MATH10212 • Linear Algebra • Brief lecture notes 48

Similarity and Diagonalization

Similar Matrices
Let A and B be n × n matrices. We say that A is similar to B if there is an
invertible n × n matrix P such that P −1 AP = B. If A is similar to B, we
write A ∼ B.
Remarks

• If A ∼ B, we can write, equivalently, that A = P BP −1 or AP = P B.

• If A ∼ B, we can write, equivalently, that A = P BP −1 or AP = P B.
• The matrix P depends on A and B. It is not unique for a given pair
of similar matrices A and B. To see this, simply take A = B = I, in
which case I ∼ I, since P −1 IP = I for any invertible matrix P .

Theorem 4.21. Let A, B and C be n × n matrices.

a. A ∼ A.

b. If A ∼ B, then B ∼ A.
c. If A ∼ B and B ∼ C, then A ∼ C.

This means that ∼ is an equivalence relation. The main problem is to

find a “good” representative in each equivalence class.
The “real” meaning of P −1 AP is that this is the matrix of the same linear
transformation (given in the standard basis by the matrix A) in a different
basis, which consists of the columns of P . This really much better explains
why many properties are the same for A and P −1 AP .

Theorem 4.22. Let A and B be n × n matrices with A ∼ B. Then

a. det A = det B.
b. A is invertible if and only if B is invertible.
c. A and B have the same rank.
d. A and B have the same characteristic polynomial.
e. A and B have the same eigenvalues.
MATH10212 • Linear Algebra • Brief lecture notes 49

Diagonalization
Definition. An n × n matrix A is diagonalizable if there is a diagonal
matrix D such that A is similar to D — that is, if there is an invertible
matrix P such that P −1 AP = D.
Note that the eigenvalues of D are its diagonal elements, and these are
the same eigenvalues as for A.

Theorem 4.23. Let A be an n × n matrix. Then A is diagonalizable if and

only if A has n linearly independent eigenvectors.
More precisely, there exists an invertible matrix P and a diagonal ma-
trix D such that P −1 AP = D if and only if the columns of P are n linearly
independent eigenvectors of A and the diagonal entries of D are the eigen-
values of A corresponding to the eigenvectors in P in the same order.

Theorem 4.25. If A is an n × n matrix with n distinct eigenvalues, then

A is diagonalizable.

...Since eigenvectors for distinct eigenvalues are lin. indep. by Th. 4.20.

Theorem 4.24. Let A be an n × n matrix and let

λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λk

be distinct eigenvalues of A. If Bi is a basis for the eigenspace Eλi , then

B = B1 ∪ B2 ∪ · · · ∪ Bk

(i.e., the total collection of basis vectors for all of the eigenspaces) is linearly
independent.

Lemma 4.26. If A is an n × n matrix, then the geometric multiplicity of

each eigenvalue is less than or equal to its algebraic multiplicity.

Theorem 4.27. The Diagonalization Theorem Let A be an n×n matrix

whose distinct eigenvalues are λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λk . The following statements are
equivalent:

a. A is diagonalizable.
b. The union B of the bases of the eigenspaces
Pof A (as in Theorem 4.24)
k
contains n vectors (which is equivalent to i=1 dim Eλi = n).
c. The algebraic multiplicity of each eigenvalue equals its geometric mul-
tiplicity and all eigenvalues are real numbers — this condition
is missing in the textbook!.
MATH10212 • Linear Algebra • Brief lecture notes 50

In these theorems the eigenvalues are supposed to be real numbers,

although for real matrices there may be some complex roots of the charac-
teristic polynomial (in fact, these theorems remain valid for vector spaces
and matrices over C — then, of course, one does not need the condition that
the eigenvalues be all real).

Theorem 4.27 and Th. 4.23 actually give a method to decide whether A
is diagonalizable, and if yes, to find P such that P −1 AP is diagonal: the
columns of P are vectors of bases of the eigenspaces.

 
1 2 2
Example. For A = 2 1 2 the characteristic polynomial is
¯ 2 2 1 ¯
¯1 − λ 2 2 ¯¯
¯
det(A − λI) = ¯¯ 2 1−λ 2 ¯¯ =
¯ 2 2 1 − λ¯
(1 − λ) + 8 + 8 − 4(1 − λ) − 4(1 − λ) − 4(1 − λ) = · · · = −(λ − 5)(λ + 1)2 . Thus,
3

eigenvalues are 5 and −1.     

2 2 2 x1 0
Eigenspace E−1 : (A−(−1)I)~x = ~0; 2 2 2 x2  = 0; x1 = −x2 −x3 ,
 2 2  2 x3  0
 −s − t 
where x2 , x3 are free var.; E−1 =  s  | s, t ∈ R ;
 
    t
 −1 −1 
a basis of E−1 :  1 ,  0  .
 
0 1
    
−4 2 2 x1 0
Eigenspace E5 : (A − 5I)~x = ~0;  2 −4 2  x2  = 0; solve this
2 2 −4 x3   0 
 t 
system....: x1 = x2 = x3 , where x3 is a free var.; E5 = t | t ∈ R ;
 
  t
 1 
a basis of E5 : 1 .
 
1
Together the dimensions add up to 3, so B5 ∪ B−1 is a basis of R3 , so A is
diagonalizable.
   
1 −1 −1 5 0 0
Let P = 1 1 0 ; then P −1 AP = 0 −1 0 .
1 0 1 0 0 −1
(Note that is we arrange the eigenvectors in a different order, then  the 
−1 −1 1
eigenvalues on the diagonal must be arranged accordingly: let Q =  1 0 1;
  0 1 1
−1 0 0
then Q−1 AQ =  0 −1 0.)
0 0 5
MATH10212 • Linear Algebra • Brief lecture notes 51

 
3 20 29
Example. For A = 0 1 82 the eigenvalues are 3, 1, and 7. Since
0 0 7
they are distinct, the matrix is diagonalizable.
 
3 0 0
(To find that P such that P −1 AP = 0 1 0, one still needs to solve those
0 0 7
linear systems (A − (λ)I)~x = ~0......).

 
3 1 0
Example. For A = 0 3 1 the eigenvalue is 3 of alg. multiplicity 3.
 0 0 3
0 1 0
Eigenspace E3 : 0 0 1 ~x = ~0; matrix has rank 2, so dim E3 = 1. So A is
0 0 0
not digonalizable.

· ¸
100 1 2
Example. Use diagonalization to find A for A = . Eigenvalues
· ¸ 2 1 ½· ¸¾
−2 2 ~ 1
are.... −1 and 3. Eigenspace E3 : ~x = 0; x1 = x2 ; basis .
· ¸ 2 −2 ½· ¸¾ · 1 ¸
2 2 −1 −1 1
Eigenspace E−1 : ~x = ~0; x1 = −x2 ; basis . Let P = ;
2 ·2 ¸ 1 1 1
−1 0
then P −1 AP = D = . Now, A = P DP −1 , so A100 = (P DP −1 )100 =
0 3
· ¸· ¸100 · ¸
−1 −1 −1 100 −1 −1 1 −1 0 −1/2 1/2
P DP P DP · · · P DP = P D P = =
· ¸· ¸· ¸ · ¸1· 1 0 3¸ 1/2 1/2
−1 1 1 0 −1/2 1/2 −1 3100 −1/2 1/2
100 = =
1 ·1 0 3 1/2 1/2 1 3100 1/2 1/2
¸
3100 + 1 3100 − 1
(1/2) 100 .
3 − 1 3100 + 1
MATH10212 • Linear Algebra • Brief lecture notes 52

Orthogonality in Rn
We introduce the dot product of vectors in Rn by setting

~u · ~v = ~uT ~v ;

that is, if   
u1 v1
 ..   .. 
~u =  .  and ~v =  . 
un vn
then
 
v1
£ ¤ 
~u · ~v = ~uT ~v = u1 ··· un  ...  = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + · · · + un vn .
vn

The dot product is frequently called scalar product or inner product;

we shall use the latter term in a slightly more general context. Notice the
following properties of the dot product which can be easily checked directly
or immediately follow from the properties of matrix multiplication. They
~ ∈ Rn and arbitrary scalar λ.
hold for arbitrary vectors ~u, ~v , w

• ~u · ~v = ~v · ~u (commutativity).

• ~u · (~v + w)
~ = ~u · ~v + ~u · w
~
• ~u · (λ~v ) = λ(~v · ~u) (The last two properties are referred to as linearity
of the dot product.)
• ~u · ~u = u21 + · · · + u2n and therefore ~u · ~u ≥ 0. Moreover, if ~u · ~u = 0 then
~u = ~0.

We define the length (or norm) k~v k of vector

 
v1
 .. 
~v =  . 
vn

by q
√
k~v k = ~v · ~v = v12 + v22 + · · · + vn2

Orthogonal and Orthonormal Sets of Vectors

A set of vectors
~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vk
MATH10212 • Linear Algebra • Brief lecture notes 53

in Rn is called an orthogonal set if all pairs of distinct vectors in the set

are orthogonal – that is, if

~vi · ~vj = 0 whenever i 6= j for i, j = 1, 2, . . . , k

The standard basis

~e1 , ~e2 , . . . , ~en
in Rn is an orthogonal set, as is any subset of it. As the first example
illustrates, there are many other possibilities.

Example 5.1 Show that {~v1 , ~v2 , ~v3 } is an orthogonal set in R3 if

     
2 0 1
~v1 =  1  , ~v2 =  1  , ~v3 =  −1 
−1 1 1

Solution We must show that every pair of vectors from this set is orthogo-
nal. This is true, since

~v1 · ~v2 = 2(0) + 1(1) + (−1)(1) = 0

~v2 · ~v3 = 0(1) + 1(−1) + (1)(1) = 0

~v1 · ~v3 = 2(1) + 1(−1) + (−1)(1) = 0

Theorem 5.1. If
~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vk
is an orthogonal set of nonzero vectors in Rn , then these vectors are linearly
independent.

Proof If c1 , c2 , . . . , ck are scalars such that

c1~v1 + c2~v2 + · · · + ck~vk = ~0,

then
(c1~v1 + c2~v2 + · · · + ck~vk ) · ~vi = ~0 · ~vi = 0
or, equivalently,

c1 (~v1 · ~vi ) + · · · + ci (~vi · ~vi ) + · · · + ck (~vk · ~vi ) = 0 (1)

Since
~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vk
is an orthogonal set, all of the dot products in equation (1) are zero, except
~vi · ~vi . Thus, equation (1) reduces to

ci (~vi · ~vi ) = 0
MATH10212 • Linear Algebra • Brief lecture notes 54

Now, ~vi · ~vi 6= 0 because ~vi 6= ~0 by hypothesis. So we must have ci = 0. The

fact that this is true for all i = 1, . . . , k implies that

~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vk

is a linearly independent set. ¤

Remark. Thanks to the Theorem 5.1, we know that if a set of vectors

is orthogonal, it is automatically linearly independent. For example, we
can immediately deduce that the three vectors in Example 5.1 are linearly
independent. Contrast this approach with the work needed to establish
their linear independence directly!
An orthogonal basis for a subspace W of Rn is a basis of W that is an
orthogonal set.

Example 5.2. The vectors

     
2 0 1
~v1 =  1  , ~v2 =  1  , ~v3 =  −1 
−1 1 1

from Example 5.1 are orthogonal and, hence, linearly independent. Since
any three linearly independent vectors in R3 form a basis in R3 , by the
Fundamental Theorem of Invertible Matrices, it follows that ~v1 , ~v2 , ~v3 is an
orthogonal basis for R3 .

Theorem 5.2 Let

{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vk }
be an orthogonal basis for a subspace W of Rn and let w ~ be any vector in
W . Then the unique scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , ck such that

w
~ = c1~v1 + c2~v2 + · · · + ck~vk

are given by
w
~ · ~vi
ci = for i = 1, . . . , k
~vi · ~vi
Proof Since
~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vk
is a basis for W , we know that there are unique scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , ck such
that
w
~ = c1~v1 + c2~v2 + · · · + ck~vk
(from Theorem 3.29). To establish the formula for ci , we take the dot prod-
uct of this linear combination with ~vi to obtain

w
~ · ~vi = (c1~v1 + c2~v2 + · · · + ck~vk ) · ~vi

= c1 (~v1 · ~vi ) + · · · + ci (~vi · ~vi ) + · · · + ck (~vk · ~vi )

MATH10212 • Linear Algebra • Brief lecture notes 55

= ci (~vi · ~vi )
since ~vj ·~vi = 0 for j 6= i. Since ~vi 6= ~0, ~vi ·~vi 6= 0. Dividing by ~vi ·~vi , we obtain
the desired result. ¤

A unit vector is a vector of unit length. Notice that if ~v 6= ~0 then

~v
~u =
kvk
is a unit vector collinear (directed along the same line) as ~v :

~v = k~v k~u.

A set of vectors in Rn is an orthonormal set if it is an orthogonal set of

unit vectors. An orthonormal basis for a subspace W of Rn is a basis of
W that is an orthonormal set.

Theorem 5.3 Let

{~q1 , ~q2 , . . . , ~qk }
be an orthonormal basis for a subspace W of Rn and let w ~ be any vector in
W . Then
w
~ = (w~ · ~q1 )~q1 + (w
~ · ~q2 )~q2 + · · · + (w
~ · ~qk )~qk
and this representation is unique.

Theorem 5.4. The columns of an m × n matrix Q form an orthonormal set

if and only if QT Q = In .

Proof. We need to show that

½
0 if i 6= j
(QT Q)ij =
1 if i = j

Let ~qi denote the ith column of Q (and, hence, the ith row of QT ). Since
the (i, j) entry of QT Q is the dot product of the ith row of QT and the jth
column of Q, it follows that

(QT Q)ij = ~qi · ~qj (2)

by the definition of matrix multiplication.

Now the columns of Q form an orthonormal set if and only if
½
0 if i 6= j
~qi · ~qj =
1 if i = j

which, by equation (2) holds if and only if

½
T 0 if i 6= j
(Q Q)ij =
1 if i = j
MATH10212 • Linear Algebra • Brief lecture notes 56

This completes the proof. ¤

If the matrix Q in Theorem 5.4 is a square matrix, is has a special

name.
An n × n matrix Q whose columns form an orthonormal set is called an
orthogonal matrix.
The most important fact about orthogonal matrices is given by the next
theorem.

Theorem 5.5. A square matrix Q is orthogonal if and only if Q−1 = QT .

Proof. By Theorem 5.4, Q is orthogonal if and only if QT Q = I. This is true

if and only if Q is invertible and Q−1 = QT , by Theorem 3.13. ¤

Example
Each of the following matrices is orthogonal:
· ¸ · ¸ · √ √ ¸ · ¸
1 0 1 0 1/√2 1/ √2 cos α sin α
, , ,
0 1 0 −1 1/ 2 −1/ 2 sin α − cos α

Theorem 5.6. Let Q be an n × n matrix. The following statements are

equivalent:

a. Q is orthogonal.

b. ||Q~x|| = ||~x|| for every ~x in Rn .

c. Q~x · Q~y = ~x · ~y for every ~x and ~y in Rn .

Theorem 5.7. If Q is an orthogonal matrix, then its rows form an or-

thonormal set.

Theorem 5.8. Let Q be an orthogonal matrix.

a. Q−1 is orthogonal.
b. det Q = ±1.
c. If λ is an eigenvalue of Q, then |λ| = 1.
d. If Q1 and Q2 are orthogonal n × n matrices, then so is Q1 Q2 .