CHAPTER – 2

PROF. N. K. CHAVDA
Associate Professor
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
MBICT
NEW VALLABH VIDYANAGAR– 388 121.
 CONTENTS
Definition of fuel

Calorific Values of fuel

Classifications of fuels

Basic requirements of a good fuel

Comparison between various types

of fuels

Prepared By: Prof. N. K. Chavda, Associate Professor, ICCT, New V. V. Nagar.

 FUEL:
Definition:
Fuel is defined as a material which
librates heat after reacting with oxygen
or air when it reaches to its ignition
temperature.
Heating Product of
e.g. Fuel + Air combustion + Heat
Basic constituents of any fuel are
generally Carbon, Hydrogen & volatile
matter.
Volatile matter consists of carbon
combined with hydrogen together with
the other gases forming constituents
which are driven off by heat.
CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUELS:
Calorific Value of Solid/Liquid Fuels:
The Calorific Value of Solid/Liquid fuels is
defined as the number of heat units (in kJ or
MJ) liberated by the complete combustion
(burning) of one kg or litre of fuel.
It’s unit is kJ/kg or kJ/litres for solid
fuels and liquid fuels respectively.
Calorific Value of Gaseous Fuels:
The Calorific Value of Gaseous fuels is
defined as the number of heat units (in kJ or
MJ) liberated by the complete combustion
(burning) of one m3 of fuel at S.T.P.
It’s unit is kJ/m3 for gaseous fuels.
CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUELS:
Fuels mainly contain Carbon & Hydrogen.
Hydrogen reacts with oxygen and forms
water vapour.
i.e. 2H + O = 2 H O (Water vapour)
2 2 2
The vapour formed carries some amount
of heat with it.
If this vapour formed is cooled, it will be
condensed and will give away its latent
heat.
Thus fuels containing Hydrogen in it are
having two calorific values namely Higher
Calorific Value & Lower Calorific Value.
Prepared By: Prof. N. K. Chavda, Associate Professor, ICCT, New V. V. Nagar.
CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUELS:
Higher Calorific Value (H.C.V.):
The Higher Calorific Value of a fuel is defined as
the total heat liberated by complete combustion
of one kg/one litre/one m3 of fuel, including
the heat recovered from condensed water
vapour.
Lower Calorific Value (L.C.V.):
The Lower Calorific Value of a fuel is defined as
the heat liberated by complete combustion of
one kg/one litre/one m3 of fuel, excluding the
heat recovered from condensed water vapour.
L.C.V.= H.C.V. – (mass of H2O x Latent Heat)
NOTE: The latent heat is referred at std. atm.
pressure i.e. at 760mm Hg or at 1.01325
bar) which is equal to 2257 kJ/kg.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS
FUELS

SOLID LIQUID GASEOUS

All these types of fuel are further

classified into two main types as
follows;
(1) Natural fuels
(2) Artificial fuels
 CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS
SOLID FUELS
Solid fuels are of two types;
(1) Natural Solid fuels
(2) Artificial Solid fuels
(1) Natural Solid Fuels:
Natural solid fuels are of following types;
(a) Wood
(b) Peat
(c) Lignite or Brown Coal
(d) Bituminous Coal
(e) Anthracite
(a) Wood:
Mainly consists of Carbon, Hydrogen and
water.
Its Calorific Value varies according to the
kind of wood & water content in it.
It is not used as commercial fuel.
It is raw material for other solid fuels.

(b) Peat:

It is first stage which is derived from wood &

vegetable matters & is derived from earth.
It contains 20% to 30% of water.
It burns without smoke or soot formation.
Its calorific value is approx. 14,500 KJ/kg.
(c) Lignite or Brown Coal:
It is very soft, inferior quality coal.
It contains 60% or more Carbon.
It also contains 15% to 20% moisture.
It is used as low grade fuel.
It is non – caking type of coal.
It burns with large smoky flame having C.V.
equal to 21,000 kJ/kg.
(d) Bituminous Coal:
It is soft & shiny black in appearance.
It contains about 70% Carbon & 20% – 30%
Volatile matter.
It burns with long yellow and smoky flame.
It may be caking or non – caking type.
Its calorific value is approx. 31,500 KJ/kg.
(e) Anthracite Coal:
It is very hard & brittle.
It contains 90% or more Carbon.
It also contains 8% to 10% volatile matter.
It is used as High grade fuel.
It is non – caking type of coal.
It does not give smell when burning.
It’s Calo.Value is approx. 36,000 kJ/kg.
(2) Artificial Solid Fuels:
Artificial Solid Fuels are of following types;
(a) Wood Charcoal
(b) Coke
(c) Briquetted Coal
(d) Pulverised Coal
(a) Wood Charcoal:
It is obtained by burning wood in retorts with
insufficient air to a temp. of 310ºC.
It contains 80% to 90% Carbon.
It can burn easily without smoke.
Its Calorific Value is approx. 28,000 kJ/kg.
(b) Coke:
It is made by burning Bituminous coal by
driving out its volatile elements in absence of
air.
It is hard, brittle & porous.
The coke formation process is called
Carbonization.
It contains 85% to 95% Carbon.
Its Calo.Value is approx. 32,500 kJ/kg.
(c) Briquetted Coal:
It consists of finely ground coal mixed with
proper binder and pressed together into
Briquettes(Blocks).
This increases heating value of coal &
decreases the losses.
(d) Pulverised Coal:
It is powder form of coal.
It is formed by crushing the coal.
This fine particle atomised coal is burnt by
supplying the air to it.
Low grade fuel is efficiently burnt by
pulverising it.
It gives better control, complete combustion
with less excess air, higher flame temp. etc…
 CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS
LIQUID FUELS:
Liquid fuels are of two types;
(1) Natural Liquid fuels
(2) Artificial Liquid fuels

(1) Natural Liquid Fuels:

Natural Liquid fuels are of following types;

(a) Crude petroleum
(b) Fossile fuels.
Prepared By: Prof. N. K. Chavda, Associate Professor, ICCT, New V. V. Nagar.
(a) Crude Petroleum:

It is obtained from natural reservoirs in the

earth’s crust through wells.
Distillation is the process of heating the
crude petroleum and condensing the vapour
thus formed at various temp. and pressures.
By Distillation of crude oil, petrol, kerosene,
diesel, fuel oils, tar etc… are obtained.
(b) Fossile Fuels:

Due to reactions of Vegetable matters &

animals embodied with earth, after very long
period at high pressure and temp. fossile fuels
are formed.
(2) Artificial Liquid Fuels:
Artificial Liquid fuels are of following types;
(a) Hydrocarbons
(b) Vegetable matter (Alcohol)
(a) Hydrocarbons:
Hydrocarbon is a substance having Carbon &
Hydrogen as basic constituents.
Most of artificial liquid fuels are obtained
from mixture of different Hydrocarbons.
The main Hydrocarbons are;
(1) Paraffins (CnH2n+2)
(2) Olefines (CnH2n) /Ring compound
(3) Naphthenes (CnH2n) /Chain compound
(4) Aeromatics or Benzenes (CnH2n – 6)
(a) Petrol:
Petrol or Gasoline is obtained by distillation
of crude oil from 65º to 220ºC.
Its Calorific value is 44,250 kJ/kg.
It is used for light petrol engines, aviation
and small industrial installation.
(b) Kerosene/Paraffin oil:
Kerosene or Peraffin oil is obtained by
distillation of crude oil from 220º to 345ºC.
It is heavier and less volatile than petrol.
Its Calorific value is 44,000 kJ/kg.
It is used for heavy road traction, tractors
and internal combustion engines.
Prepared By: Prof. N. K. Chavda, Associate Professor, ICCT, New V. V. Nagar.
(c) Fuel oil:
Fuel oil is obtained by distillation of crude
oil from 345º to 470ºC.
Its Calorific value is 44,250 kJ/kg.
It is heavy and non – volatile.
(d) Tar:
It is by – product of coal gas and used as raw
material for Benzene.
(e) Alcohol:
It is formed by fermentation of vegetable
matter.
Widely used as commercial fuel.
Its calorific value is 26,800 kJ/kg.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS
GASEOUS FUELS:
Gaseous fuels are of two types;
(1) Natural Gaseous fuels
(2) Artificial Gaseous fuels

(1) Natural Gas:

Natural gas consists of mainly methane &

ethane, propane and also oxygen, Carbon
monoxide, Nitrogen, and Carbon dioxide etc...
Its calorific value varies from 35,500 kJ/m3
to 46,000 kJ/m3.
Prepared By: Prof. N. K. Chavda, Associate Professor, ICCT, New V. V. Nagar.
(2) Artificial Gaseous Fuel:
Artificial gaseous fuels are prepared gases of
fixed composition like acetylene(C2H2),
methane(CH4), ethylene(C2H4) etc…
The artificial industrial gases are Coal gas,
Producer gas, Water gas, Mond gas, Blast
furnace gas, Cock – oven gas, Marsh gas etc…

(a) Coal Gas/ Illuminating Gas:

It is obtained by distilling coal in retorts.
It mainly consists of Hydrogen, CO, CO2,
CH4, Nitrogen etc…
Its calorific value varies from 21,000 kJ/m3
to 25,000 kJ/m3.
(b) Producer Gas:
It is obtained by passing insufficient air
through a bed of incandescent coke or
charcoal in gas producer.
It consists of CO, CO2,H2, N2
It is cheaply available.
Its calorific value varies from 4,200 kJ/m3 to
6,600 kJ/m3.
(c) Water Gas/Blue Gas:
It is obtained by passing steam through
incandescent bed of cock or coal containing
carbon.
It burns with blue flame and hence also called
blue gas.
Its calorific value varies from 11,500 kJ/m3
to 23,000 kJ/m3.
(d) Mond gas:
It is obtained by injecting large quantity of
steam in producer.
It is used in gas engines.
Its calorific value is 5,800 kJ/m3.

(e) Blast – furnace Gas:

It is obtained as by–product in the production
of Pig iron.
It is mixture of H2, CO, CO2, N2 and CH4.
It contains considerable amount of dust in it.
Its calorific value is 3,800 kJ/m3.
(f) Coke – Oven Gas:
It is produced by high temp. carbonization of
bituminous coal.
It is by – product from coke oven.
It is mixture of methane & hydrogen.
Its calorific value varies from 14,500 kJ/m3
to 19,000 kJ/m3.
(g) Marsh Gas:
It is a simple Hydrocarbon (Methane)
produced in nature by the decay of vegetable
matters under water.
Its calorific value is 23,000 kJ/m3.
(h) Oil Gas:
Produced by vaporisation and thermal
cracking of oils and steam.
Its calorific value is 17,000 to 25,000 kJ/m3.
 REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD FUEL
It should have low ignition temperature.
It should have high calorific value.
It should freely burn with high combustion
efficiency.
It should not produce harmful gases or
smoke.
It must produce less ash.
It must be cheaper and should be easily
available.
Its storage must be easy.
Its transportation & handling should be easy.
It should not react with material of furnace.
 ADVANTAGES & DIS – ADVANTAGES OF
LIQUID FUELS OVER SOLID FUELS
Advantages:-
(1) Higher calorific value
(2) Economy in storage as less space required
(3) Easy control of combustion
(4) Higher combustion efficiency
(5) Non – corrosive to boiler plates
(6) No ashes formed during combustion
(7) No storages losses
(8) Better economy in handling
(9) Clean source and free burning without dust
(10) No wear & tear of grate bars
(11) Easy to start & stopping of combustion
 ADVANTAGES & DIS – ADVANTAGES OF
LIQUID FUELS OVER SOLID FUELS
Dis – advantages:-
(1) Higher cost
(2) Danger of explosion
(3) It is to be heated to lower its viscosity in
cold atmosphere
(4) Non availability in certain areas.
(5) Costly containers are required for storage &
handling
 ADVANTAGES & DIS – ADVANTAGES OF
GASEOUS FUELS OVER OTHER FUELS
Advantages:-
(1) Easy control of fuel supply & hence easy and
accurate control of furnace temperature
(2) High temp. is obtained at moderate cost
(3) Can be directly used as working substance
in I.C. engines.
(4) Free from solid & liquid impurities
(5) They do not produce ash and smoke
(6) They undergo complete combustion with
minimum air supply.
(7) Easily transported.
 ADVANTAGES & DIS – ADVANTAGES OF
GASEOUS FUELS OVER OTHER FUELS
Dis - advantages:-

(1) They are readily inflammable.

(2) They require large storage capacity.
(3) Leakage of harmful odorless gaseous fuel
can cause serious problems.

Prepared By: Prof. N. K. Chavda, Associate Professor, ICCT, New V. V. Nagar.

 LPG ( LIQUIFIED PETROLEUM GAS )
It is a colourless petroleum gas.
It is a natural derivative of both natural gas and
crude oil.
Main components of LPG are Propane and butane
or combination of these two.
The LPG is liquefied by moderate pressure at
normal temperature.
It is stored in tanks and cylinders.
It is widely used for cooking.
Also it is used for running cars, buses & lorries.
LPG is best suited for light vehicles such as cars
and small vans which normally runs on petrol.
LPG is not used for Diesel Engine.
Cost of LPG is 50 % compared to petrol.
Pollution produced by LPG vehicle is 15 % lower
than petrol vehicles.
 CNG ( Compressed Natural Gas )
CNG is made by compressing methane which is
extracted from natural gas.
It is stored at high pressure about 200 bar.
The main component of CNG is methane.
It also contains small percentage of ethane,
propane, butane and pentane.
Due to high octane number, CNG is an excellent
fuel for petrol engine.
Pollution produced by CNG vehicles is less than
petrol vehicles.
CNG gives longer service life and lower
maintenance costs.
Cost of converting cars to CNG is high.
Short range between refueling is inconvenient.
 BIO FUELS

Bio fuel is a gas or liquid combustible

substance made from bio mass.

Bio mass is a material derived from

recently living organisms.

It includes plants, animals and their by –

products.

It is a renewable energy source.

Prepared By: Prof. N. K. Chavda, Associate Professor, ICCT, New V. V. Nagar.

 BIO FUELS

Bio mass is converted into useful fuels by

following bio-conversion routes.

(1)The bio-chemical conversion as anaerobic

digestion and fermentation biogas.

(2)Thermo-chemical conversion as
gasification and liquefaction-ethanol,
methanol.

(3)Direct combustion such as wood waste

and bagasse.

Prepared By: Prof. N. K. Chavda, Associate Professor, ICCT, New V. V. Nagar.

 ADVANTAGES OF USING BIO FUELS IN
VEHICLES

(1)Reduce pollution.
(2)Reduce the use of fossil fuel.
(3)Increase opportunities for rural peoples.
(4)Increase national energy security.

LIMITATIONS OF BIO FUELS

(1)Production process is very slow and

traditional way.
(2)To reduce price of bio fuels, its production
has to be motivated by government.

Prepared By: Prof. N. K. Chavda, Associate Professor, ICCT, New V. V. Nagar.

 BIO – DIESEL :

It is made from vegetable oil.

A fat or oil is reacted with an alcohol

(methanol ) to produce glycorine and methyl
esters (chemical name of bio – diesel )

Bio diesel can be mixed with diesel.

Bio diesel produces less pollution compared

to pure diesel.

Prepared By: Prof. N. K. Chavda, Associate Professor, ICCT, New V. V. Nagar.

BIO – ETHANOL :

It is produced from crops such as sugar

beet, sugar cane, corn etc.

It can be produced from bio mass by

hydrolysis and sugar fermentation
processes.

Bio – ethanol can be mixed with petrol in

any proportion.

Petrol engine can run on a 5 % bio-

ethanol with petrol without any
modification.

Prepared By: Prof. N. K. Chavda, Associate Professor, ICCT, New V. V. Nagar.

VEGETABLE OIL :

It can be used for either fuel or food

preparation.

For examples, jatropha, coconut.

In most cases, vegetable oil is used to

manufacture bio diesel.

Prepared By: Prof. N. K. Chavda, Associate Professor, ICCT, New V. V. Nagar.

 BIO – GAS :

* It is produced by anaerobic digestion of

organic materials like animal waste and
municipal waste.

SYN GAS :

* It is produced by combined process of

pyrolysis, combustion and gasification.

Prepared By: Prof. N. K. Chavda, Associate Professor, ICCT, New V. V. Nagar.

 HYDROGEN GAS ( H2 Gas ) :
It is available in water.

It is obtained as a by product from chemical

industries like caustic soda.

It is also produced by electrolysis process. (costly)

It produces large energy in combustion

compared to petrol and diesel.

It reduces the environmental pollution.

It is highly explosive in nature.

It can be used as fuel for power generation.

Recently research is going on to use in
automobiles.
 COMBUSTION OF FUELS
Definition:
Combustion of a fuel is a chemical reaction of
constituents of fuel with oxygen as a result of
which heat is librated.
The smallest quantity of a fuel which takes
part in chemical reaction is a molecule.
It is convenient to use molecular weight in
calculations.
The mass of any substance is equal to its
molecular weight as per Avogadro’s
hypothesis.

Thus, 1 kg – mole of H2 equal to 2 kg H2 ( i.e.

its molecular weight)
 COMBUSTION OF FUELS
Molecular weight of some basic elements is as
per following table.
MOLECULAR
SUBSTANCE SYMBOL
WEIGHT
Hydrogen H2 2
Oxygen O2 32
Nitrogen N2 28
Carbon C 12
Sulphur S 32
Water H 2O 18
Methane CH4 16
Acetylene C2 H 2 26
 COMBUSTION DIFFERENT FUEL ELEMENTS
Combustion of Carbon:
(a) With sufficient oxygen, carbon forms Carbon
dioxide.
C + O2 = CO2
12 kg 32 kg 44 kg
1 8/3 11/3
1 kg 2.667 kg 3.667 kg
(b) With insufficient oxygen, carbon forms
Carbon Monoxide.
2C + O2 = 2CO
24 kg 32 kg 56 kg
1 kg 1.33 kg 2.33 kg
 COMBUSTION DIFFERENT FUEL ELEMENTS
Combustion of Carbon Monoxide:
With sufficient oxygen, carbon Monoxide is
converted to Carbon dioxide.
2CO + O2 = 2CO2
56 kg 32 kg 88 kg
1 kg 0.5714 kg 1.5714 kg
Combustion of Hydrogen:
With sufficient oxygen, Hydrogen is converted
to water vapour.
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
04 kg 32 kg 36 kg
1 kg 8 kg 9 kg
 COMBUSTION DIFFERENT FUEL ELEMENTS
Combustion of Sulphur:
With sufficient oxygen, Sulphur is converted to
Sulphur dioxide.
S + O2 = SO2
32 kg 32 kg 64 kg
1 kg 1 kg 2 kg
It is less important from calorific point of
view.
It forms SO2 which reacts with water vapour
and forms Sulphuric acid which is
dangerous.
It should be minimum inside the fuel.
 COMBUSTION DIFFERENT FUEL ELEMENTS
Combustion of Hydrocarbons:
Hydrocarbon when combined with oxygen,
forms carbon dioxide and water vapour.
Paraffins (CnH2n+2):
(a) Methane (CH4)
CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O
16 kg 64 kg 44 kg 36kg
1 kg 4 kg 2.75 kg 2.25 kg
(b) Ethane (C2H6)
2C2H6 + 7O2 = 4CO2 + 6H2O
60 kg 224 kg 176 kg 108 kg
1 kg 3.733 kg 2.933 kg 1.8 kg
 COMBUSTION DIFFERENT FUEL ELEMENTS
Paraffins (CnH2n+2):
(c) Propane (C3H8)
C3H8 + 5O2 = 3CO2 + 4H2O
44 kg 160 kg 132 kg 72 kg
1 kg 3.6363 kg 3 kg 1.6363 kg
Olefins (CnH2n):
(a) Ethylene (C2H4)
C2H4 + 3O2 = 2CO2 + 2H2O
28 kg 96 kg 88 kg 36 kg
1 kg 3.4286 kg 3.1428 kg 1.2857 kg
 COMBUSTION DIFFERENT FUEL ELEMENTS
Aeromatics (CnH2n – 6):
Benzene (C6H6)
C6H6 + 7.5O2 = 6CO2 + 3H2O
78 kg 240 kg 264 kg 54 kg
1 kg 3.0769 kg 3.3846 kg 0.6923 kg

Acetylene (C2H2)

2C2H2 + 5O2 = 4CO2 + 2H2O

52 kg 160 kg 176 kg 36 kg
1 kg 3.0769 kg 3.3846 kg 0.6923 kg
 SHORT QUESTIONS
1.The main two requirements of a good fuel
__ & low ignition temp.
are, High Calorific Value ___

2. A liquid fuel contains, Hydrogen and Carbon

in the proportion of 1:9 by mass. Then the
chemically correct air-fuel ratio by mass, for
the said fuel is 13.926 .

3. Bomb calorimeter is generally used for

determination of, H.C.V.
____________________
of solid/liquid fuels .

4. Suction or Pressure effect on dry flue gas

sample used in orsat apparatus is created by
raising/lowering down the Aspirator Bottle
_______.
5. Air required in m3 for complete combustion
of 1 m3 of Methane (CH4) fuel gas is _______
9.523 m3
6. Chemically correct volumetric air – fuel ratio
for Acetelene(C2H2) gas fuel is _________.
11.905 m3

7. The theoretically correct air–fuel mass ratio

for a pure carbon fuel is, ________________
11.594kg/kg of fuel

pressure regulator
8. In Boy’s gas calorimeter, _______________
is used in gas supply line to damp dawn any
pressure fluctuations which would affect the
result adversely.
9. Coke is prepared by destructive distillation
of bituminous coal in a closed resort in
absence of air.
10. A fuel has only H.C.V. and no L.C.V., if it do
not contain H2 in it.

11. For a pure Carbon fuel, its H.C.V. or L.C.V.

as per Dulong’s formula is 33800 kJ/kg.

12. Portion of O
__
2 gas is absorbed from d.f.g.
constituents in the midway flask in orsat
NaOH & Pyrogallic acid
apparatus containing,__________________

13. Producer
____gas is obtained by the partial
combustion of coal, coke, anthracite coal or
charcoal in mixed air steam blast in the gas
plant.
14. ___kg
80 is the minimum theoretical air
required to burn a pure carbon fuel, having
6.9 kg mass.

15. Sulphur burns to SO2, then the ratio of

masses of SO2 to S is 2 .

16. Ultimate analysis of a fuel is,

complete chemical breakdown of a coal
into its chemical constituents % by mass

17. The minimum needed mass of oxygen is 69

kg, then the air to be supplied is, _
300 kg.
18. The ratio of mass percentages of carbon to
Hydrogen in a Hexane ( C6H14 ) liquid
fuel is 72/14 or 5.143 .

19. Graduated and jacketed, eudiometer is used

in orsat apparatus to measure,
volume of dry flue gas sample and latter on
volumes of its different constituents like
CO2, O2 & CO.

20.The expression, used to determine the

chemically correct air fuel mass ratio for a
fuel whose ultimate analysis is known, is

Wmin = 100/23 (2.67C + 8H2 + S – O2)

21. _____________
Briquetted coal is the artificial fuel, made
by coarse powder of coal with binder and
pressurized into briquettes or blocks.
22. _______
Alcohol is the artificial fuel prepared by
fermentation of vegetable matters and
biomass of sugar cane etc.

23. If excess air supplied is 3.03 kg and the

chemically correct air fuel ratio by mass is
10.1, then the % of excess air supplied
w.r.t. minimum needed air is 30% .

Charcoal is prepared by dry distillation of

24. ________
wood having no Sulphar content in it and is
costly.
25. L.C.V. of a fuel is determined by the
expression,
L.C.V.= H.C.V. – (9H2 x 2257)
26. The dry flue gas produced per each kg of
12.594 kg & into
carbon to burn into CO2 is _______
6.794 kg
CO is ________.
Hint:
(a) Mass of flue gas when C burns to CO2,
d.f.g.= Mass of CO2 + Mass of N2
=3.67 + 0.77 x (100/23 x 2.67)
=12.594 kg
(b) Mass of flue gas when C burns to CO,
d.f.g.= Mass of CO + Mass of N2
=2.33 + 0.77 x (100/23 x 1.33)
=6.794 kg
27. If a fuel has 10% H2 by mass in its ultimate
analysis, then the difference in its H.C.V.
and L.C.V. as per Dulong’s formula will be
2031.3_ kJ.

Note :
For ultimate analysis, the Dulong’s formula for
the difference in H.C.V. & L.C.V. is,
=9 x (%H2) x 2257
=9 x 0.1 x 2257
=2031.3 kJ

28. Flask nearer to audiometer contains,

NaOH/KOH with water in 1:2 proportion
__________________
by mass absorbs portion of CO__
2 gas from
dry flue gases.
29. CO, from d.f.g. under analysis, absorbed in
flask, nearer to the three-way cock, in
which Cuprous Chloride(CuCl
____ 2) is filled up.

30. O2 gas is introduced in Bomb

Calorimeter at about 25 to 30 bar while
finding H.C.V. of Solid/liquid fuels.

31.The d.f.g. produced per each kg of Sulphur

to burnt into SO2 = 5.348 kg.
Hint:
Mass of flue gas when S burns to SO2,
d.f.g.= Mass of SO2 + Mass of N2
= 2 + 0.77 x (100/23 x 1)
= 5.348 kg
32.The depression in the Orsat apparatus is
created for _______effect
suction of dry flue gas
sample by _____________
Aspirator bottle by lowering
down it.
33. As per Dulong’s formula H.C.V. & L.C.V. for
C8H18 (Octane liquid) fuel is 51278.95
_______ kJ/kg
& ________
48071.63 kJ/kg respectively, has total
minimum wet flue gas produced is______
16.268
kg/kg of fuel and the stoichiometric air
mass requirement is ______
15.268 kg/kg of fuel.
34. A benzene (C6H6) liquid fuel has Carbon%
by mass in it as 92.31% and Wmin for it is
_____ kg/kg of C6H6.
13.391
 N2 gas portion is not measured by orsat
35. ___
apparatus, while finding d.f.g. % analysis
by volume and is calculated as ,

%N2= 100 – (%CO2 + %O2 + %CO)

36. For the determination of H.C.V. of gaseous
Boy’s Gas Calorimeter
fuels, ___________________________ and
______________________
Junker’s Gas Calorimeter are used.
CO
37. The combustion will be incomplete if ____
gas is present in flue gas analysis.

38.In Orsat apparatus analysis, the

constituents of flue gas should be absorbed
CO2 , O2 & CO
in the order _______________.
39. Air contains ____
23 % O2 and ____%N
77 2 by
mass and ____
21 % O2 and ____
79 % N2 by
volume.
40.Volume of air supplied for complete
combustion of 1 m3 of C4H8 is ______
28.571 m3
and volume of dry flue gases produced is
_______
26.571 m3.
41.Chemically correct air–fuel ratio required for
complete combustion of Ethyl Alcohol
( C2H5OH) is ______
9.081 .
42.6.9kg C burns to CO. The theoretical air
supply is ______
40 kg and total mass of flue
gas produced is _______
46.877 kg for 6.9 kg of C.