Application Guidelines for Transformer Connection and Grounding for

Distributed Generation: An Update

Copyright Material IEEE
Paper No. ESW2013-14

Eric Weisgerber P.K. Sen, P.E. Keith Malmedal, P.E.

Student member, IEEE Fellow, IEEE Senior Member, IEEE
NEI Electric Power Engineering, Inc. Colorado School of Mines NEI Electric Power Engineering, Inc.
P.O. Box 1265 Golden, CO 80401 P.O. Box 1265
Arvada, CO 80001 USA Arvada, CO 80001
USA psen@mines.edu USA
eweisgerber@neiengineering.com kmalmedal@neiengineering.com

Abstract - Selecting proper transformer winding connections worked well in terms of reliability, selectivity for fault isolation,
along with the neutral grounding has played an important role in and its simplicity and allows operators to quickly switch
the design and applications of power system protection scheme components without requiring engineering analysis. However,
at all levels for many decades. This paper addresses how a the past decade has seen the increased usage of small
transformer connection and the grounding currently utilized in generation installations (called Distributed or Dispersed
various distributed generation projects can have a considerable Generation or DG) on customer loads on the existing
impact in the future on a utilities distribution system. distribution system. This has significantly changed the topology
of the distribution system with many issues that arise from how
Index Terms — Grounding, Distributed Generation, the distribution transformer is connected and/or grounded.
Protection, Safety, Transformer Connection, O & M

I. INTRODUCTION

Grounding of electrical power systems is a very important

consideration when designing new systems or upgrade or
retrofit existing systems with new or additional equipment. This
has become an intriguing and challenging task with the
proliferation of distributed generation (DG) in the conventional
power distribution systems (defined here typically for voltages
12.47kV and below). Power system is grounded so that they
are able to control the voltage with respect to remote earth at
zero potential [1, 2]. By having such a reference, electrical
engineers can design systems to provide a path for a flow of
current that will allow the detection of unwanted connections
between energized conductors and ground. Grounding an
electrical power system also provides the benefits of increased
personnel safety and protects equipment from the harmful
effects of transient over-voltages [1].
Grounding as a broad topic can be divided into two
major categories: (a) focuses on the design of grounding
systems for protecting personnel following the National Electric
Code (NEC), and (b) focuses on the protection of equipment
and the study of the effects of grounding on the operation of the
electric power system [1]. This paper focuses on the latter and Fig. 1. Traditional Power Systems with Radial Feeders
the importance of the transformer connections and grounding.
Traditional distribution system is radially configured. Fig. 1 II. TYPES OF GROUNDING
depicts a simple radially fed power distribution system with
single or three phase laterals where power flows from the
There are several methods by which a wye-configured
source down to the loads (in one direction). In case of a fault,
transformer, generator, or equipment can be connected to
current also flows from the source to the fault.
ground. The pros and cons of various methods of grounding
This mode of operation is well understood by industry and
have been discussed on numerous papers, articles and books
utilities alike for decades and has kept distribution systems
and are outside the scope of this paper. One of the better
simple and relatively easy to design. Because of this simplicity,
references is the IEEE Std. 142 (The Green Book). The
the (grounded) wye - (grounded) wye or delta- (grounded) wye
various grounding methods include: (a) Ungrounded (or
transformer configuration has become standard on most
Capacitance Grounded), (b) Solidly Grounded, (c) High
distribution systems [3]. The radial distribution system has

978-1-4673-3039-8/13/$31.00 ©2013 IEEE

Impedance Grounded (Using either Resistance or Reactor) and machines, induction generators and inverter based designs
(d) Low Impedance Grounding (Using either Resistance and (like PV, and micro-turbine). The individual ratings of the
Reactor) The major design considerations include (but are not generating source can vary from a few kW (residential PV
limited to) in random order, minimizing the transient over- applications) to cogeneration plant rated at 2-10MW range.
voltages caused by arcing ground fault in an ungrounded Some of them (rotating machines) contribute fault currents at
system, detection and isolation of the ground fault, sensitivity of power frequency and others (inverter based design) do not
ground fault protective devises, personnel and equipment contribute to the faults except for transient conditions. They
safety, operational and design philosophy. The following table also generate power at low-voltage to the medium voltage
summarizes the types of grounding and the typical locations range depending on the size and aggregation techniques.
according to the IEEE Std. 142: Some DG have inertia in the form of energy stored in the
rotating mass, whereas, others do not have any stored energy
Table 1 and no rotating mass, and with the advent of the various power
Grounding Methods and Their Application [1] electronics, the control for both real power and reactive power
is very different for different applications.
Grounding Some DG is used for emergency power only. Machines of
Typical Usage this type have a very different role and different application
Method
Not recommended due to overvoltages guidelines then conventional DG. First of all emergency
Ungrounded: generators may seldom if ever operate in parallel with the utility.
(Arcing Ground Fault) and non-
(1-3A) Furthermore they are usually conventional synchronous
segreation of fault
High Impedance generators rather than renewable sources.
(Reactance): Not used due to excessive overvoltages With the higher DG penetration (expected at 30-40% or
≈ 10A perhaps higher) mostly from renewable sources, the new
High Impedance integrated power distribution system is expected to have
Used on systems 600V and below islanded operation (like in micro-grid or stand-alone systems).
(Resistance):
where service continutity is desired If a paralleled power distribution system becomes islanded with
≈ 10A
Low Reactance: Generally used on systems either 600V a fault present on the system the DG may continue to feed the
(100-1,200A) and below or 15kV and above fault causing significant damage unless the fault is quickly
Generally used on systems of 2.4kV to sensed and action is taken to clear the fault. In other cases the
Low Resistance: DG can cause relay coordination issues and lead to unwanted
15kV particularly where large roating
(100-1,200A) tripping. The transformer connection and the grounding with
machines are connected
Best suited for application in most different types of DG make an impact on the design and
Resonant operation of such system. It is difficult to predict the behavior of
medium-voltage industrial and
Grounding: the power system when DG (rotating or inverter based) is
commerical systems that are isolated
(Highly added without some study and system simulation.
from the utility system by transformers.
Resistive) Grounding and ground fault protection design philosophy in
Mostly used in Europe
Solid Grounding: Generally used on systems either 600V conventional systems for industrial plants results in most of the
10kA or Higher and below or 15kV and above transformers being connected delta (high-side) and wye
(grounded low side). Grounding could be high resistance, low
An “Effectively Grounded System” is one that meets the resistance or solidly grounded depending on the applications
following criteria: and design and operation philosophy. Delta high-side is
routinely used to isolate ground faults on the low side from
X 
3 >  0  > 0 and ground protection on the high voltage side to minimize
 X1  inadvertent tripping of the high side protective devices for low-
R  side faults. This simplifies the ground fault protection
1>  0  > 0 coordination and has been a standard practice for decades.
 X1  Utilities also sometimes use (grounded) wye – (grounded) wye
transformers in the distribution, sub-transmission and
Where, X0 and X1 are zero- and positive- sequence transmission systems. In these cases ground fault protection,
reactance at the fault location and R0 is the corresponding zero- is well coordinated to prevent ground fault relay misoperation.
sequence resistance. Standards, however, are lacking governing transformer
connections; grounding and ground fault protection philosophy
III. TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS, GROUNDING AND to be used with DG sources connected to existing distribution
DISTRIBUTED GENERATION systems. Furthermore DG engineering is often done without
the proper knowledge of grounding, sequence network, ground
Various types of DG (many of them from renewable energy fault protection and safety of the distribution system as a whole.
sources like wind, solar (PV), hydro and geo-thermal) are being
installed now in distribution systems throughout the United A. Ungrounded Transformer Connections or System
States. As stated previously, this has changed the topology of
the conventional (radial) distribution system and has a Where the neutral of any wye connected winding is not
significant impact on the power system operation and safety connected to the ground (solidly or using an impedance) or
when the system is subjected to fault conditions. Things are where a grounded-wye grounded-wye transformer is connected
even more complex because the DG sources come in different to an ungrounded source results an ungrounded system
design configurations like conventional rotating synchronous results. These connections do not allow zero sequence current
(ground fault current) to flow or pass from one side of the overvoltage concern for a utility ground fault.
transformer to the other. The small current that will flow during This transformer connection also provides a grounding island
a ground fault on these ungrounded systems (1-3A range) is a between the primary and secondary sides of the transformer.
result of the small system capacitance. However, it can cause issues with the secondary side which is
The ungrounded wye-connected winding transformers are left ungrounded. Since the secondary side probably supplies
rarely used in power system (utility and end-users alike) due to load which must be grounded to meet the NEC requirement or
the concerns of high transient over-voltages, over-voltage due for operational reasons a separate grounding transformer may
to ferro-resonance, and steady-state over-voltages during be required. This can significantly increase the cost of adding
single-line-to-ground faults [3,4]. Additionally, ungrounded DG with the (grounded) wye-delta transformer.
sources are not used due to grounding (safety) requirements in Additionally, this transformer (independent of DG grounding)
the NEC which in many cases require a grounded power adds a ground current source on the utility feeder and can
source for user connected loads. In special applications, when cause several issues on the utility system. This violates the
ungrounded systems are used, a zero-sequence ground-fault radially fed idea where fault current flows only from the utility
voltage detector is utilized to detect the fault and trip or alarm system to the fault location and creates problems with
as appropriate based on the design philosophy. coordination of relays and system protection. Having many
ground sources complicates the operation of the distribution
B. (Grounded)-Wye/ (Grounded)-Wye Transformer network. This is one reason grounded connections on the utility
Connections side of the transformer are rare on radially fed distribution
networks.
This type of transformer connection can work for distribution Another potential issue with this transformer configuration is
sources. However, for a single-line to-ground fault it allows the the problems of sympathetic tripping. This is where the feeder
ground-fault current to flow through and is reflected on both with this transformer connection is sourcing current during a
sides provided they are grounded at the source. Despite the ground fault. This can be alleviated by careful protection
fact this transformer is grounded on both sides, it does not act coordination and use of directional relaying where indicated. It
as a ground source. may require significant changes to how the utility operates and
A benefit with this connection is that there is a reduced designs their system.
chance of ferro-resonance occurring on either side of the
transformer, and has the added benefit of no phase shift of IV. IEEE Std. 1547.2: Grounding Recommendations
current and voltages between the two sides. The potential Summary with DG
downsides to this are the fact the transformer can pass zero-
sequence (triplen or multiple of 3) harmonics from the DG to IEEE Std. 1547.2 describes the interconnection requirements
the utility and could cause relay coordination problems on for distributed generation resources and provides a guideline
adjacent feeders due to the fault current contribution from the for how DG should be grounded depending on the type of
DG [3,4]. If the DG source is not grounded, it can cause distribution system. However a careful study of the applications
overvoltage during islanding from the grounded source [3, 4]. for different scenarios is needed before blindly implementing
the standard’s guidelines. Table II is a summary of grounding
C. Delta / (Grounded)-Wye Transformer Connection recommendations from the Standard.
In order to facilitate application and understanding this table
The delta primary grounded wye secondary configuration, as is presented in a way slightly different than Table I. This table
mentioned earlier, is a very common distribution transformer shows what IEEE Std. 1547.2 recommends for grounding the
configuration. This connection is of particular concern to utility DG source given an existing distribution system configuration
engineers since it is a common configuration and can also lead and transformer connection. Since the majority of cases for DG
to over-voltages on the utility side of the transformer if the DG integration are going to be on existing systems, this table would
becomes islanded. This type of transformer configuration is be a starting point for design providing some insight and design
also susceptible to ferro-resonance in cable fed installations as concerns with each type of transformer connection with DG.
well as thermal overheating due to third harmonics from the However Table II may not give the best grounding type for all
DG. The benefits to this configuration are the fact that it blocks situations after considerations of all system design variables.
third harmonics from appearing on the utility system and does How to deal with the increasing number of DG on the
provide a grounding island between the primary and secondary distribution network is a fairly complicated issue which doesn’t
sides as shown. lend itself to simple or quick universally applicable methods. As
For this frequently used distribution transformer one common discussed, there are too many variables and unknown
method is used for detecting a single line-to-ground fault on the situations to allow generalized rules and it is difficult to define all
delta side of the transformer during an islanded condition. An the scenarios and modes of operation seen in existing
overvoltage relay connected phase to ground or to a zero- distribution systems. Many customers do not have the ability to
sequence voltage transformer on the delta side of the pay for new transformers or complicated relaying schemes.
transformer may be used to detect and disconnect the DG for The grounding and protection system chosen for the DG will
this condition. [2, 3, 4]. likely depend on the utility and customer relationship and the
D. (Grounded)-Wye / Delta Transformer Connection type of system the utility prefers. The risk that delta/grounded-
wye transformers may cause over voltage damage must be
This grounding configuration is preferred by many utilities for weighed against the costs inherent in re-configuring the
DG interconnections. The first thing to note is that it provides a distribution network and the challenges of increasing the
ground on the utility side of the feeder which eliminates the number of grounding sources in the system. As a minimum in-
depth analysis is needed before employing DG in an existing [5] Arritt, R.F.; Dugan, R.C.; “Distributed Generation
distribution network. Interconnection Transformer and Grounding Selection,”
IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting, pp.1-7,
Table 2 [4] 20-24 July 2008.
Grounding Recommendations for DG from IEEE Std. 1547.2 [6] Blackburn, J.L., and Domin, T.J., Protective Relaying
rd
Principals and Applications, 3 Ed., Taylor & Francis
Primary Secondary Side Grounding Group, Boca Raton, FL, 2007.
[7] Keller, J.; Kroposki, B.; “Understanding Fault
Side Four Wire
Three Wire Ungrounded Characteristics of Inverter-Based Distribution Energy
Grounding Grounded Resources,” Report NREL/TP-550-46698, National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL, January 2010.
DG should be effectively [8] Mahat, P.; Zhe Chen; Bak-Jensen, B.; “Review on
DG should be
Four Wire grounded with respect to the Islanding Operation of Distribution System with Distributed
effectively grounded
primary system and
Multi- with respect to the
ungrounded or high-
Generation,” Power and Energy Society General Meeting,
grounded primary and 2011 IEEE, pp. 1-8, 24-29 July 2011.
impedance grounded with
secondary system [9] Nagpal, M.; Plumptre, F.; Fulton, R.; Martinich, T.;
respect to the secondary
system “Dispersed Generation Interconnection – Utility
DG should be Perspective,” Pulp and Paper Industry Technical
Three Wire ungrounded or high- DG should be ungrounded or Conference, 2005. pp. 159-168, 23-23 June 2005.
Ungrounde impedance grounded high-impedance grounded [10] Omaha Public Power District, Distributed Generation (DG)
d or High with respect to the with respect to the primary Manual – A Guide to the Interconnection of Distributed
primary and effectively and secondary system Generation with the OPPD System, Revision January 2,
Impedance
Grounded grounded with respect 2002.
to the secondary [12] Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Distribution
Interconnection Handbook, Revision April 2003.
V. CONCLUSION [13] Walling, R.A; Saint, R.; Dugan, R.C., Burke, J.; Kojovic,
L.A., “Summary of Distributed Resources Impact on Power
Adding DG to the existing power distribution system is Delivery System,” IEEE Trans. On Power Delivery, vol.
becoming very common. If the individual DG size is small (say 23(3), pp. 1636-1644, July 2008.
in kW range) and the penetration level is low (say below 10%), [14] Steve Smith, P.K. Sen, Ben Kroposki and Keith Malmedal,
addition of DG doesn’t cause much of a problem in most “Renewable Energy and Energy Storage Systems in Rural
applications. However, when the individual size gets bigger Electrical Power Systems: Issues, Challenges and
(say in MW range) and the penetration level is higher (say over Application Guidelines,” IEEE REPC Annual Conference,
20%); improper applications can cause numerous problems. In Orlando, Florida, May 16-19, 2010, pp. B4-1:B4-7.
addition, in order to avoid operational and safety problems [15] Keith Malmedal and P.K. Sen, “Comparison of Some
careful thought must be given to transformer winding Randomly Selected Utilities Interconnection Requirements
connections, grounding of wye connected windings and DG and the Compliance with the IEEE Std. 1547 -
sources. It is essential that close coordination with the Interconnection Guidelines,” 2008 IEEE IAS Rural Electric
connecting utility is achieved before the DG system is installed. Power Conference, Charleston, SC, April 28-29, 2008.
IEEE Std. 1547 and the subsequent series provide some [16] K. Malmedal, B. Kroposki and P.K. Sen, “Distributed
guidance for the issues involved, but the suggestions given are Energy Resources and Renewable Energy in Distribution
not applicable to all situations and considerable judgment and Systems: Protection Considerations and Penetration
rd
understanding is necessary to properly apply them in real world Levels”, 2008 IEEE IAS 43 Annual Meeting, Edmonton,
applications. Care and proper attention must be given during Alberta, Canada, September, 2008.
the design stage to ensure that the optimum grounding method
and transformer type are used. VII. VITA

VI. REFERENCES Eric Weisgerber (Student Member) received his BS

(Engineering Physics) and MS (Electrical Engineering, Energy
[1] IEEE Standard 142-2007, IEEE Recommended Practice and Power Systems) degrees at Colorado School of Mines,
for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Golden, Colorado 80401 in 2010 and 2012, respectively.
Systems (IEEE Green Book), Piscataway, NJ, 2007. Currently, Eric is employed as an electrical engineer at NEI
[2] Dunki-Jacobs, J. R., et al. Industrial Power System Electric Power Engineering, Inc., a consulting firm in the Denver
Grounding Design Handbook, Thomson-Shore, Dexter, MI, (Colorado) metropolitan area specialized in all aspects of
2007. electric power systems.
[3] Dugan, Roger C., et al. Electrical Power System Quality,
2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2004. Pankaj K. (PK) Sen (Fellow IEEE) received his BSEE
[4] IEEEE Standard 1547.2-2008, IEEE Application Guide for degree (honors) from Jadavpur University, India, and M.Eng.
IEEE 1547, IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the Technical
Resources with Electric Power Systems, Piscataway, NJ, University of Nova Scotia (Dalhousie University), Halifax, NS,
2008. Canada. He is currently a Professor of Electrical Engineering
and Site Director of Power Systems Engineering Research
Center (www.pserc.org) at Colorado School of Mines, Golden,
Colorado 80401. Dr. Sen is a registered professional engineer consulting firm specializing in all aspects of power system
in the State of Colorado. engineering and design. He has published over 25 technical
papers and taught advanced level university courses and
Keith Malmedal (Sr. Member) received his MSEE short courses related to power systems, machines,
degree (Power), a MSCE degree (Structures) from the protection, renewable energy, and energy policy issues. Dr.
University of Colorado at Denver in 1998 and 2002, Malmedal is also a member of the American Society of Civil
respectively. In 2008 he received his PhD at Colorado Engineers (ASCE) and a registered professional engineer in
School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401. Keith is presently 25 states and Alberta and British Columbia, Canada.
the President of NEI Electric Power Engineering, Inc., a