within a parallel-sided chamber adjoining a second lower conical-shaped chamber.
Particles in the gas stream are forced toward the cyclone walls by the centrifugal force of the
spinning gas, but are opposed by the fluid drag force of the gas travelling through and out of the
cyclone. For the larger particles inertial momentum overcomes the fluid drag force so that the
particles reach the cyclone wall. For smaller particles, the fluid drag force overwhelms the inertial
momentum and causes these particles to leave the cyclone with the exiting gas. Gravity causes the
larger particles that reach the cyclone walls to travel down into a hopper located at the bottom of
the cyclone body.
Cyclone collectors can be classified into four types, based on how the gas stream is introduced and
how the collected dust is discharged:

 Tangential inlet, axial discharge;
 Axial inlet, axial discharge;
 Tangential inlet, peripheral discharge; and
 Axial inlet, peripheral discharge.
The first two types are the most commonly used cyclones.
Cyclone collectors can be designed for many applications, and they are typically categorized as
high efficiency, conventional (medium efficiency), or high throughput (low efficiency). High
efficiency cyclones are likely to have the highest-pressure drops of the three cyclone types, while
high throughput cyclones are designed to treat large volumes of gas with a low-pressure drop.
Figure 6: Schematic of Cyclonic Dist Collector
Each of these three cyclone types has the same basic design. Different levels of collection
efficiency and operation are achieved by varying the standard cyclone dimensions.
The collection efficiency of cyclones varies as a function of particle size, density and cyclone
design. Cyclone efficiency will generally increase with increases in:
 Particle size and/or density;
 Inlet duct velocity;
 Cyclone body length;
 Number of gas revolutions in the cyclone;
 Ratio of cyclone body diameter to gas exit diameter;
 Inlet dust loading; and
 Smoothness of the cyclone inner wall.
The cyclone efficiency will decrease with increases in the following parameters:
 Gas viscosity;
 Cyclone body diameter;

 Gas exit diameter;
 Gas inlet duct area;
 Gas density; and
 Leakage of air into the dust outlet.
The efficiency of a cyclone collector is related to the pressure drop across the collector. This is an
indirect measure of the energy required to move the gas through the system. The pressure drop is a
function of the inlet velocity and cyclone diameter. In general, 18 meters per second is considered
to be the optimum operating inlet velocity.
Common ranges of pressure drops for cyclones are:
 0.5 to 1 kilopascals (kPa) for low-efficiency units and high throughput units;
 1 to 1.5 kPa for medium-efficiency units; and
 2 to 2.5 kPa for high-efficiency units.
Control efficiency ranges for single cyclones are often based on four classifications of cyclone.
Table 1 gives a summary of expected efficiencies for these cyclones. The collection efficiencies
given in Table 1 may indicate possible performance criteria for cyclones but should not be applied
as conditions of a permit. Particulate removal efficiencies are relatively expensive to measure,
consequently emissions limits are a more commonly applied criteria. The performance of the
cyclones and other inertial separators is very specific to application however, and general criteria
cannot be specified.
Table 1: Cyclone Particle Collection Efficiencies
Cyclone type Particle Size Collection Efficiency (%)

Conventional Total 70
PM10 30-90
PM2.5 0-40
High Efficiency Total 80-90
PM10 60-90
PM2.5 20-70
High Throughput > 20 µm 80-99
PM10 10-40
PM2.5 0-10
Multiple Cyclones > 5 µm 80-95
3.4.1 Suitable Applications for Cyclones

The majority of dusts are suitable for collection in mechanical and inertial collectors. The only
significant exception being that sticky dust can clog the cyclonic systems. This limitation can be
overcome by using a ―wet cyclone‖ where the walls of the cyclone are irrigated with water to
assist in the removal of the dust stream. This should not be confused with a wet cyclone associated
with a scrubber and designed to remove the water droplets carried forward.
Most applications for inertial separators are for large particulates where moderate collection
efficiencies are required. Timber milling and processing, pneumatic conveying, and operations that
produce shavings, chips and fibre are generally suitable applications for cyclones. Fossil-fuel and
wood-waste fired fuel combustion units are also suitable for multiple cyclones or high efficiency
cyclones when moderate collection efficiency is required. However, when high efficiency
collection is necessary, wet scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, or fabric filters are required to

collect the remaining fine particulate matter (PM10), perhaps with some form or inertial separator
as a pre-collector.
Typical gas flow rates are 0.5 to 15 m3/s for single cyclone units, and 50 m3/s or more for multiple
cyclones. Inlet gas temperatures are only limited by the materials of construction of the cyclone,
and can be as high as 300°C. Particulate inlet concentrations typically range from 2 to 200 g/m3.
Outlet particulate concentrations can range from 50 to 400 mg/m3 adjusted to 25oC, one
atmosphere and dry gas basis.
3.4.2 Recommended Performance Criteria for Inertial Separators
The performance of cyclones and other inertial separators are activity-specific. A large range of
different designs is possible and performance is also very dependent on particle size and type.
Therefore a general performance or design criteria has not been specified in these guidelines.
Table 1 however, provides a guide to control efficiencies that should be expected for cyclones.
Some general performance criteria will be specified for groups of activities or processes, for
example, multiple-cyclones on combustion processes and this will be contained in the permit
issued for that particulate stationary source. However, such criteria are as much a function of the
process and operational factors as the design of the inertial separator, so it is difficult to set general
criteria even for specific industries.
3.5 Particulate Scrubbers

Wet scrubbers are particulate control devices that rely on direct and irreversible contact of a liquid
(usually water) in the form of droplets, foam, or bubbles. The liquid with the collected particulate
is then easily collected. Scrubbers can be very specialized and designed in many different
configurations. Wet scrubbers are generally classified by the method that is used to induce contact
between the liquid and the particulate, e.g. spray, packed-bed, plate. Scrubbers are also often
described as low, medium, or high-energy, where energy is often expressed as the pressure drop
across the scrubber.
Wet scrubbers have important advantages when compared to other particulate collection devices.
They can collect flammable and explosive dusts safely, absorb gaseous contaminants, and collect
mists. Scrubbers can also cool hot gas streams and act as flame arresters. There are also some
disadvantages associated with wet scrubbers. For example, scrubbers have the potential for
corrosion and freezing, can cause water and solid waste pollution problems, and can have a cool,
visible discharge plume.
The collection mechanisms of wet scrubbers are highly dependent on particle size. Inertial
impaction is the major collection mechanism for particles greater than approximately 0.1 m in
diameter. The effectiveness of inertial impaction increases with increasing particle size. Diffusion
is generally effective only for particles less than 0.1 m in diameter, with collection efficiency
increasing with decreasing particle size.
The combination of these two principal scrubber collection mechanisms contributes to minimum
collection efficiency for particulate approximately 0.1 m in diameter. The exact minimum
efficiency for a specific scrubber will depend on the type of scrubber, operating conditions, and the
particle size distribution in the gas stream. The design of the scrubber should ensure a closely
packed fine dispersion of droplets is generated to act as targets for particle capture. A variety of
methods are used to generate the droplets. These include injecting a liquid and pneumatically
shearing the liquid into a fine spray with a high velocity gas stream or using a high pressure liquid
spray to create the droplets.
The aim is to cause the particle to be lodged inside the collecting droplet and then to remove the
large (relatively) collecting droplet from the gas stream. In general, the smaller the liquid droplet
the higher the potential will be to remove smaller particles.

Scrubbing types include:
 Spray Chambers. A spray chamber is a very simple, low-energy wet scrubber. The
particulate-laden gas stream is introduced into a chamber where it comes into contact with
liquid droplets generated by spray nozzles. The size of the droplets generated by the spray
nozzles is controlled to maximize liquid-particle contact and, consequently, scrubber
collection efficiency. A de-mister at the top of the spray tower removes liquid droplets and
wetted particulate from the exiting gas stream. Scrubbing liquid and wetted particulate
matter also drain from the bottom of the tower in the form of slurry.
 Packed-Bed Scrubber. A packed-bed scrubber consists of a chamber containing layers of
variously shaped packing material, which provide a large surface area for liquid-particle
contact. The packing is held in place by wire mesh retainers and supported by a plate near
the bottom of the scrubber. Scrubbing liquid is evenly introduced above the packing and
flows down through the bed. The liquid coats the packing and establishes a thin film. The
gas stream is forced to follow a circuitous path through the packing, on which much of the
particulate impacts. The liquid on the packing collects the particulate and flows down the
chamber towards the drain at the bottom of the tower. A mist eliminator (also called a "de-
mister") is typically positioned above/after the packing and scrubbing liquid supply. Any
scrubbing liquid and wetted entrained material in the exiting gas stream will be removed
by the mist eliminator and returned to drain through the packed bed.
Figure 7 Packed Bed Scrubber
 Impingement Plate Scrubber. An impingement plate scrubber is a vertical chamber with

plates mounted horizontally inside a hollow shell. Impingement plate scrubbers operate as
counter-current collection devices. The scrubbing liquid flows down the tower while the
gas stream flows upward. Contact between the liquid and the particle-laden gas occurs on
the plates. The plates are equipped with openings that allow the gas to pass through. Gas-
liquid-particle contact is achieved within the froth generated by the gas passing through the
liquid layer. The bubble caps and baffles placed above the plate perforations force the gas
to turn before escaping the layer of liquid. While the gas turns to avoid the obstacles, most
particulates cannot and are collected by impaction on the caps or baffles. Bubble caps and
the like also prevent liquid from flowing down the perforations if the gas flow is reduced.

Figure 8: Impingement Plate Scrubber
 Mechanically-Aided Scrubber. A mechanically-aided scrubber (MAS) employs a motor-

driven fan or impeller to enhance gas-liquid contact. Generally in MASs, the scrubbing
liquid is sprayed onto the fan or impeller blades. Fans and impellers are capable of
producing very fine liquid droplets with high velocities. These droplets are effective in
contacting fine particulate. Once impacted, the droplets are normally removed by cyclonic
motion. Mechanically aided scrubbers are capable of high collection efficiencies, but only
with commensurate high energy consumption.
 Venturi Scrubber. A venturi, or gas-atomised spray, scrubber accelerates the gas stream to
atomise the scrubbing liquid and to improve gas-liquid contact. In a venturi scrubber, a
"throat" section is built into the duct that forces the gas stream to accelerate as the duct
narrows and then expands. As the gas enters the venturi throat, both gas velocity and
turbulence increase. The scrubbing liquid is sprayed into the gas stream just before the gas
encounters the venturi throat. The scrubbing liquid is then atomised into small droplets by
the turbulence in the throat and droplet-particle interaction is increased. After the throat
section, the wetted particulate and excess liquid droplets are separated from the gas stream
by cyclonic motion and/or a mist eliminator. Venturi scrubbers have the advantage of
being simple in design, easy to install, and with low maintenance requirements.
Figure 9: Venturi Scrubber
 Orifice Scrubber. Orifice scrubbers, also known as entrainment or self-induced spray

scrubbers, force the particle-laden gas stream to pass over the surface of a pool of
scrubbing liquid as it enters an orifice. With the high gas velocities typical of this type of
scrubber, the liquid from the pool becomes entrained in the gas stream as droplets. As the
gas velocity and turbulence increase with the passing of the gas through the narrow orifice,

 the interaction between the particulate matter and liquid droplets also increases. Particulate
matter and droplets are then removed from the gas stream by impingement on a series of
baffles that the gas encounters after the orifice. The collected liquid and particulate drain
from the baffles back into the liquid pool below the orifice. Orifice scrubbers can
effectively collect particles larger than 2 µm in diameter. Some orifice scrubbers are
designed with adjustable orifices to control the velocity of the gas stream.
 Condensation Scrubber. In a condensation scrubber, particles act as condensation nuclei

for the formation of droplets. Generally, condensation scrubbing depends on first
establishing saturation conditions in the gas stream. Once saturation is achieved, steam is
injected into the gas stream. The steam creates a condition of supersaturation and leads to
condensation of water on the fine particulate in the gas stream.
 Fibre-Bed Scrubber. In a fibre-bed scrubber the moisture-laden gas stream passes through
mats of packing fibres, such as spun glass, fibreglass, and steel. The fibre mats are often
also wetted with the scrubbing liquid. Depending on the scrubber requirements, there may
be several fibre mats and an impingement device for particulate removal included in the
design. The final fibre mat is typically dry for the removal of any droplets that are still
entrained in the stream. Fibre-bed scrubbers are best suited for the collection of soluble
particulate material, i.e. material that dissolves in the scrubber liquid, since large amounts
of insoluble material will clog the fibre mats with time. For this reason, fibre-bed scrubbers
are more often used as mist eliminators, i.e. for the collection of liquids, rather than for
particulate control.
3.5.1 Suitable Applications for Particulate Scrubbers
Particulate scrubbers can be used in a wide range of applications, but wastewater treatment or
slurry disposal must be managed effectively, otherwise the pollutant load will be transferred to the
water environment.
Venturi scrubbers are suitable for industrial boilers fired with a range of fuels including coal, oil,
and wood. They can also be applied to control emissions from chemical, mineral products, wood,
pulp and paper, rock products, lead, aluminium, iron and steel, and grey iron production industries;
and to municipal solid waste thermal oxidisers. A particularly common application is to control
emissions from hot-mix asphalt plants.
Spray towers are comparatively uncommon and tend to be used as pre-conditioners for other
control devices or in situations where gas absorption may also be necessary, such as the
superphosphate manufacturing industry.
Orifice scrubbers are used in solid fuel combustion processes, food processing (cereal, flour, rice,
salt, sugar, etc.), pharmaceutical processing; and the manufacture of chemicals, rubber and
plastics, ceramics, and fertilizer. Orifice scrubbers can be built as high energy units, but most
devices are designed for low-energy service.
3.5.2 Recommended Performance Criteria for Particulate Scrubbers
Collection efficiencies for wet scrubbers are highly variable. Most conventional scrubbers can
achieve high collection efficiencies for particles greater than 1.0 m in diameter. However, they
are generally ineffective collection devices for sub-micron (< 1 µm) particles.
Scrubber collection efficiency is directly proportional to the inlet dust concentration. That is,
efficiency will increase with increasing dust loading. This suggests that scrubber removal
efficiency is not constant for a given scrubber design, unless it is referenced to a specific inlet dust
loading. In contrast, it has been shown that scrubber outlet dust concentration is a constant,
independent of inlet concentration, similar to fabric filters described above.

This feature, along with the large potential variety of design options, means that performance
criteria for particulate scrubbers are best expressed in the form of discharge limits. These can vary
with application and generalised criteria are not recommended by these guidelines. Site specific
emission criteria are necessary and should be set based on the particulate concentrations used in
the dispersion modelling. For some specific industrial applications general emission concentration
limits can be applied. For example, asphalt plants with well managed venturi scrubbers can
achieve a discharge less than 100 mg/m3 adjusted to 25oC, one atmosphere and dry gas basis, while
orifice scrubbers on solid fuel boilers can achieve 100 mg/m3 adjusted to 25oC, one atmosphere
and dry gas basis.
3.6 Ceramic Filters

Low density ceramic filter elements can be used for the cleaning of incineration gases and similar
high temperature gas streams. A typical ceramic filter is the Cerafil unit; typically these have a
diameter of 60 mm, length up to three metres and a wall thickness of 10 mm. The nominal face
velocity is 0.03 m/s. A three metre long filter will treat about 150 actual cubic metres per hour.
The ceramic filter offers three main benefits:
 Refractory composition, fire and spark resistance, high porosity, resistance to thermal
shock;
 Inert and resistant to attack from both acid and alkali gas streams; and
 Residual dust layer coupled with cake filtration mechanism gives high filtration efficiency.
Ceramic filters accommodate operating temperatures typically up to 900°C. Applications include
incineration, secondary metal production, processes with an exhaust temperature above the
limitations of conventional filters, and dry scrubbing of acid or alkali gas streams.
3.6.1 Recommended Performance Criteria for Particulate Scrubbers
As ceramic filters are relatively new technology and mainly used for special applications,
performance criteria have not be set in the guidelines. Performance criteria should be assessed and
set on a case by case basis dependent on the industrial activity.
3.7 Particulate Pre-Treatment Systems

The performance of most particulate control devices can often be improved through pre-treatment
of the gas stream. Pre-treatment consists of two categories:
 Pre-collection; and
 Gas conditioning.
Pre-collection devices are installed upstream of the main particulate control device and remove
large particles from the gas stream, reducing the loading on the primary control device or
preventing dangerous situations, such as hot or burning particles entering fabric filters. For
example a high efficiency cyclone before a bag filter unit which removes the larger particles
including any sparks.
Gas conditioning techniques alter the characteristics of the particles and/or the gas stream to allow
the primary control device to function more effectively. Both types of pre-treatment can lead to
increased collection efficiency and operating life, while reducing operating costs.
3.8 Biofiltration
The term ‗Biofiltration‘ is applied to a technology in which vapour phase compounds (generally
organic compounds) are passed through a bed of media material (‗biofilter‘) and adsorbed onto the

exposed surface where they are degraded by micro-organisms in the bed. The bed media is
generally soil, bark, compost, scoria or any combination of these materials.
A development of the biofilter is the ‗bioreactor‘. This operates in a similar manner to the biofilter
but uses an inert support media such as plastic rings, scoria or pumice. The support medium used
can vary widely depending on the application. The micro-organisms are cultured as a biofilm on
the surface of support media supported by re-circulating water.
The biofilter provides several advantages over conventional absorbers. First, bio-regeneration of
the biofilter media keeps the maximum adsorption capacity available constantly; thus, the mass
transfer zone remains stationary and relatively short. The filter does not require regeneration, and
the required bed length is greatly reduced. These features reduce capital and operating expenses.
Additionally, the contaminants are destroyed not just separated, as with activated carbon or similar
technologies. In common with other biological treatment processes, biofiltration is dependent upon
the biodegradability of the contaminants. Under proper conditions, biofilters can remove virtually
all selected contaminants to harmless products. Biofiltration is used primarily to treat hydrogen
sulphide, organo-sulphides, organo-nitrogen compounds and non-halogenated hydrocarbons.
Halogenated hydrocarbons also can be treated, but the process may be less effective.
Inlet concentrations of contaminants in the gas stream may range from fractions of a part per
million (ppmv) up to 1000 ppmv or higher. Efficiency of removal is dependent on the system and
contaminant. General odour removal (measured by olfactometry) from waste water treatment
plants is expected to be at least 90%. Removal efficiencies for hydrogen sulphide and methyl
mercaptan are greater than 99% and 95% respectively (Brenman et al, 1996).
Biofilter design centres on ensuring adequate contact or residence time in the filter bed. This is
often expressed in terms of the ratio of treated gas volume to bed cross sectional areas. Values of
this ratio typically range from 50 to 100 m3/m2/hr, with bed depths typically 0.8 to 1.2m. The
principal disadvantage of biofilters is their large space requirement. However, this can be
overcome by using stacked systems with synthetic media, or bioreactors, which have less
demanding requirements on residence time and hence size.
The modern biofilter will operate for extended periods with minimal monitoring. However, to
maintain maximum efficiency moisture levels must be maintained at higher than 60% and
temperature in the 20 – 35°C range. Control of pH is less critical but should be within the range 4
– 8. Bed moisture content is very important and the humidity of the gas stream should be
maintained at near to 100% to prevent drying of the underside of the bed. Overhead spray type
watering systems are also common. The filter bed should be maintained in an aerobic condition.

Figure 10: Schematic of a Biofilter
Bioreactors that use an inert bed material normally require the biofilm to be seeded with the most
appropriate bacteria and to provide nutrients for food.
Many biofilters in the past have failed due to inadequate design or maintenance. Where a biofilter
is used as the primary control device, the design of any associated condenser can be as critical as
the design of the actual biofilter. Pilot plants can be used to determine whether a biofilter will
provide suitable control.
3.8.1 Suitable Applications for Biofilters
Biofilters and bioreactors are suitable for many applications and the variety of processes using
them is growing. Their main uses have largely been confined to wastewater treatment, composting,
food and animal products industries including emissions from rendering plants. They have also
been used for treatment of VOCs and other contaminants from the surface treatment industry and
petrochemical industry.
3.8.2 Recommended Performance Criteria for Biofilters
The EMB‘s general design and operating criteria for conventional biofilters are:
 Maximum ratio of total gas volume to bed cross sectional area of 50 m3/m2/hr. Total gas
volume includes process air and any necessary dilution air, but excludes flows during
maintenance, which will be assessed on a case-by-case basis but should not generally
exceed 75 m3/m2/hr.
 The biofilter must be capable of running with parts of the bed isolated from the incoming
gas flow for maintenance purposes;
 Minimum bed depth of filter media of 1.0 m;
 Designed to achieve at least 95% odour removal efficiency;
 Maximum inlet gas temperature of 35°C;
 Humid inlet air stream to maintain the bed moisture content generally above 50%. Bed
moisture content is dependent on the media used. Too little moisture causes cracking and
decreased microbial activity while too much clogs the media, preventing adsorption and
increasing the pressure drop, and leads to undesirable anaerobic activity;
 Pressure drop generally less than 100 mm water gauge;

 pH of bed media generally between 4 - 8 and preferably between pH 7 - 8; and
 Bed distribution system designed and bed maintained to ensure even distribution of flow
through the bed and no bypassing (short circuiting) or breakthrough of untreated or partially
treated air, particularly for side walls.
The EMB‘s general monitoring requirements for conventional biofilters are:
 Continuous monitoring and recording of gas inlet temperature;
 Continuous monitoring and recording and if appropriate alarming of the operation of the
inlet gas fan;
 At least weekly monitoring and recording of the pressure drop across the bed;
 At least monthly monitoring and recording of bed pH;
 At least weekly monitoring and recording of bed moisture content; and
 Daily visual observations of the state of the biofilter bed, particularly for short circuiting
and clogging of the bed.
Odour or contaminant sampling will not be required except in special circumstances. Olfactometry
techniques cannot reliably measure below about 50 odour units (i.e. 50 times the odour threshold)
and natural odours from bark or soil media can interfere, being of the order of 80 - 150 OUs.
Therefore, odour levels need to be quite high before olfactometry can be undertaken and it is likely
that these levels of odour will be detected by observations.
3.9 Thermal Oxidation of Gaseous Contaminants

Thermal oxidation (incineration) relies on the destruction of air pollutants by the application of
heat. It is best applied to carbon and hydrogen-containing contaminants because thermal oxidation
renders them into harmless carbon dioxide and water. There are several different types of thermal
oxidation devices:
 Thermal
 Recuperative
 Catalytic
 Regenerative
 Flares.
Thermal oxidation may be used as a control option for particulate and/or volatile organic materials
in a gas stream. In general, it would only be applied where the volatile material is adsorbed onto
the particulate matter or is being carried in the gas stream.
 Thermal Oxidisers. Thermal oxidisers are probably the most common and are often
referred to as ‗afterburners‘ in some industrial applications. These units rely on thermal
oxidation by raising the temperature of combustible materials above the auto-ignition point
in the presence of oxygen. A straight thermal oxidiser is comprised of a combustion
chamber and does not include any heat recovery of exhaust air by a heat exchanger.
Contaminant destruction efficiency in thermal oxidisers depends upon design criteria (i.e.,
chamber temperature, residence time, inlet concentration, compound type, and degree of
mixing). Typical thermal oxidiser design efficiencies range from 98 to 99.99% and above,
depending on system requirements and characteristics of the contaminated stream. Typical
design conditions needed to meet more than 98% control are:
870 °C combustion temperature, 0.75 second residence time, and flow velocities of at least
6 – 12 metres/second to ensure proper mixing (Buonicore and Davis, 1992). This criterion

excludes halogenated streams, which may require significantly more demanding conditions
and possibly additional devices such as acid scrubbing or carbon adsorption due to the
potential to generate acidic gases or even dioxins.
Figure 11: Thermal Oxidiser
For vent streams with low contaminant concentrations (typically below approximately
2000 ppmv for VOCs), reaction rates and maximum destruction efficiency decrease.
Relatively high destruction efficiencies may also be difficult to measure with low inlet
concentrations due to the detection limitations of measurement instruments. Performance
criteria may therefore be better expressed as a minimum emission limit, such as outlet
concentrations less than 20 ppmv VOCs.
 Recuperative Thermal Oxidisers. Recuperative thermal oxidiser systems are similar to
thermal oxidisers but employ heat exchangers to preheat the waste gas stream, and if
appropriate to recover secondary heat for process heating or to generate steam or hot water.
Two general types of heat exchangers are used: shell and tube, and plate heat exchangers.
Shell and tube units are more common and have advantages when temperatures exceed
540oC. Recuperative thermal oxidisers have similar destruction efficiencies to thermal
oxidisers, but this can be limited by the need to limit temperatures in the heat exchanger to
prevent damage. Care is needed for applications with gases that are difficult to oxidise or
when very high destruction efficiencies are necessary. They are usually more economical
to operate than straight thermal oxidisers because they can recover 40 to 50% of the waste
heat from the exhaust gases, but have higher maintenance costs. To avoid fouling of heat
exchangers excessive particulate in the inlet gases must be avoided.
Suitable design and performance criteria for recuperative thermal oxidisers are similar to
those for simple thermal oxidisers discussed above.
 Catalytic Thermal Oxidisers. Catalytic thermal oxidisers operate very similarly to thermal
oxidisers, with the primary difference that the gas, after passing through the flame area,
passes through a catalyst bed. The catalyst has the effect of increasing the oxidation
reaction rate, enabling conversion at lower reaction temperatures than in thermal oxidiser
units. Catalysts typically used for VOC destruction include platinum and palladium. Other
formulations include metal oxides, which are used for gas streams containing chlorinated
compounds (USEPA, 1998).
Several different types of catalyst thermal oxidisers are available, largely distinguished by
the method of contacting the contaminated gas stream with the catalyst. Both fixed bed and
fluid-bed systems are used.

Contaminant destruction efficiency is dependent on the composition of the gas, operating
temperature, oxygen concentration, catalyst type and space velocity. Temperature and
space velocities are particularly important. High temperatures and low space velocities
produce increasing destruction efficiencies. For example, 95% destruction of VOCs can be
achieved in a catalytic thermal oxidiser operating at 450oC, with a catalyst bed volume of
0.029 to 0.12 per standard cubic meter per second of off gas (USEPA CACT, 1998).
Destruction efficiencies up to 99% are achievable but this requires larger catalyst volumes
and/or higher temperatures.
Figure 12: Catalytic Thermal Oxidiser
 Regenerative Thermal Oxidisers. Regenerative thermal oxidisers are similar in principle

to recuperative thermal oxidisers, but use direct contact with a high-density media such as
a ceramic-packed bed for heat exchange. The bed is heated with exhaust gases before using
it to pre-heat and partially oxidise the inlet waste gas. The preheated and partially oxidised
gases then enter a combustion chamber where final destruction takes place before the
cleaned gases are directed to one or more packed beds cooled by an earlier cycle.
Regenerative thermal oxidisers can also employ a catalyst rather than ceramic material in
the packed bed. This allows for destruction at a lower oxidation temperature. These units
are often called ‗regenerative catalytic thermal oxidisers‘.
Contaminant destruction efficiencies of thermal regenerative thermal oxidisers typically
range from 95 to 99%, while catalytic units range from 90 to 99%. Catalytic units however
have the advantage of being able to remove carbon monoxide from VOC laden air. Both
systems are poor at coping with particulate laden waste streams, and the catalytic system in
particular may require removal of any particulate to avoid clogging or blinding problems.
Regenerative thermal oxidisers are expensive and difficult to install, and have a large size
and weight and a high maintenance demand for moving parts. Advantages include low fuel
requirements, an ability to operate at higher temperatures than recuperative thermal
oxidisers and suitability for high flow, low concentration waste streams. Because they are
uncommon in the Philippines, standard design and performance criteria are not
recommended for regenerative thermal oxidisers.

Figure 13: Schematic of Regenerative Thermal Oxidiser
 Flares. Flares are a specialist category of thermal oxidiser. They are primarily safety
devices, which deal with flows of short duration (generally an upset condition or an
accidental release from a process) rather than a control device that treats a continuous
waste stream. Flares are generally categorized in two ways:
- by the height of the flare tip (i.e. ground or elevated), and
- by the method of enhancing mixing at the flare tip (i.e. steam-assisted, air-assisted,
pressure-assisted, or non-assisted).
Elevating the flare can prevent potentially dangerous conditions at ground level and this
also allows the products of combustion to be dispersed. In most flares, combustion occurs
by means of a diffusion flame. A diffusion flame is one in which air diffuses across the
boundary of the fuel/combustion product stream toward the centre of the fuel flow,
forming the envelope of a combustible gas mixture around a core of fuel gas. This mixture,
on ignition, establishes a stable flame zone around the gas core above the burner tip. This
inner gas core is heated by diffusion of hot combustion products from the flame zone.
Flares can be used to control almost any VOC stream, and can typically handle large
fluctuations in concentration, flow rate, and other characteristics. Flares find their primary
application in the petroleum and petrochemical industries but are also common for landfill
gas treatment. The majority of chemical plants and refineries have flare systems designed
to relieve emergency process upsets that require release of large volumes of gas. These
large diameter flares are designed to handle emergency releases, but can also be used to
control vent streams from various process operations.

Figure 14: Enclosed Flare
3.9.1 Suitable Applications for Thermal Oxidisers

Standard thermal oxidisers and recuperative thermal oxidisers can be used to reduce emissions
from almost all sources of VOCs. This includes surface coating operations, ovens, dryers, kilns,
reactor vents and distillation vents. Both can handle minor fluctuations in flow, but flares are
necessary for very large fluctuations. Contaminant concentrations should be well below the lower
flammable limit to prevent explosions. A factor of four is usually employed to give an adequate
margin of safety.
Catalytic thermal oxidisers can also handle a range of VOC sources and are widely used by the
surface coating industry. They are most suited to low volume systems when there is little variation
in flow and when there is no potential for fouling from particulate, silicon, sulphur, heavy
hydrocarbons and metals such as lead.
Regenerative thermal oxidisers are more suitable for high flow (above 2.5 m3/s) and low VOC
concentrations (below 1000 ppmv). They are also suitable for a wide range of sources but cannot
handle particulate or condensable material, and catalytic units may be adversely affected by gases
containing silicon, phosphorous, arsenic or certain heavy metals.
3.9.2 Recommended Performance and Design Criteria for Thermal oxidisers
Table 2 presents a summary of performance criteria that could be applied to most activities
employing thermal oxidisers as control devices. These criteria are suitable for setting permit
conditions.
Table 2 : Summary of Thermal Oxidiser Design and Performance Criteria
Recommended Design
Thermal Oxidiser Type Recommended Performance Criteria
Criteria
o
Thermal 750 – 850 C, for 0.5 – 2 second 98 – 99.99 % removal or < 20ppm VOCs for
Recuperative thermal residence time low concentration inlets
Regenerative thermal
Catalytic Site-specific 95 – 99 % removal or < 20ppm VOCs for
low concentration inlets
A range of conditions are recommended because higher temperatures and residence times are
necessary for those contaminants that are difficult to burn, such as particulates and products of

incomplete combustion. Lower temperatures and residence times are suitable for flammable VOCs
and most odours.
EMB‘s general design and operating criteria for thermal oxidisers are:
Thermal Oxidisers
 Minimum temperature of between 750 and 850°C, and a minimum residence time of
between 0.5-2 seconds. A range of conditions are given because higher temperatures and
residence times are necessary for those contaminants that are difficult to burn such as
particulates and products of incomplete combustion. Generally EMB consider that a
temperature of at least 750°C and a design residence time of at least 0.75 seconds in excess
oxygen (and an operational residence time of at least 0.5 seconds) is suitable for flammable
VOCs and most odours.
 Designed for at least 99% removal efficiency, or where there is an inlet concentration of
less than 400 ppmv VOCs, an outlet concentration of less than 20 ppmv VOCs;
 Cremator thermal oxidisers, a specialised type of thermal oxidiser used on crematoria
should have a minimum temperature of 850°C, and a minimum residence time of 2
seconds in at least 6% excess oxygen.
Catalytic Thermal Oxidisers
 Minimum temperature and residence time criteria will be assessed on a case by case basis;
 Designed for at least 95% removal efficiency, or where there is an inlet concentration of
less than 400 ppmv VOCs, an outlet concentration of less than 20 ppmv VOCs;
 Regenerative and recuperative thermal oxidisers will be assessed on a case by case basis;
 The thermal oxidiser burner must be interlocked so that the process cannot operate until
the afterburner is at the appropriate temperature. Where appropriate, interlocks should also
shut down the process if the minimum afterburner temperature is not achieved during
operation; and
 The afterburner must be designed to ensure suitable turbulence within the main chamber
and hence adequate and consistent mixing with oxygen.
EMB‘s general monitoring requirements for thermal oxidisers are:
 Continuous monitoring, recording and alarming of the thermal oxidiser‘s operating
temperature (note the site of the temperature probe within the afterburner should be
considered carefully); and
 For catalytic thermal oxidisers, appropriate monitoring and where necessary replacement
of catalyst will be required.
Odour sampling or contaminant sampling may be required in special circumstances. Provided the
thermal oxidiser has been correctly designed for the contaminant stream to have adequate mixing,
an appropriate residence time and has suitable operating temperatures, EMB will not usually
require sampling of the residual emissions exiting the thermal oxidiser unit. If the thermal oxidiser
does not have adequate manufacturer guarantees then EMB may require extensive commissioning
tests including residence time and odour destruction efficiency tests.
3.10 Scrubbing and Adsorption Systems

Many control systems for the removal of gaseous contaminants are based on absorption (gas
scrubbing), adsorption or condensation. The selection of the most appropriate method will depend
on the contaminants that must be removed, the characteristics of the gas stream and the efficiency
required.

3.10.1 Gas Scrubbing
Absorption is the removal of a contaminant from the gas stream by contacting the gas with a liquid
phase, where the contaminant either reacts with the liquid or dissolves in the liquid and is
removed.
This type of action may take place in all versions of wet scrubbers, however the most common
types for the removal of gaseous contaminants are packed or plate absorbers. Packed scrubbers are
generally in the form of a tower, with the gas inlet at the base and outlet at the top. The scrubbing
liquid flows counter-current to the gas stream. The tower is filled with packing material to increase
the surface area where absorption may take place. The packing may be symmetrical in shape such
as saddles or rings or random such as coke, plastic scrap, scoria etc. The scrubbing liquid is
commonly water or a solution of a chemical in water to promote a removal mechanism. These
chemicals can be caustic (sodium hydroxide), acidic (phosphoric acid) or oxidising (hydrogen
peroxide or sodium hypochlorite). Other solvents may be used to remove substances having a low
solubility in water. The scrubbing liquid should have high gas solubility (or reaction) and low
volatility, be chemically stable and non-corrosive, and preferably also have a low toxicity.
Plate scrubbers operate in similar manner to the packed tower and have the same constraints. The
scrubbing liquid contacts the gas stream in a series of stages. The liquid enters the top stage, flows
across the plate and discharges through holes to the next plate. The gas stream rises through the
same holes or openings creating bubbles or froth where removal of the contaminant takes place.
Figure 15: Counter Current Chemical Scrubber and Packed Tower Scrubber
Purpose built scrubbing towers designed for a specific duty may reach efficiencies of 99.99% for
certain contaminants. Common efficiencies are in the 90 – 99% range. This is very much
dependent on there being sufficient residual scrubbing capacity of the liquor being used to remove
the gaseous contaminants. The liquor needs to be continuously monitored to ensure the minimum
liquor set point is maintained. To achieve this, the scrubbing liquor has to be continually dosed
with a concentrated form of the scrubbing chemical being used.
For a caustic scrubber using sodium hydroxide, the pH of the liquor should always be maintained
above 8 to ensure adequate chemical residual in the scrubbing liquor. Therefore a constant addition
of new solution and bleed-off of spent solution is required. As a result of the bleed off, the
discharged liquor needs to be treated prior to disposal to the sewer or re-use. This treatment, and
disposal of the spent liquor, will add significant operating costs to these units which must be
considered in their selection.

3.11 Adsorption Systems
The process of concentrating a substance on the surface of porous solids is known as ―adsorption‖.
It may be used for removal of contaminants from an air stream for purification of the discharge or
to recover the contaminant for further use. Carbon, zeolite, and polymer adsorbents have each been
used to adsorb VOCs and other pollutants from relatively dilute discharge concentrations. Other
adsorbents used industrially include alumina, activated clay, silica gel and molecular sieves.
Contaminants are attached or condensed onto the surface of the adsorbent. When the surface has
adsorbed nearly as much as it can, the contaminants are desorbed as part of regenerating the
adsorbent. When desorbed, the vapours are usually at a higher concentration, after which they are
either recovered or destroyed. The principle of adsorption is one of capturing contaminants from a
dilute concentration and releasing them in a higher concentration.
The most common adsorption systems used use activated carbon. These range in size and
complexity from small systems designed to remove odours from cooking operations to complex
solvent recovery systems in the surface coating industry.
Different configurations are available including powder injection and fixed bed systems. In the
larger systems it is normal for two fixed bed system to act in parallel, one in adsorption mode, the
other in regeneration mode. Regeneration methods include thermal systems, vacuum systems,
vapour concentration systems, and steam stripping. Steam is the most common method but care is
necessary with removal of water-soluble compounds. If recovery is not practical or is undesirable
due to the nature of the substances collected, provision must be made for the removal of the
adsorption material and subsequent disposal by incineration or land filling.
Well-designed adsorption devices can achieve control efficiencies of 95 to 98% for input VOC
concentrations in the range 500 to 2000 ppmv. This is independent of the recovery or disposal
process. If thermal oxidisation is used as the regeneration process at 98% efficiency, total removal
efficiencies may be 93 to 96% (USEPA CACT, 1998). Lower efficiencies are achieved with less
effective regeneration.
3.11.1 Suitable Applications for Gas Scrubbers and Adsorption Devices
Gas scrubbers are used in a very wide range of applications, almost too numerous to list. Notable
activities in the context of this report include: sulphonation plants, electroplating, fertiliser
manufacture, general odour control and foundries.
Typical uses of adsorption systems are the removal of hydrocarbons (from storage vents) and
odours, solvent recovery units at dry cleaning plants, and solvent extraction processes in the food
industry.
3.11.2 Recommended Performance Criteria for Gas Scrubbers and Adsorption Devices
Scrubbers if appropriately designed can have gas removal efficiencies of 90 - 99%.
However, the efficacy of a scrubber is severely impacted by many matters including:
 Maintenance. Scrubber parts can become blocked or corroded, or liquor levels may lower
over time;
 Inadequate residence time;
 Maintaining appropriate liquor strength and cleanliness;
 Bypassing or short circuiting within the scrubber, particularly in packed tower or
impingement plate scrubbers.
Automatic pH monitoring and dosing systems for caustic and acidic scrubbers should be required
as a condition of any permit. And a minimum residual pH should be set that the scrubbing liquor
does not fall below. For a caustic scrubber this would be a pH of 8 and for an acid scrubber this

would be a pH of 5.5. For oxidiser scrubbers a minimum liquor residual chemical strength may
need to be set in the permit, for example for a scrubber using sodium hypochlorite a free available
chlorine level of 2.0 ppm should be set.
As a chemical scrubber or adsorption device system needs to be specifically designed for the
activity in question, all scrubbers will be assessed on a case by case basis and hence no design
criteria or monitoring requirements other than that recommended below have been included.
Emission limits should be set based on CAA requirements and the results of dispersion modelling.
The level and type of control device monitoring should be assessed on a case by case basis and
could include:
 Automatic pH monitoring and dosing systems for caustic and acidic scrubbers. This should
be required as a condition of any permit.
 A minimum residual pH should be set that the scrubbing liquor does not fall below. For a
caustic scrubber this would be a pH of 9.0 and for an acid scrubber this would be a pH of
5.0.
 For oxidiser scrubbers at liquors a residual chemical level may be set, for example for a
scrubber using sodium hypochlorite a free available chlorine level of 2.0 ppm should be
set.
3.12 Fugitive Dust Control

As well as the point sources at a site, there are fugitive sources of dust and gaseous emissions that
need to be considered and adequately controlled. A range of control options are available and
should be considered on a case by case basis.
3.12.1 Dust Control
For dust control they include:
 Enclosing all conveyors and bucket elevators;
 Enclosing coal, sand, limestone, and fine solid stockpiles;
 Applying dust suppressant sprays to stockpiles (sprays can be automated, operating on a
timer or by a moisture meter located in the stockpile);
 Having solid material dump points enclosed in a building ventilated with the air extracted
to a bag filtration system.
 Pneumatic conveying systems (excess air is passed through filtration units before being
discharged to air to remove entrained dust).
 Applying dust suppressant sprays to roads and yard areas by automatic spray system or by
water carts;
 Removing or accumulated dust and grit on roads and yards by regular vacuuming and
sweeping if these areas; and
 Hard paving of all service roads and yards in the site.
Fugitive dust control practices and procedures should be recorded in the establishment‘s Operation
and Management Plan. This means that the prescribed practices in the Plan to control dust can be
inspected and checked to see if they are being carried out as intended, either by site management
or by EMB inspectors.

3.12.2 Gaseous Releases
Gaseous releases within a building are primarily an occupational safety and health issue. However
gaseous releases will eventually leave the building and discharge to atmosphere via roof ridge
vents, roof vents, open windows and doors.
If the discharge is visible (e.g. steam, mist, smoke can be seen clearly discharging from the
building opening) and occurs on a frequent basis, then under ‗best practice‘ the site operator
should install a device to first collect the fume/gaseous release using some form of hood
arrangement over the process causing the release. From the hood the pollutants should be extracted
to air pollution control devices for treatment before being discharged to atmosphere. The type of
treatment required will be dependent on the chemical parameters of the collected fume/gaseous
release. The appropriate control devices should be selected and installed.

4 MANAGEMENT OF FUEL BURNING
4.1 Introduction
As well as installing air pollution control devices to control and reduce emissions from industrial
sources to air, there are a number of management, maintenance and efficiency measures that can
be applied to emissions sources. This is particular relevant to small to medium-sized fuel burning
equipment operating on liquid fuels. Set out in this section are best practice guidelines on how to
reduce emissions from fuel burning equipment (external and internal) operating in the Philippines.
4.2 Boiler Combustion Efficiency Testing and Tuning

4.2.1 Why Efficiency Test and Tune?
The simplest and easiest control to apply to fuel burning equipment is to ensure the appliance is
operating efficiently and is therefore well tuned. As well as reducing emissions an efficient and
well tuned boiler will provide significant savings in fuel consumption.
A boiler at an industrial or commercial site is probably the single largest user of heating fuel
(natural gas or distillate fuel oil) at the site. Boiler systems are inefficient users of fuel. At best,
they may be 85% efficient and on average they are probably 60 to 75% efficient. This means that
upwards of 40% of the energy in your heating fuel is wasted (goes up the stack). It also means that
upwards of 40% of your heating bill is also wasted.
Any heat lost by the system lowers the efficiency of the boiler (or heater). These losses include
radiant loses from heat escaping through the surfaces of the boiler, heat lost through boiler
blowdown, frequent cycling of the burners, and combustion efficiency losses.
Combustion efficiency may be defined as the ratio of the usable energy generated by the boiler to
the energy actually contained in the fuel. Combustion loses are a large portion of total boiler
efficiency losses. It makes good economic sense to maximize combustion efficiency before more
costly capital improvements to improve boiler efficiency are considered. The best way to
maximize combustion efficiency is to measure oxygen and unburned fuel in the flue gases on a
regular basis (as a minimum annually) and to tune the burner to ensure optimum combustion
efficiency for that appliance is being achieved.
4.2.2 Factors that Affect Combustion Efficiency
There are three basic factors, which affect the combustion efficiency of fuel burning equipment.
These are:
 Excess air,
 Unburned fuel in the stack gases and
 Environmental concerns.
Ideally, the combustion of fuel in fuel burning equipment should be carried out with just the right
amount of air to completely burn the fuel (stoichiometric combustion). However, typically, the
inconsistency in the fuel/air mix results in incomplete combustion, so more air is required. On the
other hand, heat is wasted due to the presence of too much excess air, and emissions of harmful
oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are generated and vented to the atmosphere. Issues that can reduce
combustion efficiency are discussed below.
1) High Oxygen Content
When the O2 content of the flue gas is high, more than 12 percent, heat is lost up the chimney and
the operation is inefficient.
High oxygen content may be caused by:

 Too small a burner nozzle;
 Air leakage into the furnace or boiler; and
 Underfiring in the combustion chamber.
In order to prevent high oxygen levels, the fuel burning equipment and the chimney flue should be
well maintained with all holes that are potential for air leakage plugged. Inspection of the boiler
and flue for holes and poor joints should be undertaken as part of the boiler annual inspection
process.
2) Low Oxygen Content
When the O2 content of the flue gas is too low it is common to have excess smoke in the flue gas.
Low oxygen content may be caused by:
 Insufficient draught; and
 Over-fired burner.
Smoke in flue gas indicates poor burner performance or excess fuel. The amount of smoke can be
measured with a smoke tester where smoke particles set on a filter paper are interpreted according
a Bacharach scale. Alternatively the smoke exiting the chimney can be evaluated using
Ringelmann smoke opacity assessment procedure.
3) Smoky Combustion
Smoky combustion can be caused by:
 Soot formation on the heating surfaces;
 Insufficient draught, incorrectly adjusted draught regulator, improper fan delivery;
 Poor fuel supply, malfunctioning fuel pump;
 Defective firebox;
 Oil-burner nozzle defect, for example the wrong size;
 Excessive air leaks in boiler or furnace; and
 Wrong fuel-air ratio.
The amount of smoke can be measured with a smoke tester where smoke particles set on a filter
paper are interpreted according a Bacharach scale. Alternatively the smoke exiting the chimney
can be evaluated with the Ringelmann procedure. To prevent excess smoke the burners need to be
assessed against the caused listed above and any faults found should be rectified. This assessment
should be carried out as part as the annual inspection of the combustion appliance.
4) High Stack Temperatures
The "net stack temperature" is the difference between the flue gas inside the chimney and the room
temperature outside the burner. Net stack temperatures above 370oC are in general too high.
Typical values are between 180 - 260oC.
High stack temperatures may be caused by:
 Undersized furnace;
 Defective combustion chamber;
 Incorrectly sized combustion chamber;
 Excessive draught;
 Over-fired burner;

 Draught regulator improperly adjusted; and
 Soot formation on the heating surfaces.
To prevent high temperatures the combustion system need to be assessed against the caused listed
above and any faults found should be rectified. This assessment should be carried out as part as the
annual inspection of the combustion appliance.
4.2.3 Combustion Analysis and Tuning
Modern combustion analysers (monitors) are used to measure oxygen, oxides of nitrogen,
hydrogen and carbon monoxide in the flue gases. These measurements allow the boiler to be tuned
so that it maintains high combustion efficiency. Combustibles decrease with an increase in excess
air, however, flue gas heat loss increases with the same increase in excess air. Therefore, the total
combustion efficiency is maximized when the amount of excess air supplied results in the sum of
the unburned fuel loss and the flue gas heat loss being minimized.
On average, poorly tuned boilers may have combustion efficiencies of 60% or lower. A well-tuned
boiler or heater can dramatically lower the fuel cost of operating a boiler or industrial process
heater. For example the cost of natural gas in northern Illinois ranges from 27 to 95 cents per
therm (100,000 Btus) depending on the season of the year. At an average of 60 cents/therm, a
10,000-lb/hr boiler with an average annual capacity factor of 50% would save about $26,000 per
year in fuel costs with a 10% increase in combustion efficiency. Even a 1% increase in efficiency
would save about $2,600 per year. The following figure illustrates the levels of fuel savings, which
may be realized by tuning the combustion efficiency of a boiler or heater.
For fuel burning equipment the best and simplest cleaner production technique that can be applied
to reduce emissions and reduce fuel consumption is to have the combustion appliance tuned on a
regular basis. The tuning should occur on an annual basis as a minimum and EMB will include this
requirement as a condition of any permit issued for fuel burning equipment.
Before costly capital improvements are undertaken, the combustion efficiency should be
maximized. With the improved combustion efficiency there is a corresponding reduction in fuel
consumption, which is a benefit to the operator, given the increasing cost of fuel.

4.3 Fuel Switching
4.3.1 Use of Cleaner Fuels

Another method regarded as ‗best practice‘ for reducing emissions to air is to use a cleaner fuel.
Emissions can be reduced by the use of better quality fuels which burn more cleanly or contain
lower levels of fuel contaminants. The classic change was to convert to natural gas combustion
from oil or coal, thereby dramatically reducing particulate and sulfur oxide emissions.
In the Philippines there is a need for industrial site operators to use fuels in their fuel burning
equipment that have low sulfur content in order to comply with the emission standard for sulfur
dioxide, and very often also the standard for particulate emissions. The first step is to get industrial
sites to use lighter fuels which have lower sulfur content and have less contaminants as the refining
process means they are a cleaner fuel. Bunker C Fuel Oil has a sulfur content of 3% whilst marine
diesel has a sulfur content of 0.3%. Converting the boiler to run on marine diesel will reduce sulfur
emissions by a factor of 10 and will reduce the need to heat storage tanks and fuel lines. By
decreasing sulfur levels in the diesel fuel used in stationary fuel burning equipment, as well as
reducing the sulfur dioxide emission rates, it will prevent damage to the emission-control systems.
In addition, reducing sulfur levels will provide immediate public health benefits by reducing
particulate matter from these sources.
The use of fuels containing lower sulfur content can also be applied to fuel burning equipment
fired on coal. For large fuel burning equipment above 50MW there may be still a need to install
flue gas desulfurisation control equipment.
It is probable that current sulfur levels in diesel produced by refineries around the world will over
time reduce to 15 ppm when new refinery technologies are fully and widely implemented (a
reduction of greater than 99 percent).
Should voluntary ‗best practice‖ changes to lower sulfur content fuel fail to occur then EMB may
need to set conditions in new Permits about the sulfur content that can be used in fuels burnt in
fuel burning equipment
4.3.2 Fuel Switching
With natural gas supplies becoming available in the Philippines, industry should be encouraged to
use this fuel subject to availability and cost in order to reduce emissions from fuel burning
equipment. Other fuels on the market that also have low sulfur content and are suitable for fuel
burning equipment include the use of LNG and LPG.
4.3.3 Biomass and Biofuels
An area of fuel switching which is being followed throughout the world is the use of biomass and
biofuels to replace fossil fuels in combustion processes. EMB encourages industrial plants to
investigate and where appropriate use biomass or biofuels in combustion processes as long as
specific emissions associated with the combustion of these fuels such as particulate matter are
adequately controlled.
Biomass is defined as any organic matter that is available on a renewable or recurring basis
(excluding old growth timber), including dedicated energy crops and trees, agricultural food and
feed crop residues, aquatic plants, wood and wood residues, and other waste materials.
Bioenergy means biomass used in the production of energy – electricity; liquid, solid and gaseous
fuels; and heat.
Biofuel is defined as any fuel that is derived from biomass — recently living organisms or their
metabolic byproducts, such as manure from cows. It is a renewable energy source and includes
oils, fats and greases (landfill gas and digester gas from wastewater treatment).

Biomass can be used for the production of electricity, heat, or both. Biomass fuels include:
 Wood residues – from the sawmill industry, plantations and powerline trimmings;
 Energy crops – crops that may be grown for energy, other than bioliquid crops, including
short rotation woody crops and grasses;
 Crop wastes – waste material (straw) from existing crops;
 Bagasse – sugar cane residue from processing cane into sugar;
 Landfill gas – gases emanating from landfill/waste dumps;
 Municipal wastewater – gas derived from the treatment of human waste; and
 Food and agriculture byproducts– this includes the fats and oil byproducts as a result of
processing plants and animals by these industries
Bioenergy can be utilised by two methods:
 Direct combustion – of solids or biomass-derived gases, including cogeneration with coal
or peat, which includes the use of circulating fluidized bed boilers
 Gasification – converting biomass to combustible gases that may be used in a burner, a gas
turbine or an internal combustion engine.
As the use of biofuels/biomass is, apart from the use of bagasse and wood residues in boilers, a
developing technology world wide, EMB wants industry to consider the use of biomass fuels as
one of the options available to industry in terms of ‗best practice‘ to help in the reduction of
industrial emissions, and reduce the reliance on fossil based fuels.
4.4 Control of NOx
4.4.1 Low NOx Burners

For a number of larger fuel burning equipment above 20 MW, oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions
can be reduced by the installation of low NOx burners. This practice is commonly applied in
Europe to processes such as cement kilns, large boilers, and thermal power stations.
Low NOx burners are designed to control fuel and air mixing at each burner in order to create
larger and more branched flames. Peak flame temperature is thereby reduced, and results in less
NOx formation. The improved flame structure also reduces the amount of oxygen available in the
hottest part of the flame thus improving burner efficiency. Combustion, reduction and burnout are
achieved in three stages within a conventional low NOx burner. In the initial stage, combustion
occurs in a fuel rich, oxygen deficient zone where the NOx are formed. A reducing atmosphere
follows where hydrocarbons are formed which react with the already formed NOx. In the third
stage internal air staging completes the combustion but may result in additional NOx formation.
This however can be minimised by completing the combustion in an air lean environment.
Low NOx burners can be combined with other primary measures such as overfire air, reburning or
flue gas recirculation. Plant experience shows that the combination of low NOx burners with other
primary measures is achieving up to 74% NOx removal efficiency. A large number of low NOx
burners have been developed and are currently used in over 370 coal-fired units (125 GWe).
Nevertheless, developmental work continues to enhance the design, and improve the performance
of existing burners and engineer and develop new and advanced low NOx burners.
4.4.2 Flue gas recirculation for NOx control
Flue gas recirculation for NOx control includes gas recirculation into the furnace or into the
burner. In this technology 20-30% of the flue gas (at 350-400°C) is re-circulated and mixed with
the combustion air. The resulting dilution in the flame decreases the temperature and availability
of oxygen therefore reducing thermal NOx formation. When flue gas recirculation into the burner

is used in low NOx burners, the flue gas is usually re-circulated subject to the operational
constraints of flame stability and impingement, as well as boiler vibration. Flue gas recirculation in
combination with other primary measures for NOx control is installed at 49 pulverised coal-fired
units on a total capacity of >15 GWe.
Retrofitting an existing coal-fired unit with flue gas recirculation involves installation of a system
to extract the flue gas from the boiler unit, additional ductwork and a fan, and a fly ash collecting
device. The fly ash control device is necessary in order to clean the flue gas of particulate matter
prior to recirculation. Heat distribution in the furnace may be affected due to the increase in
throughput. Excessive flue gas recirculation can also result in flame instability problems and
increased steam temperatures.
Flue gas recirculation alone in coal-fired boilers achieves a low NOx reduction efficiency (< 20%).
This is because the ratio of thermal NOx to total NOx emissions is relatively low in coal-fired
plants. The technique is being used on coal-fired units in combination with other primary measures
for NOx control.
NOx is one of the precursors of photochemical smog, and technologies to reduce NOx are
regarded as ‗best practice‘. EMB may place conditions on establishments requiring them to install
technologies to lower their NOx emissions.

5 OPERATION AND MANAGEMENT PLANS
5.1 Introduction
Section 3 of these Guidelines covered the selection of air pollution control devices and their
operating performance criteria. This section provides guidance on how to develop an
environmental management framework under the CAA regulatory regime to ensure that installed
air pollution control devices are operated in accordance with manufacturer's instructions and well
maintained, and their performance is adequately monitored to ensure that they are operating
correctly. EMB‘s EIS and enhanced permitting systems should require significant or priority
industries to develop and implement Operation and Management Plans to achieve improved
environmental outcomes.
As part of a total environmental management system for an industrial undertaking there is a need
to develop an Operation and Management Plan and procedures to ensure that the emissions to air
remain at the levels for which the permit was granted, or which were assessed in the
Environmental Impact Statement. The Operation and Management Plan should contain procedures
and instructions developed specifically for each site in order to ensure that emission control
devices installed at the site are adequately maintained, and monitored so that they are operating
correctly. It should also contain Contingency Plans designed to manage failures of the installed
controlled devices and to reduce the impacts from these failures. The preparation of Contingency
Plans and what should be contained in them is covered in Section 6.
The Operation and Management Plan should be tailored to fit the size and scale of the industrial
activity, taking into account the level of impact from its emissions to air. EMB can set permit
conditions requiring the site to develop an Operation and Management Plan (OMP) and to operate
in accordance with the parameters set out in the Plan, in particular in relation to maintenance,
inspection and monitoring of air pollution control devices.
An OMP is a means of setting out what can be regarded as good process management and
housekeeping practices at the facility in relation to the operation and management of air pollution
control equipment. It also provides a basis for auditing in terms of its environmental management
performance. The OMP is just one of the controlled documents in a facility‘s environmental
management system.
5.2 Contents of Operations and Management Plan

A range of operation and management requirements for specific air pollution control devices is
provided in the following sections. This information can be used in the development of an
establishment‘s Operation and Management Plan (OMP). EMB may require a permit applicant or
permit holder to develop and implement an OMP.
An OMP will usually contain the following sections:
1) Introduction
This should set out the intent of the OMP and describe the regulatory requirements set by the IRR
or the permit that the site must meet. This may include emission limits, testing and monitoring
requirements, reporting requirements, etc.
2) Process Description
This section should briefly describe the processes at the site and the air pollution control devices or
systems fitted.
3) Operation and Management Procedures
This section should set out for each air pollution control unit installed details of:

 Its proper and effective operation, including its expected emission control performance or
efficiency;
 The daily or continuous monitoring of the unit and the relevant monitoring systems (e.g.
meters, alarms) that will be used to ensure it is operating correctly;
 The regular or periodic inspections that are required to ensure the unit continues to operate
efficiently; and
 The ongoing maintenance requirements for the unit.
4) Contingency Plans
This should describe the procedures that will be followed for each emission control device
installed at the site to ensure, in the event of breakdown or failure of the control devices, that the
air discharges and resulting impacts are minimised. The procedures should establish how the
process connected to the failed air pollution control unit should be shutdown. The development of
this Plan should be based on a risk assessment exercise (as outlined below in Section 6), and
incorporate the resulting risk management measures in the Contingency Plan.
5) Complaint Records
This section sets out how any complaints received from the public by the permitted establishment
are recorded and investigated, and how the results of the investigation will be documented.
The Importance of Corrective Action Arising from the OMP

The following parts of Section 5 contain details of operating, inspection/maintenance and
monitoring procedures, and the performance indicators to be monitored, for the range of air
pollution devices described in Section 3. These procedures and performance indicators should be
incorporated in the relevant OMPs.
For an OMP to operate successfully the facility must make a commitment to take timely corrective
action during periods of excursion, where the indicators are out of range for the devices being
regularly monitored in accordance with the requirements set out in the OMP. This commitment to
take the necessary corrective action should be documented in the OMP, and followed throughout
the operating life of the permitted facility.
A corrective action may include an investigation of the reason for the excursion, evaluation of the
situation and necessary follow-up action to return operational performance within the indicator
range.
Many of these indicators are operating parameters for the processes or devices that generate or
control emissions (e.g. temperature, pressure drop, pH), rather than the emissions themselves. So
an excursion beyond specified limits does not necessarily mean an exceedance of emission
standards or limits. But it does indicate a need to take corrective action so that any exceedance that
might be occurring can be rectified.
If the corrective measures taken fail to return an indicator to the appropriate level or range, the
facility should conduct source testing to assess compliance with applicable requirements. If the test
demonstrates non-compliance with emission limits, then the facility should report the exceedance
to EMB, and discuss what additional actions should be taken to bring the source into compliance.
5.3 Bag Filter Unit

Key OMP requirements include:
 Inspect annually all components that are not subject to wear or plugging, including
structural components, housing, ducts and hoods. Maintain a written record of the
inspection and any action resulting from the inspection.

 Inspect quarterly all components that are subject to wear or plugging. Maintain a written
record of the inspection and any action resulting from the inspection.
 Check differential pressure through the control device once per week. Verify that it is
within acceptable range. Record the results.
 Check visible emissions from the unit once per week. If visible emissions exist, inspect
devices for evidence of malfunction, including broken bags. Record the results of the
inspection and any corrective action taken.
 Calibrate mercury pressure switch annually and maintain a written record of the calibration
and any action resulting from the calibration. Maintain pressure switch alarms with both
horn and light in the control room if pressure loss to the bag puffer is detected.
Set out below are the recommended maintenance and monitoring requirements for bag filtration
units operated at a site.
Daily Maintenance
1) Check pressure drop (cite manufacturer maximum pressure drop and normal operating range).
2) Monitor gas flow rate.
3) Observe stack outlet visually or with a continuous monitor, during material handling.
4) Monitor cleaning cycle; pilot lights or meters on control panel.
5) Check compressed air on pulse jet bag filter units.
6) Monitor discharge system; make sure dust is removed as needed.
7) Walk through bag filter unit to check for normal or abnormal visual and audible conditions.
Weekly Maintenance
1) Check all moving parts on the discharge system; screw-conveyor bearings.
2) Check damper operation; bypass, isolation, etc.
3) Spot check bag tensioning; reverse air and shake bags.
4) Check compressed air lines including oilers and filters.
5) Blow out manometer lines.
6) Verify temperature-indicating equipment.
7) Check bag-cleaning sequence to see that all valves are seating properly.
8) Check the drive components on fan.
Monthly Maintenance
1) Spot check bag-seating condition.
2) Check all moving parts on shaker bag filter units.
3) Check fan for corrosion and blade wear.
4) Check all hoses and clamps.
5) Spot check for bag leaks and holes.
6) Inspect bag filter units housing for corrosion.
Quarterly Maintenance
1) Thoroughly inspect bags.
2) Check duct for dust build-up.
3) Observe damper valves for proper seating.
4) Check gaskets on all doors.
5) Inspect paint on bag filter unit.
6) Calibrate opacity monitor or particulate monitor if one is fitted.
7) Inspect baffle plate for wear.

Annual Maintenance
1) Check all welds and bolts.
2) Check hopper for wear.
3) Replace high-wear parts on cleaning system.
5.3.1 Routine Monitoring
General
Periodic monitoring is not required during periods of time greater than one day in which the source
does not operate.
Weekly
1) The exit of the bag filter unit shall be checked for visible emissions on a daily basis to ensure no
visible emissions during the material handling operation of the unit. If visible emissions are
observed action will be taken as soon as possible, but in no later than eight (8) hours, to investigate
the cause and to rectify. If weather conditions prevent the observer from conducting an opacity
observation, the observer shall note such conditions on the data observation sheet. At least three
attempts shall be made to retake opacity readings at approximately 2 hour intervals throughout the
day. If unsuccessful that day due to weather, an observation shall be made the following day.
2) Check and document the bag filter unit pressure drop on a per shift basis (e.g. 2 shifts per day -
two checks of the pressure drop). If the pressure drop falls out of the normal operating range
specified by the manufacturer, corrective action will be taken within 8 hours to return the pressure
drop to normal.
3) Maintain a written record of the observation and any action resulting from the inspection.
4) For large bag filter units or where the exit of the bag filter unit cannot be easily observed
continuous particulate monitoring devices such as the Triboflow will need to be installed. The
units should be fitted with high and high/high alarms to alert the operator of a higher than normal
release of particulate matter. The readout should be recorded once per shift.
Monthly
1) Check the cleaning sequence of the bag filter unit. For pulse jet bag filters - check the air delivery
system.
2) Check the hopper functions and performance. If leaks or abnormal conditions are detected the
appropriate measures for remediation will be implemented within eight (8) hours.
3) Maintain a written record of the inspection and any action resulting from the inspection.
Quarterly
1) Thoroughly inspect bags for leaks and wear. (Look for obvious holes or tears in the bags.) If leaks
or abnormal conditions are detected the appropriate measures for remediation will be implemented
within eight (8) hours. Bag replacement should be documented by identifying the date, time and
location of the bag in relationship to the other bags. The location should be identified on an
overhead drawing of the bag layout in the bag filter unit.
Six-Monthly
1) Inspect every 6 months all components that are not subject to wear or plugging, including
structural components, housing, ducts and hoods. If leaks or abnormal conditions are detected the
Record Keeping and Reporting
Maintenance and inspection records will be kept for five years and made available upon request.

Quality Control
The filter devices will be operated and maintained according to the manufacturers‘
recommendations. An adequate inventory of spare parts shall be kept.
5.4 Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP)

Set out in this section is the recommended practices for operating, maintaining and monitoring an
Electrostatic Precipitator.
5.4.1 Operating Procedures
Operating procedures will vary depending on the site processes undertaken and the operating
requirements for the site. Actions that should be covered in setting out operating procedures should
be developed in accordance with the manufacturers instructions and should include the following
actions.
Start-Up Practices
The following ESP start-up procedures shall be used during plant re-start activities:
1) When preparing for start-up, assure that all tools and safety devices (including lock out/tag out)
have been removed from or taken off of the controls of the ESP. The plant superintendent or his
designated representative shall be responsible for final inspection of the ESP to determine that the
unit is ready for start-up.
2) During the final pre-start-up inspection, the inspector shall ensure that the ESP has been properly
closed up and the keys for the interlock system have been returned to their appropriate locations.
3) Conduct an air load test for each T-R set and if possible, for each bus section. This activity is used
to determine that maintenance has been completed, all foreign matter has been removed and the
ESP is ready for operation.
4) If the insulator heaters have been inspected during the shut-down, make sure that they have been
turned back on at least 2 - 12 hours prior to ESP start-up. Purge air systems will also be activated
at this time. Be aware of the potential for particulates to pass through the system and be emitted to
the atmosphere when the purge air is activated.
5) The rapping system will be in operation during start-up to remove any settled dust.
6) Energize the ESP according to procedures established during previous plant turnarounds.
Shutdown Practices
Except in the instance of an emergency shutdown, this process should be essentially the reverse of the
start-up procedure.
1) Deenergization usually begins at the inlet fields and progresses toward the outlet. At the point that
the boiler is off-line, the fields (T-R sets) should be deenergized. This should be done sequentially
toward the ESP outlet and as quickly as possible to prevent unnecessary sparking, condensation or
insulator build-up.
2) The rappers should be allowed to operate for several hours to remove residual dust.
Routine Operations
Daily operating requirements include parameter monitoring and record keeping (hourly recording
of voltage and amp levels during ESP operations), preventative maintenance, evaluation of
applicable data for malfunctions and response to any malfunctions. The appropriate corrective
measures for remediation will be implemented within a specified time period (maximum eight (8)
hours) plus the period of time required to shutdown the process without damaging the process
equipment or control devices. In some instances immediate shut down of the processing equipment
will be required

5.4.2 Preventative Maintenance
Daily Inspection and Maintenance
This activity will be a follow up to the hourly recording of voltage and amp levels at the ESP and
observation of other relevant operating data. A review of several of the hourly data sets will give
the inspector an indication of any abnormal conditions. If the operating voltages or amperages of
any of the ESP fields show considerable variation, the inspection should focus on identifying a
cause for reading fluctuations.
The following items will be checked during a routine daily inspection:
1) Operation of the dust discharge system: All conveyors, airlocks, valves and other associated
equipment should be operating so that ash removal is continuous.
2) Vacuum system: Check vacuum gauges. This gauge will be used as a reference during ash and
dust removal with the ash equipment system (ash removal occurs 3 times per day).
3) Check indicator lights on the hopper level alarm system.
4) Check hopper access doors for air leaks or dust discharge.
5) If possible, check the operation of each rapper.
6) Check for air leaks around the ESP.
7) Check for sparking or arcing in the T-R high voltage bus duct and localized sparking (usually
reflected by T-R readings).
Weekly Inspection and Maintenance
Begin this activity with a review of the daily and/or shift inspection data. Any apparent adverse
trends in operating parameters need to be noted and a determination made as to whether or not an
operating procedure needs changing or maintenance/repair is necessary. This review will also
confirm that all requested or required maintenance has been completed or scheduled. Weekly
operating data will be checked and compared to normal/baseline values. Physical inspection of the
ESP will include:
1) Check, clean or replace T-R cabinet air filters. Also check circuit boards and heat sinks for dust
build-up and clean if necessary.
2) A thorough check of rapper operation will be conducted. Each rapper or rapper system should
activate. Those that do not will need to be scheduled for repair or replacement.
3) Changes in rapper operating parameters can be made at this time. All new settings need to be
recorded and special attention paid to performance during the following week.
4) Check the operating temperature and oil level in the high voltage transformer.
5) Check insulator purge air and heating systems. Clean or replace air filters as necessary.
6) Check insulator pressurization and heating system in negative pressure systems.
7) Check all access hatches for air leaks, make sure that the hatch door is fully closed and locked.
Inspect the door gasket for cracks or tears.
Semi-Annual Inspection and Maintenance
During the semi-annual inspection quarterly and annual inspection activities will be conducted.
1) Before anyone enters the ESP, conduct an air load check of each field. This data will be compared
with the post maintenance air load check to assure that proper maintenance has been performed.
2) Clean control cabinets for rappers and T-R sets. Check the gaskets on the rapper control cabinet
for cracks and tears. Clean all switch contacts in the rapper control cabinet.
3) Check and clean all T-R sets. All contacts will be removed, cleaned and adjusted. After
replacement all electrical connections will be checked for proper tightness.

4) Check and clean high voltage lines, bushings and insulators. Check and replace surge arrestors as
necessary. Check the high voltage bus duct for dust build up and corrosion. Check and replace bus
duct insulators as necessary. Check and tighten high voltage bus duct connections. Clean and
adjust transformer switch gear.
5) Check all rappers for proper operation. Check the rapper rod connections (anvils) for loose, broken
or bent connections. Check anvils for proper lift, energy transfer and striking. Adjust pneumatic
systems and vibrators to assure a proper amount of rapping energy is applied to the collection or
discharge system.
6) Empty the ash hopper and remove any residual build-up of ash on internal parts. Check and repair
all level detectors. Check, clean and repair dust discharge valves.
7) Check and calibrate ESP instrumentation, including all voltage and current meters. The
transmissometer will also be cleaned and realigned.
8) Conduct an interior inspection of the ESP during the initial walk through, check the collection and
discharge electrode system. Look for the presence of ash build-up. Generally there will be 1/8 to
1/4 inch of material build-up.
9) Check the alignment of the wires and plates. Any bowing or skewing of their alignment will need
correction. This check must be conducted for each lane of each field within the ESP.
10) If a short circuit has been detected in a field, check for a broken wire. The broken wire will be
removed or replaced as necessary.
11) Check the upper and lower discharge guide frame assembly for alignment so that equal spacing is
maintained. Spacing should be equal from top to the bottom of the plate and from the leading edge
to the trailing edge of the plates. The frames should be level in both parallel and perpendicular
planes to the gas flow.
12) Check and clean all insulators while looking for insulator tracking. Be sure to include the inside of
the large support bushing insulators at the top of the ESP and the discharge rapper insulators. Any
insulators that are broken, chipped, cracked, or glaze damaged will be removed and replaced.
13) General maintenance items can include: Checks of door gaskets for proper seal, check the inlet and
outlet system including duct work for plugging and dust build-up, inspect expansion joint seals for
integrity, lubrication of door hinges and closure mechanisms, cleaning and lubrication of key
interlocks, check all ground connections, sampling and testing of transformer oil for dielectric
strength.
5.4.3 Monitoring
Continuous monitoring of the performance of the ESP is required and this monitoring should
include:
1) The voltage and amps at each T-R set being recorded hourly during ESP operation.
2) Continuous particulate monitoring takes place via a stack continuous emissions monitoring system
(CEMS). Data from this CEMS is produced as a rolling 10 minute average, a one hour average and
a 24 hour average.
3) Calibration of the CEMS will need to be recorded (frequency and results).
4) A report will be prepared every three months and submitted to EMB.
5.5 Cyclones and Multi-cyclones

Set out in this section is the recommended practices for inspecting and monitoring cyclones and
multi-cyclones. Due to their construction maintenance requirements are not as critical as for ESP
and bag filter units. However, cyclones and multi-cyclones should be included in the plants annual
maintenance schedule.

5.5.1 Performance Monitoring
General
1) Periodic Monitoring is not required during periods of time greater than one day in which the
source does not operate.
2) The facility will maintain a written record of the observation, deficiencies, and any action resulting
from the inspections.
3) Verify the rated gas flow rate for the cyclone and the actual gas flow rate for the system.
4) Rated gas flow rate for the cyclone.
5) System gas flow range.
Daily
1) Visible emissions shall be observed on a daily basis to ensure no visible emissions during the
material handling operation of the unit. If visible emissions are observed and corrective action will
be taken as soon as possible, but no later than 8 hour after the occurrence. If weather conditions
prevent the observer from conducting an observation, the observer shall note such conditions on
the data observation sheet. At least three attempts shall be made to retake the visual assessment at
approximately 2 hour intervals throughout the day. If unsuccessful that day due to weather, an
observation shall be made the following day.
2) Maintain a written record of the observation and any action resulting from the inspection.
3) The facility will record the daily pressure drops across the cyclone.
4) Corrective action measures will be taken when the pressure drop deviates from its normal
operating range. The normal operating ranges is (Select one):
5) Low Efficiency cyclones: 2 - 4 inches of water
6) Medium Efficiency cyclones: 4 - 6 inches of water
7) High Efficiency cyclones: 8 - 10 inches of water
8) Other (list your own range).
Weekly
1) Inspect the solids discharge valve for proper operation.
2) Valve Type (Select one):
– Manual Slide (list operating schedule for removal of solids from collecting tube)
– Rotary Valve
– Screw Feeder
– Double Flap
– Other (indicate what type)
3) The facility will maintain a written record of the observation, deficiencies, and any action resulting
from the inspection.
4) If leaks or abnormal conditions are detected the appropriate measures for remediation will be
implemented within eight (8) hours.
Quarterly
1) Inspect the structural components including the cyclone ductwork and hoods for leaks or
component failure.
2) The facility will maintain a written record of the observations, deficiencies, and any action
resulting from the inspection.
implemented within eight (8) hours.
Annually
1) Inspect the hopper unloading components.
2) Check for leaks in the system to ensure the airflow from the dirty side doesn‘t infiltrate the clean
side. Verify that the inlet and outlet ductwork is in good operating condition.

3) Check the barrel and collecting tube for deposits and/or excess wear and clean/repair as needed.
Dents in the barrel or collecting tube must be removed to ensure proper operation.
4) Clean cyclone inlet vanes (ramps or spinners) and ensure they operate according to manufacture
specifications.
5) The facility will maintain a written record of the observations, deficiencies, and any action
resulting from the inspection.
implemented before the system is returned to service.
Record Keeping and Reporting
1) The facility will maintain a written or electronic record of all inspections and any action resulting
from the inspections.
2) The facility will keep maintenance and inspection records for five (5) years and will be available
upon request.
Quality Control
All instruments and control devices will be calibrated, maintained, and operated according to the
manufacture specifications.
5.6 Venturi Particulate Scrubber

Set out in this section are the recommended practices for inspecting and monitoring venturi
particulate scrubbers.
General
Periodic monitoring is not required during periods of time greater than one day in which the source
does not operate.
Daily
1) Visible emissions shall be observed on a daily basis to ensure no visible emissions during the
material handling operation of the unit. If visible emissions are observed, corrective actions will be
taken as soon as possible, but no later than 8 hours. If weather conditions prevent the observer
from conducting an observation, the observer shall note such conditions on the data observation
sheet. At least three attempts shall be made to retake readings at approximately 2 hour intervals
throughout the day. If unsuccessful that day due to weather, an observation shall be made the
following day.
2) Check and document the pressure drop across the scrubber. If the pressure drop falls out of the
normal operating range, to be specified by the facility, corrective action will be taken within 8
hours to return the pressure drop to normal.
3) Conduct observations of the stack and areas adjacent to the stack to determine if droplet re-
entrainment is occurring from an improperly operating mist eliminator. The signs of droplet re-
entrainment may include fallout of solid-containing droplets, discoloration of the stack and
adjacent surfaces, or a mud lip around the stack. If droplet re-entrainment is occurring, the
Weekly
Check liquid pressure gauges on supply headers to the scrubber to monitor for problems such as
nozzle pluggage, header pluggage, and nozzle erosion. Pluggage problems are indicated by higher
than normal pressures and erosion problems are indicated by less than normal pressures. If the
liquid pressure is out of the normal operating range, to be specified by the facility, corrective
action will be taken within eight (8) hours to return the pressure to normal.

Quarterly
Conduct a walk-around inspection of the entire system to search for leaks. If leaks in the system
are detected, the appropriate measures for remediation will be implemented within eight (8) hours.
Semi-Annually
Conduct an internal inspection of the scrubber to search for signs of erosion, corrosion, or solids
deposits in ductwork, spray nozzles, and adjustable throat dampers. If any of these conditions exist
the appropriate measures for remediation will be implemented within eight (8) hours.
Record-Keeping
1) Maintain a record of all inspections and any action resulting from the inspection.
2) Maintenance and inspection records will be kept for five (5) years and made available upon
request.
Quality Control
manufacturers‘ specifications.
5.7 Biofilter
Set out in this section are the recommended practices for inspecting, maintaining and monitoring
biofilter.
Set out below are the parameters are to be monitored and recorded, and records retained for
sufficient time to provide a good historical record of biofilter operation.
5.7.1 Monitoring and Maintenance
Daily
1) Biofilter Inlet Gas Temperature. The temperature of inlet gases should not exceed 50C at any
time, and preferably should be maintained at 20 - 40C. Inlet gas temperatures shall be recorded at
least once every shift and logged.
2) Biofilter Static Pressure. The static pressure (back pressure) of the biofilters determined in the inlet
duct, and whether or not significant rain fall occurred within about two hours or is occurring, to be
recorded at least once every day that processing is being carried out and logged.
3) Static pressure should not, under normal moisture conditions (four hours after significant rainfall),
exceed 100 mm water gauge (wg). High static pressure with normal media moisture indicates
excessive compaction of the media, excessive breakdown of media (excessive fines), blocked gas
distribution laterals, or blocked drainage system (water build-up in the distribution system and in
the lower section of the media). If media compaction is excessive rotary hoe the bed as deep as
practicable. If excessive fines are the cause then the media requires replacement. Excessive build-
up of biological growth in the distribution laterals can be removed by water blasting, rodding, etc
via the laterals end caps and from the header. Blocked drainage invariably results from excessive
sediment in the sediment trap/trap inlet pipe. Clean out accordingly.
4) If static pressure is less than 20 mm wg this suggests insufficient media moisture; significant
tracking (short-circuiting of gas through fissures in the media or through the media/wall interface -
generally through low media moisture causing shrinkage of media); or inspection covers, manhole
covers, and ducting end caps being dislodged. Low media moisture can be rectified by turning on
media sprinklers for 2 - 3 hours per day until media moisture increases to within specification.
Dislodged ducting covers and caps must be replaced and sealed as appropriate.
5) Biofilter Media Moisture. Media moisture should be checked daily during dry periods (weekly
during partially dry periods), with observations, and use of sprinkler system, recorded. Media
moisture content should be maintained at about 40 to 60% dry weight basis through its depth. As a
guide to satisfactory moisture content, media, when squeezed in the hand, should feel damp
without significant free water (not soggy). Upper bed moisture content is estimated by scraping a

hole in the media about 400 mm deep (or by coring) in four random locations and assessing
accordingly.
6) Biofilter Inlet Gas Moisture. The relative humidity of inlet air should exceed 95% to prevent media
being de-hydrated during dry weather periods. The water spray system fitted to the fan discharge
transition is operated at all times the ventilation fan is operating. Stop spray when the fan is shut-
down. Record fan/spray on and off.
7) A qualitative assessment of biofilter odour should be made once every operating day by assessing
odour down-wind of each biofilter: odour should consist of a light compost/earthy smell if
detected at all, and should not have a `rendering' and/or a `burnt' smell at or beyond the site's
premises.
Weekly
1) Biofilter Media Moisture. Media moisture should be checked weekly during partially dry periods,
with observations, and use of sprinkler system, recorded. Media moisture content should be
maintained at about 40-60% dry weight basis through its depth. As a guide to satisfactory moisture
content, media, when squeezed in the hand, should feel damp without significant free water (not
soggy). Upper bed moisture content is estimated by scraping a hole in the media about 400mm
deep (or by coring) in four random locations and assessing accordingly.
2) Biofilter Drainage. The biofilter drainage receiver (sediment/water trap) to be kept sufficiently free
of sediment to enable the trap to operate according to design and maintained in a gas-tight
condition and this should be checked weekly.
Monthly
1) Biofilter Inlet Over-Temperature Sensor (Process Biofilter only). This is checked once each month
and recorded.
2) Media Acidity (pH). The pH of the media to be maintained between about 7 and 8 (mean pH
should not be less than 6.5). Media pH should be estimated every month from sampling the liquid
collecting in the biofilter drainage receiver (sediment trap) - pH determined by digital meter or by
indicator strips. (Note: this method only provides a reasonable estimate of media pH if sufficient
(but not excessive) moisture percolates through the bed to provide a representative sample. This
will not be the case if media moisture during dry periods is lower than optimum - any liquid in the
drainage receiver could mainly be condensate and droplets from inlet gas.)
3) Media Appearance and Consistency. As a minimum once each month the appearance and
consistency of the media should be noted and recorded. The media should have a friable
consistency, not be compacted, and not contain excessive fines.
4) The surface of biofilter media is to be maintained in a reasonably level condition, and be kept free
of gross weeds. The media surface should be rotary hoed every four to six months.
5) Media to remain firmly packed against biofilter containment to minimise tracking.
Six Monthly
1) Media Acidity (pH). Every six months media pH to be determined from four samples randomly
spaced and collected through the media depth by coring. The core sample to be divided into four
sections (samples) with approximately 50 g of each section added to beakers, distilled water added
to the top of the bark, and pH of the liquid determined about 30 minutes after water addition. The
sample pH results to be summed and a mean pH then determined.
Excessive acidity may be corrected by `washing-through' the media by heavy rain, or by
continuous use of water sprinklers at a time when the plant is not processing, followed by re-
checking media pH. If `washing-through' is not effective to correct excessive acidity, lime may be
added by top-dressing and rotary hoeing surface followed by watering as necessary.
If mean media pH cannot be corrected to the recommended range media replacement is indicated
but expert advice should be sought if doubt exists.
2) Media Micro-organism content. Micro-organism total viable counts are carried out on a media core
sample every six months. Typical total micro-organism counts should be > 104. A composite

sample of cores should be sent to an appropriate microbiological laboratory for assessment and
reporting, with date of sampling and results recorded and retained for five years.
Media replacement
The media should be routinely replaced every 5 - 7 years or when monitoring indicates the media
condition is poor and needs replacing.
5.8 Packed Tower Chemical Scrubber

This section provides general requirements on the monitoring and maintenance of packed tower
scrubbers. It should be noted that the parameters selected to monitor the condition of the chemical
being used in the scrubber is very dependent on the chemical being used in the scrubber and the
contaminants being treated by the scrubber unit. For further information reference should be made
to the manufacturer‘s instructions and specifications for the unit.
General
1) Periodic Monitoring is not required during periods of time greater than one day in which the
source does not operate.
2) The appropriate measures and/or action plan for remediation, if pressure drop levels are occurring
outside the normal operating range, are:
-Either the control devices causing the problem shall be repaired in an expeditious manner, or
- the process generating the emissions shall be shutdown within a reasonable period of time.
‗An expeditious manner‘ is the time necessary to determine the cause of the problem and to correct it
within a reasonable period of time. A reasonable period of time is eight hours plus the period of time
required to shut down the process without damaging the process equipment or control devices.
Daily
1) Check and document the pressure drop across the scrubber. If the pressure drop falls out of the
normal operating range, to be specified by the manufacturer, corrective action will be taken within
8 hours to return the pressure drop to normal.
2) Conduct observations of the stack and areas adjacent to the stack to determine if droplet re-
entrainment is occurring from an improperly operating mist eliminator. The signs of droplet re-
entrainment may include fallout of solid-containing droplets, discoloration of the stack and
adjacent surfaces, or a mud lip around the stack. If droplet re-entrainment is occurring, the
3) Check the scrubber reagent flow pressure once each shift and record in scrubber log book.
4) Scrubber pH. Automatic dosing system for caustic solution the target pH is 9 - 10. Manual monitor
using a calibrated pH meter at least daily when unit operating and record in log book. Alarms set
should be checked daily.
5) Hydrogen Peroxide Reagent Strength for an Automatic dosing system should be checked.
Minimum hydrogen peroxide concentration is not less than 150ppm v/v. Manual monitoring using
a Pallin Test Photometer at least daily when unit operating and record in log book. Alarms set
should be checked daily.
6) Reagent Tank Levels are monitored at least daily and volumes recorded in log book.
Weekly
Check liquid pressure gauges on supply headers to the scrubber to monitor for problems such as
nozzle pluggage, header pluggage, and nozzle erosion. Pluggage problems are indicated by higher
than normal pressures and erosion problems are indicated by less than normal pressures. If the
liquid pressure is out of the normal operating range, to be specified by the manufacturer, corrective
action will be taken within eight (8) hours to return the pressure to normal.

Quarterly
Conduct a walk-around inspection of the entire system to search for leaks. If leaks in the system
are detected, the appropriate measures for remediation will be implemented within eight (8) hours.
Semi-annually
Conduct an internal inspection of the scrubber to search for signs of:
 Corrosion and erosion
 Solids deposits in packed beds or tray orifices
 Solids accumulation in mist eliminators
 Plugged or eroded spray nozzles
If any of these conditions exist the appropriate measures for remediation will be implemented
within eight (8) hours.
Also check internal condition of the reagent tanks, looking in particular for signs of corrosion.
Record Keeping
1) Maintain a record of all inspections and any action resulting from the inspection.
2) Keep maintenance and inspection records.
Quality Control
manufactures specifications.

6 CONTINGENCY PLANNING
Some industrial processes have the potential to emit contaminants in quantities which can have
serious environmental impacts if the plant or air pollution control devices fail. These failures may
develop over time, or may result from a serious failure of a process or discharge control. For
processes where such releases are possible, some minimum level of process and equipment
monitoring is required to warn of the potential for, or existence of, an accidental release. This does
not prevent the permit holder from installing more sophisticated monitoring equipment than that
required by EMB. However, in the event of air pollution control device failure, the management of
the plant needs to have put in place procedures (Contingency Plans) for managing the situation.
Contingency Plans for air pollution control device failure provide procedures as what to do in the
event of a failure. In most circumstances total failure of air pollution control devices on a process
will require that the process be shut down, but in an orderly manner.
Operators of air pollution control devices need to be trained in the procedures contained in the
Contingency Plans and on how to shut the processes they are operating down in the event of a
major failure of the installed air pollution control devices.
6.1 Contents of a Contingency Plan
A contingency plan should be developed for each type of air pollution control devices installed at
the site. The Plan should:
 Be based on an environmental risk assessment. This should identify likely modes of
failure and the level of impact risk for these failure scenarios for that process and air
pollution control device. This includes the likelihood of the failure mode to occur, the
consequence of the discharge (size of the release, duration, pollutants contained in the
release and the area affected), and identification of who would be affected (on-site and off-
site) by the release by these failures. This risk assessment process allows the relative risk
of the failure of each piece of air pollution control devices to be assessed, and compared to
each other. It also allows the requirements Contingency Plans to reflect the relative level of
risk posed by each failure scenario. A typical qualitative risk assessment that can be used
to evaluate the level of risk for different failures of emission control equipment at a site is
provided in Appendix B. The scenarios can be grouped into those only have on-site
consequences and those having both on-site and off-site consequences.
 For off-site consequences, contain a contact list of sites and personnel that could be
affected, and in some instances may need to be evacuated from there premises.
 Develop a set of procedures that sets out the actions that must be followed in the event of
the failure of a specific piece of air pollution control devices. They usually include the
following steps:
1) Identify the scale and level of failure;
2) Advise supervisor of the failure;
3) Decide whether the failure requires to process to be shutdown or that the fault can be
fixed without having to shut the plant down;
4) Implement actions to close process/plant and if a major failure;
5) Decide in consultation with supervisor whether off-site consequences will occur and
whether evacuation is required; and
6) Complete all actions.
 Assign the responsibilities and actions of key personnel who will implement the
Contingency Plan in respect to the investigating the cause of failure and the scale of the
failure, and whether shutting down the process and control devices is appropriate action.

 Once the failure and immediate effects have been managed, define procedures/steps to
follow to conduct an investigation into the failure and to put into place corrective actions to
prevent future failures. As part of this investigation the effective of the Contingency Plan
should also be assessed and recommendations for changes to it made.
 Define the frequency of tests for seeing that the Contingency Plan will be followed in the
event of a failure, and also the frequency that the Contingency Plan should be reviewed for
its appropriateness and ensured that it is up to date.
For a number of the air pollution control devices described in Section 3 of the guidelines, the
Contingency Plans will be relatively simple and, if the devices failed, would result in the process
being shutdown if the problem can not be rectified within 5 – 10 minutes.
A Contingency Plan can also address wider emergency response issues, such as evacuation
procedures in the event of a major incident. Some examples of evacuation procedures for a
Contingency Plan are presented in Appendix C.

7 COMPLAINTS
All site that hold a Permit to Operate should as a condition of the permit be required to maintain a
Complaints Register. The complaints register should record all complaints that the plant receives
from the public in relation to their operations and in particular their emissions to air.
The Complaints Register should record the following:
1) Name and contact details of complainant (or enquirer)
2) Date and time of receipt of the complaint (or enquiry)
3) Name and designation of the person who received the complaint
4) Details of the complaint
a description of the pollution incident, event or subject matter
the place, time and duration of the incident or event
the alleged or suspected source of the pollution
the weather conditions at the time of the incident or event
the complainant‘s assessment of the seriousness of the incident or event
any other pertinent comments or information provided by the complainant
5) Results of the facility‘s investigations of the incident or event
6) Mitigation actions or measures (if any) adopted
7) Advice to complainant of the outcome (date & time advised)
8) Advice to EMB of the outcome (date & time advised)
The Complaints Register is to be retained as a part of facility operational log and should be made
available to EMB inspectors who visit the site.

8 REFERENCES
1) Auckland Regional Council, Performance Criteria for Air Pollution Control Equipment, August
2000, a report prepared by Sinclair Knight Merz Limited.
2) Auckland Regional Council, Assessing Risk from Potential Air Discharges Following Industrial
Incidents, A Discussion, June 2000, a report prepared by Sinclair Knight Merz Limited.
3) Auckland Regional Council, Technical Publication 152, Assessing Discharges of Contaminants
into Air (Draft), April 2002
4) Brenman B. M., Donlan M. and Bolton E., 1996, Peat Biofiltration as an Odour Control
Technology for Sulphur Based Compounds J.CIMEM, June 1996.
5) Buonicore A. J. and Davis W. T., 1992, Air Pollution Engineering Manual AWMA, Van Nostrand
Rienhold, New York.
6) USEPA, 1996, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors AP-42 Fifth Edition, Volume 1:
Stationary and Point Sources. http//www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/
7) USEPA, 1998. U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Stationary Source
Control Techniques Document for Fine Particulate Matter, EPA-452/R-97-001, Research Triangle
Park, NC., October.
8) USEPA, CACT, 1998 Clean Air Technology Centre, Technology Fact Sheets.
http//www.epa.gov/ttn/catc/
9) World Bank - Low NOx Burners.htm.

Appendix A Example of Air Pollution Control
Inspection Checklist

Air Pollution Control Field Inspection Checklist
1. Company Name:
2 Permit number(s)
3. Site Address:
4 Pollution Control Officer‘s Name:
5 Name and Designation of EMB Officer:
6 Date of Site Inspection:
Air Discharges
yn Industry complies with all current permit emission discharge conditions – if n, generate a
report details and consider enforcement action
yn All discharge sources are included in the permit? - if n, report details, draft new conditions
and amend permit
yn Industry has changed processes/operations/pollution control equipment at the site since the
last inspection? - if y require written report from permit holder and amend permit and
consider enforcement action
yn Are there odours, solid particulates, liquid droplets or mist detectable off-site? - if y report
details and amend permit
yn Are the permit monitoring conditions adequate in terms of the parameters and testing
frequency? - if n report details and amend permit
yn Is the emission control equipment installed at the site effective in controlling emissions? - if
n report details and amend permit
Operation and Management Plan

yn Does the site have an Operation and Management Plan (OMP) to inspect, monitor and
maintain the air pollution control devices installed at the site? - if n report and amend permit
yn Are monitoring records held for each air pollution control device installed at the site? – if n
report and amend permit to include effective OMP conditions
yn Have corrective actions required in the OMP been carried out? - if n report and consider
enforcement action
yn Is maintenance being carried out in accordance with the OMP? – if n report and consider
enforcement action
Contingency Plans
yn Does the industry have an effective Contingency Plan with procedures to manage any
accidental or unexpected releases of emissions? - if n report and amend permit
yn Have there been accidental or unexpected releases to the environment? – if y report details of
causes and action taken/needed and amend Contingency Plan if necessary
Complaints
yn Does the industry have an up to date complaints register? - if n report and amend permit
yn Is the company‘s response to complaints appropriate? – if n report and consider enforcement
action
- 60 - - 60 -
Appendix B Risk Management Principles and
Procedures
B.1 Introduction
The term risk assessment can be confusing, particularly in the context of air pollution assessments.
This document describes a risk-based approach to assessing potential events or incidents in
industrial facilities.
A risk-based approach is a methodology that takes account of the probabilistic nature of
unintended events. Tools that aid the identification of accidental or unexpected events and an
understanding of the potential consequences are also discussed. The probabilistic approach of risk
assessment contrasts with the more recognised assessment methods used for air quality impacts.
These are usually deterministic in nature and do not facilitate the identification of hazards or the
resulting failure combinations or sequences.
In most circumstances, normal or expected air discharges are compared to a specific guideline or
criterion, such as an ambient air quality standard. However, many criteria used in deterministic
assessments have been developed by way of a risk-based approach that includes a probabilistic
element. For example, ambient air concentration limits for many contaminants have been
determined by health risk assessments, which deal with evaluating long-term exposures in relation
to an acceptable likelihood of illness or death.
What is Risk?
The fundamental concept of risk always involves two elements: the frequency or probability with
which a hazardous event may occur, and the consequence of that event. A risk analysis deals with
both elements, while risk assessment is the process used to determine risk management priorities
by comparing the level of risk against predetermined standards or other criteria.
Individual and Societal Risks

It is necessary to define the most appropriate way of measuring risk. In some cases it will be
necessary to investigate and measure the risk posed to an individual or a defined receiving
environment. In other cases the important element may be seen as risk to society or the
environment as a whole. When referring to human safety risk it is normal to define risk in terms if
the individual or society; ―societal risk‖ or ―individual risk‖.
Put simply, societal risk is the likelihood of a disaster. It can be defined as:
―the relationship between frequency and the number of people suffering from a specified level of
harm in a given population from the realisation of specified hazards‖.
Societal risk is difficult to express as a single probability figure as it is necessary to consider the
size of the disaster as well as its probability. In reality there would be a range of possible sizes,
each with a different probability.
Hazard and Hazard Identification

A hazard is a source of risk or potential harm and a hazard identification process -
“involves a systematic review of the system under study to identify the type of inherent hazards
that are present together with the ways in which they could be realised”.
In the context of these guidelines, it may involve a review of what can cause an incident, e.g. the
failure of an air pollution control device. This can involve a range of methods and some of these
are described in later sections. The hazard identification process is without doubt the most

important step of any risk-based study. Risks cannot be assessed or managed if they remain
unknown.
Risk Analysis
As discussed above, risk analysis is the process of determining how often incidents may occur and
the severity of the associated consequences so as to establish the actual, as opposed to the
perceived, level of risk. This process can be carried out using detailed mathematically-based tools
or by a more general process involving the extensive use of judgement-based data. The first
methodology is known as ‗quantitative‘, and the latter ‗qualitative‘. An example of a qualitative
method that can be followed in presented Section B.2.
A quantitative risk analysis provides a measure of risk by using estimates of frequency or
probability of the undesired events that are based upon historical data or calculations based upon
an analysis of failure sequences. This work is then supported by the calculation of the impact of
the consequences.
Quantitative risk analysis can be very demanding and, in practice, there is a potential for a very
large range of accident scenarios. It therefore may not be feasible to undertake a detailed
frequency and consequence analysis for each one. In these circumstances it may be better to rank
the scenarios qualitatively and then concentrate on those events that are assessed as having the
highest risk. Thus, risk estimation techniques provide a useful approach for ensuring the
quantitative effort is focused on events of greatest concern.
Frequency Analysis
A frequency analysis forms part of a risk analysis described above. It involves the quantitative
determination of the likelihood or frequency of events identified at the hazard identification stage.
Consequence Analysis
Consequence analysis involves methods for calculating or estimating the impact of the incident.
This could include a study of the effects of any harm caused such as on people, property or the
environment and must relate the sensitivity of the local environment to the event.
In general terms, consequence analysis determines the effects from fires, projectiles, falling
structures etc. However, in the context of assessing air emissions, the focus is on the consequence
of the release of contaminants to air. A range of tools are available for assessing the consequence
including atmospheric dispersion modelling.
Cumulative Risk
The total risk faced by an individual or society is the sum of all individual risks. Therefore, when
considering the calculated risk from a facility, it is necessary to also consider any existing risks
posed by other nearby facilities. Even when the new facility may present a small risk relative to an
existing one, the total or cumulative risk will still be increased, possibly to a level that may be
deemed intolerable.
Uncertainty
As risk is a function of both probability and what may actually happen in the future, there will
invariably be a level of uncertainty associated with any analysis of risk. This uncertainty relates to
the inability to know exactly how and when events may occur.
The uncertainties may arise in various parts of an assessment, including failure rate estimates,
consequences, or assumptions about human error. In many cases, therefore, quantitative evaluation
criteria may have limited value and more qualitative criteria may be more appropriate. In some
cases the appropriate approach will be to consider the worst case, thereby adding an element of
precaution.
Furthermore, it may be very difficult to derive quantitative criteria for ecological risk. For
example, the environmental values being protected are often not well understood. As a result any
data derived from risk analysis must be interpreted with a full understanding of the associated
uncertainties. Those tasked with risk-based decision making need to be aware of the inherent
uncertainties associated with the information used in making a judgement or decision. Thus any
risk analysis presented as part of an application for a discharge to air, will need to, at the very
least, make comment on the level of uncertainty associated with the critical data.
B.2 Qualitative Risk Analysis Procedure
In order for sites to plan for, and achieve effective management of their discharges to air and the
associated hazards and impacts, a structured risk identification and assessment approach, based on the
qualitative risk assessment methodology of Australian Standard AS/NZS 4360:2003 Risk Management
can be followed. The risk assessment process is a management tool that allows resources to be applied
to control emission sources that pose the highest level of risk.
This risk assessment approach combines (qualitative) estimates of the likelihood of a certain
hazard event or environmental impact occurring, with the consequence of that impact or hazard.
The qualitative rankings of likelihood and consequence used in this assessment are based on those
in AS4360:2003 and are described in Tables B-1 and B-2, respectively.
 Table B-1: Likelihood Descriptor Criteria and Scale
Likelihood
Scale Descriptor Criteria
Descriptor
Almost certain 5 Is expected to occur in most circumstances
Likely 4 Will probably occur in most circumstances
Possible 3 Might occur at some time
Unlikely 2 Could occur at some time
Highly Unlikely 1 May occur only in exceptional circumstances
 Table B-2: Consequence Descriptor Criteria and Scale
Consequence
Scale Descriptor Criteria
Descriptor
 Multiple fatality
Catastrophic 16  Irreversible environmental damage and prosecution
 Financial loss over US $5M
 Single fatality or permanent disability
Major 8  Environmental damage leading to potential prosecution
 Financial loss over US $1M but less than US$5M
 Serious injury or long-term illness
 Non-compliance with licence/agreement conditions or
Significant 4 emission having significant adverse environmental
impact
 Financial loss over US $500,000 but less than US $1M
 Injury requiring medical attention and several days off
work
 Community complaint or emissions having adverse
Moderate 2
offsite environmental impact
 Financial loss over US $250,000 but less than US
$500,000
 First aid needed
 Localised on-site impact such as oil staining over a small
Minor 1
area of the site
 Financial loss less than US $250,000

The potential effects in terms of harm to the environment, on-site personnel or the local
community should be taken into consideration for realistic worst case scenarios for potential
hazard events and exposures. The assessment should be based on current site operations and
management strategies (which may or may not be best practice).
An assessment of the overall risks associated with the hazards is then made based on the perceived
likelihood of a hazard occurring and the potential realistic worst case effects associated with the
hazard. Each hazard has been assigned a qualitative risk ranking based on the Risk Calculation
Matrix shown in Table B-3.
Table B-3: Risk Calculation Matrix
Almost Highly
Likely Possible Unlikely
Certain Unlikely
4 3 2
5 1
Catastrophic
80 64 48 32 16
16
Major
40 32 24 16 8
8
Significant
20 16 12 8 4
4
Moderate
10 8 6 4 2
2
Minor
5 4 3 2 1
1
The numerical risk ranking has been translated into a low, medium to high risk ranking using the
criteria provided in Table B-4.
Table B-4: Risk Ranking
HIGH MEDIUM LOW
20-80 10-16 1-8
The risk rankings, and the degree of management planning or response appropriate to each risk
ranking, are generally:
 H: High risk, senior management attention required
 M: Moderate risk, management responsibility must be specified
 L: Low risk, management by routine procedures.

Appendix C Example of Evacuation Procedures for
a Site Contingency Plan
General Responsibilities
Evacuation provisions are applicable to fires and all other occurrences for which evacuation of
staff from buildings to Assembly Areas (assembly points) is appropriate, such as major plant
failure, fire, etc.
All building emergency exits are labelled with the green sign EXIT.
All personnel should familiarise themselves with the locations of ALL emergency exits from their
work area and the location of their nearest Assembly Area (assembly point).
All Safe Briefing Areas are sign posted ‗Assembly Areas‘ and are allocated a distinct letter for
identification purposes. (These tie up with marked areas on site layout maps.)
Always assemble at the designated Assembly Area closest to your point of work.
Evacuation Procedures
In the event of a fire, major plant failure, explosion, bomb threat or the need to evacuate the plant,
the actions listed below should be followed.
 On the continuous sound of the alarm siren (bells), STOP all activities and vacate the building
or area without delay, by the nearest exit.
 Plant Operators to initiate appropriate Emergency Operating Procedures (EOP), and where
possible, confirm plant is in safe state prior to vacating buildings.
 Move quickly, but do not run.
 Do not return to a work area to collect belongings.
 Keep left in corridors and stairs.
 Do not overtake others along the route.
 Assemble in the designated Assembly Area.
 At Assembly Area report to the responsible Warden.
 Do not enter the building or work area under any circumstances until the all clear is given.
All new staff, as part of their induction into the company, shall be given instructions on the
evacuation procedures for the site.
All visitors and contractors are to be advised of the site‘s Evacuation Procedure and the location of
Assembly Areas when they are admitted to the site.
Specific Responsibilities
Duties of Warden (Fire)

 Study and become familiar with evacuation procedure.
 Turn-off power and gas supplies.
 Check department including toilets, showers, offices, etc to ensure that all personnel are
evacuated from their area/department. DO NOT try to account for individuals; just clear all
personnel from the department or area.
 Ensure all doors are closed but not locked to partitioned areas, strong rooms, and main doors.
Do not turn off lights.
 Advise Control Centre whereabouts of fire, or threat in your area.
 Check all personnel from your area are at the Assembly Area (assembly point).
 Mark Evacuation Control Board at Control Centre that the area of responsibility is clear.
- 65 - - 65 -
Duties of Control Officer
 Report to designated control centre area.
 Await wardens to report.
 Review Evacuation Control Board status.
 Direct personnel accordingly.
 On all clear, issue instructions to return to work.
Assembly Areas (Assembly Points)
Designated Assembly Areas are marked on site layout maps, and are displayed on noticeboards
throughout the site next to the Evacuation Procedure.
For some sites, wind socks are placed throughout the site. Observe the wind direction (sock
direction) during the evacuation. Personnel should assemble at the safe upwind Briefing Areas.
All Clear
Instructions to return to work will be given by the Control Officer.
Control Centre
 The most senior staff member of the shift will be the Control Officer. All Area Wardens will
report to the Control Officer.
 The Evacuation Control Board will be held at the Control Centre.
A flow diagram showing the Evacuation Procedure is presented in Figure 1. This flow diagram can
be placed on notice boards throughout the site next to the site plan showing designated Assembly
Areas.
Regular drills (once every six months) are held to ensure that staff are familiar with the Evacuation
Procedures.
Training
All personnel, visitors and contractors will be trained on how to use the emergency plans set out in
this section.
Emergency procedures will be included in induction training for all new staff and contractors to
the site.

Figure 1 : Evacuation Procedures
In the Event of a Fire or the Need to Evacuate the Plant

the Following Actions Should Be Taken:
When the Alarm Sounds
Plant Operators: All Personnel: Area Wardens:
Plant Operator to Vacate Area Check Area

Initiate EOP By Nearest Emergency Exit Under Your Responsibility
Do Not Re-enter Building Close All Doors

Until Authorised As Area Checked
Assemble at Designated At Safe Briefing Area

Safe Briefing Area Undertake a Roll Call
Mark Details on Evacuation - Area clear

Control Board - No persons missing
Await Further Instructions from Area Do Not Allow Any Person

Warden and Control Officer to Re-enter
- 67 - - 67 -
Appendix D Guidance on Costs of Pollution
Control Equipment
The costs contained in this section are provided for indicative purposes and are sourced
from the US EPA Air Pollution Control Technology Fact Sheets. For full details the
reader should refer to the fact sheet itself. The following costs for the various air pollution
control devices covered below are ranges in US dollars (circa 2002) and are based on
typical operating conditions found in US situations. In some instances an allowance for
duct work, etc has not been included in the estimate of costs.
D1. Filtration Equipment
Shaker Bag Filter

Capital Costs $17,000 to $153,000 per sm3/sec $1,000
to $1,300 per sm3/sec extra for sonic
horns
Operation and Maintenance Costs $9,300 to $51,000 per sm3/sec, annually
Annualised Costs $11,000 to $95,000 sm3/sec, annually
Cost Effectiveness $41 to $334 per tonne, annually
Reverse Air Bag Filter

Capital Costs $19,000 to $180,000 per sm3/sec $1,000
to $1,300 per sm3/sec extra for sonic
horns
Pulse-jet Bag Filter

Capital Costs $13,000 to $55,000 per sm3/sec
Operation and Maintenance Costs $11,00o to $50,000 per sm3/sec, annually
- 68 - - 68 -
Cartridge Collectors
D2. Electrostatic Precipitators
Dry ESP – Wire Pipe Type

Dry ESP – Wire Plate Type

Wet ESP- Wire Pipe Type

D3. Cyclonic Separators
Conventional Cyclones
- 69 - - 69 -
Cost Effectiveness $0.47 to $40 per tonne, annually
D4. Particulate Scrubbers
Spray Chamber - Spray Tower Wet Scrubber

Does not include the costs for used solvent

or
waste disposal.
Packed Bed Spray Tower

Cost Effectiveness $50 to $950 per tonne, annually per tonne

per year of pollutant control
Does not include the costs for used solvent or

waste disposal.
Impingement Plate
Cost Effectiveness $104 to $1,400 per tonne, annually

waste disposal.
Mechanically Aided Scrubber

waste disposal.
Venturi Scrubber

waste disposal.
Orifice Scrubber

waste disposal.
Condensation Scrubber
Capital Costs $13,000 per sm3/sec
Operation and Maintenance Costs $5,300per sm3/sec, annually
Annualised Costs $7,000 sm3/sec, annually
Cost Effectiveness $65 per tonne, annually.

waste disposal.
Fibre-Bed Scrubber
- 71 - - 71 -

waste disposal.
D5. Thermal Oxidation
Thermal Oxidiser
Cost Effectiveness $44 to $3,600 per tonne, annually per

tonne per year of pollutant control
Recuperative Thermal Oxidiser


Catalytic Thermal Oxidiser



Regenerative Thermal Oxidiser

Flare
Capital Costs $37,000 to $4,000,000 per sm3/sec

D6. Chemical Scrubbing
Packed Tower Bed Scrubber

Note: Pollutant is hydrochloric acid and the

scrubbing liquor is caustic soda. Costs do not
include the costs for used solvent or waste
isposal.
- 73 - - 73 -

Guidelines On Air Pollution Control Techniques

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Guidelines on Air

Air Quality Management

2 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNIQUES______________________________ 4

3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS __________________________________________ 7

4 MANAGEMENT OF FUEL BURNING __________________________________ 36

5 OPERATION AND MANAGEMENT PLANS _____________________________ 42

6 CONTINGENCY PLANNING _________________________________________ 55

Appendix A Example of Air Pollution Control Inspection Checklist ______________ 59

Appendix B Risk Management Principles and Procedures ___________________ 61

Appendix C Example of Evacuation Procedures for a Site Contingency

Appendix D Guidance on Costs of Pollution Control Equipment _______________ 68

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices -2-

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices -3–

2.2 Controls to Reduce Impacts

2.3 Engineering Controls

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices -4-

2.4 Operating and Management Procedures

2.5 Inspection and Performance Monitoring

2.6 Contingency Plans

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices -5–

2.7 Cleaner Production

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices -6-

3.1 Types of Air Pollution Control Devices

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices -7-

3.2 Fabric Filtration

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices -8-

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices -9–

Figure 1: Reverse Air Bag Filter

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices - 10 -

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices - 11 –

Figure 3: Cartridge Filter

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices - 12 -

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices - 13 –

3.3 Electrostatic Precipitators

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices - 14 -

Figure 5: ESP Fitted to a Power Station

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices - 15 –

3.4 Cyclonic Separators for Particulates

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices - 16 -

Figure 6: Schematic of Cyclonic Dist Collector

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices - 17 –

Table 1: Cyclone Particle Collection Efficiencies

Cyclone type Particle Size Collection Efficiency (%)

3.4.1 Suitable Applications for Cyclones

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices - 18 -

3.5 Particulate Scrubbers

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices - 19 –

Figure 7 Packed Bed Scrubber

 Impingement Plate Scrubber. An impingement plate scrubber is a vertical chamber with

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices - 20 -

 Mechanically-Aided Scrubber. A mechanically-aided scrubber (MAS) employs a motor-

Figure 9: Venturi Scrubber

 Orifice Scrubber. Orifice scrubbers, also known as entrainment or self-induced spray

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices - 21 –

 Condensation Scrubber. In a condensation scrubber, particles act as condensation nuclei

Guidelines on Air Pollution Control Techniques and Devices - 22 -

3.6 Ceramic Filters

3.7 Particulate Pre-Treatment Systems