Motion of Fluid Particles and Streams: Upaka Rathnayake (PHD) 93

Motion of Fluid Particles and Streams
Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 93

Flow situations
The 3 main situations involving fluids in motion are:
1. Internal Flows - Flows like pipe flow where the fluid is entirely
surrounded by a solid boundary.
2. External flows - In these flows the fluid flows around the
outside of the solid. Flow of air round a building or water round
a submarine are examples of this type.
3. Free Surface flows - Flows that present a free surface to the
atmosphere. River and stream flows are of this type. A free jet
is also a free surface flow.

The best approach to analyze…?
• Our first problem is to both visualise and represent the motion
of a fluid. This is not particularly easy as a fluid does not have
any edges except perhaps the free surface and its velocity may
vary from point to point. Further, suppose a fluid is rotating,
how should this be represented and visualised?
• It is these problems which delayed our understanding of flow
since little progress could be made in the study of fluid motion
until they were overcome.
• One method might be to draw arrows to represent the velocity
vector at a large number of points in the flow.

The best approach to analyze…? Contd.
Draw arrows to represent the velocity vector at a large number of
points in the flow
The vectors form a pattern
called a flow pattern which
gives a reasonably good
feel for what is happening
Local area in the flow. However, it is
tedious to draw. This
method is often used to
represent flow patterns
resulting from computer
calculations. The method
Instantaneous 2-dimensional velocity gives a picture of the flow
vector field at a particular instant in
time.
Another method is to identify individual fluid particles and trace out
their paths as they move with the flow.
Such lines are called Pathlines.
These lines show the histories

of individual particles rather
than giving information about
the flow as a whole. They are
also the lines traced out by
floating objects placed in the
flow.

Yet another way is to tag all particles that pass through a given point
in the flow. This is usually done by introducing a stream of dye into
the flow. A line of this type is called a Streakline.
Streaklines are also the lines

produced by the commonest
flow visualisation method
called the dye injection
method.

The last method involves drawing lines through the velocity vector
field such that they are everywhere tangential to the local velocity
vector thus:
These lines, called

Streamlines, show the
flow pattern at an instant
Streamline flow pattern
in time over the whole
flow field.
This makes them particularly useful as a means of sketching the
general motion of a flow such as for instance the flow of air over a
wing. (Also provides the link to other fields)
Summary
The lines available to sketch or visualise a flow pattern are:
1.The Pathline
2.The Streakline
3.The Streamline.
Now if the flow is Steady (i.e. not changing with time) we find that
the three types of line will appear identical. This is very useful as it
allows us to make streamlines visible using dye streaming.
However, this is not the case if the flow is Unsteady (i.e. varying
with time) as the following illustration shows.

Streamlines, streaklines and Pathlines in an
unsteady flow
Here smoke from a chimney is being emitted into an unsteady

flow (i.e. both wind speed and direction are continually
changing). The streamline pattern is uniform at any instant but
changes from one instant to the next, the smoke makes a
sinuous streak in the sky while an individual puff of smoke may
follow a different path altogether.
Properties of streamlines
1. Both velocity vectors and streamlines, could be drawn in infinite
numbers. This would be useless; however, as the paper would be a
uniform shade of blue.
Instead we must draw a representative sample, sufficient to
describe the flow and leaving enough white space between the
lines to produce a clearly defined pattern.
In the case of velocity vectors, this is easy to arrange by displaying
velocity vectors for local areas distributed in a regular grid pattern.
No such simple approach exists for the Streamline.
2. Further, since no component of local velocity can cross a
streamline it follows that fluid cannot cross a streamline. This makes
streamlines particularly useful as they can be used to isolate a part
of a body of moving fluid from the rest of the flow.
Properties of streamlines contd.
3. The Definition of a Streamline is that it is a line which is
everywhere tangential to the local velocity vector. Hence
Streamlines can never cross as this would imply that the velocity
vector had two different directions at the same place.
4. Streamlines are curves in space. They may bend in 2 planes or 1

plane or they may be straight lines.

The Stream Tube
One way of isolating part of the flow is to first construct a closed loop
in the flow such that it is everywhere perpendicular to the local
velocity vector*.
Surface 2
Surface 3
Next launch streamlines from

every point on the
circumference of the loop.
Fluid entering the tube must exit through the

other end if the volume inside is to remain
constant.
Surface 1
We have now created a Stream Tube since any fluid entering one
end of the tube must come out at the other.
The tube is completed by forming a second loop at the downstream
(d/s) end of the tube. (Remember fluid cannot cross a streamline)
The tube is then closed off by forming surfaces which fill the closed
loops. These are formed in such a way that they are everywhere
perpendicular to the local velocity vector.
Surfaces 1 and 2 together with the stream tube form a surface called
a Control surface. The control surface isolates a volume of the fluid
within it.
The volume contained within the control surface is called the
Control Volume or C.V.

Examples of uses of Control Volumes
External Flows - Flow over a
Internal Flows - Flow in a Pipe
Flat Plate
N.B. Streamlines will always coincide

with solid surfaces since fluid cannot cross
a solid boundary.
Free Surface Flows -Impact of

a Free Jet

Uniform flow and steady flow
Flow conditions can vary point to point, time to time
Uniform flow - velocity at a given instant is the same in magnitude
and direction at every point in the fluid.
Non uniform flow - at the given instant, the velocity changes from
point to point
Steady flow - the velocity, pressure and cross-section of the stream
may vary from point to point but do not change with time
Unsteady flow - conditions do change with time
Steady uniform flow - Conditions do not change with position or time

Steady non-uniform flow - Conditions change from point to point but not with time
Unsteady uniform flow - At a given instant of time the velocity at every point is the
same, but this velocity will change with time
Unsteady non-uniform flow - The cross-sectional area and velocity vary from point
to point and also change with time

Real and ideal fluids
• When a real fluid flows past a boundary, the fluid immediately in contact
with the boundary will have the same velocity as the boundary
• The velocity of successive layers of fluid will increase as we move away
from the boundary
• If the stream of fluid is imagined to be of infinite width perpendicular to
the boundary, a point will be reached beyond which the velocity will
approximate to the free stream velocity, and the drag exerted by the
boundary will have no effect
• The part of the flow adjoining the boundary in which this change of
velocity occurs is known as the boundary layer
• In this region, shear stresses are developed between layers of fluid
moving with different velocities
• The thickness of the boundary layer is defined as the distance from the
boundary at which the velocity becomes equal to 99 per cent of the free
stream velocity
• Outside this boundary layer, in a real fluid, the effect of the shear
stresses due to the boundary can be ignored and the fluid can be treated
as if it were an ideal fluid Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 108
Real and ideal fluids contd.
Real fluids
Tangential or shearing forces always develop where there is motion
relative to solid body
Thus, fluid friction is created
Shear forces oppose motion of one particle past another
Friction forces gives rise to a fluid property called viscosity
Ideal fluids
A fluid with no friction
Also referred to as an inviscid (zero viscosity) fluid
Internal forces at any section within are normal (pressure forces)
Do not confuse ideal fluid with a perfect (ideal) gas
Compressible and incompressible flow
• All fluids are compressible
• So that their density will change with pressure
• But, under steady flow conditions and provided that the changes
of density are small, it is often possible to simplify the analysis of a
problem by assuming that the fluid is incompressible and of
constant density
• Since liquids are relatively difficult to compress, it is usual to treat
them as if they were incompressible for all cases of steady flow

Conveyance of Fluids by Flow
When a fluid is in motion it is said to flow from one place to another.
We may think of a fluid as flowing along a streamtube from surface
1 to surface 2.
In this way the fluid is conveyed along the tube and we often need
to calculate the rate at which this conveyance is taking place (Called
the flow rate or discharge Q).
We can calculate the rate of flow by considering surface 1 as follows:
Surface 1 Elementary area a (a

local area)
V Velocity vector
Conveyance of Fluids by Flow contd.
Surface 1 Elementary area a (a local area)
Rate of flow Q through the elementary area

 Q  Va
Then the total rate of flow through Surface 1
V Velocity vector Q   V da
surface1
Discharge = Mean Velocity  Area

Units and dimensions:
Units: m3s-1 or cumecs
Dimensions: L3T-1
Alternative Discharge Units (using units of capacity)
Litres per second (l s-1)
Note: 1000 litres = 1 m3
Mass Flux - The rate at which mass enters
the Control Volume (C.V.)
The term represents the rate at which mass of fluid is carried into the control
volume with the flow and since mass =  ×Volume
m 1    Vda
surface 1
Where is the mass flux crossing surface 1

Continuity Principle for Mass
Assuming the mass contained within the C.V. remains constant (a
requirement for the C.V. to be in a steady state) we can say that, in
any time interval  t the mass entering the C.V. must be balanced by
the mass leaving the C.V.
This is a result of the law of conservation of mass which states that
"matter can neither be created or destroyed".
Mass Flux - The rate at which mass enters
the Control Volume (C.V.) contd.
Hence considering surfaces 1 and 2
1  m
m 2
or   V da
surface1
   V da
surface2
Liquids being relatively incompressible  can for most practical purposes be treated as
a constant. Thus for a liquid:
  V da    V da
surface 1 surface 2
  V da
surface 1
  V da
surface 2
or Q1  Q2
Which is to say "Flow in = Flow out" in any given time period.
This is the also called the Continuity Equation for liquids.
Vector Notation
A more general version of this equation can be written by using the
dot product of two vectors. The equation is:
Qsurface   surface
V  n da
where n is a unit normal vector which converts da into a vector

quantity

This is because V cos  is equal to V
the component of V in the direction 
of the outward normal to the surface
and it is this component which
A or An
carries the liquid across the surface

Branching Control Volumes
Q3
Q1
Q2
The continuity equation for this control volume is : Q1  Q2  Q3

Since again: Flow in = Flow out
Note that if the sign convention (Qout positive) is adopted for Qi the continuity
relationship for a general case can be written using sigma notation
i 1
Q
i  n 1
i  0

Calculating Flow Rate across a Surface
Case 1 - Uniform Velocity Distribution e.g. a Free Jet
Velocity V1 ms-1
R
Discharge Q1   V1 da
surface 1
Q1
Velocity
But since V is the same at all points

in Surface 1 it can be treated as a Surface 1 Area A1 m2
constant thus:
Q1  V1  da  V1 A1  V1  R 2
Surface1

Case 2 - Linear Velocity Distribution e.g. Oil Film
Discharge Q1   V1 da
surface 1
But in this case V is not constant

over the entire Surface 1 so instead
we need to find an expression for
the rate of flow across the element
and then integrate the expression to
get the total flow.
Flow across element Q  Vya  Vy by

t
Therefore: Q1  b 0
Vy dy
t
But 
0
Vy dy = Area under the Velocity Profile
 Q1 = b×½ t Vmax

Case 2 - Linear Velocity Distribution e.g. Oil Film
Alternatively, using similar triangles
Vy y Vmax y
 or Vy 
Vmax t t
Hence Q1 
Vmax b t
t  0
ydy 
Vmax b 1 2 t
t 2 y 0
 
1 2
V b t
 2 max  12 Vmax b t  V A
t

Example - Rate of flow of oil under moving plate
b=1.2 m
Width b = 1.2 m
Flow area A = 0.00036 m2
Mean Velocity = V  0.8 ms 1
Discharge Q = V A
 0.000288 m3 s 1
 0.288 s 1
Case 3 - Parabolic Velocity Distribution e.g. Viscous Pipe Flow
Flow across element Q  Vra  Vr  2 r r

R
Therefore: Q1  2 
0
Vr rdr
Where R is the radius of the control volume

R
But 2 0 Vr rdr = Volume contained within the paraboloid of
revolution which, from analytic geometry, is equal to ½ Base area ×
height.
So Q1 = ½ × R2 ×Vmax
Bulk or Mean Flow Velocity

The bulk or mean flow velocity is defined as the uniformly distributed velocity
which would produce the same rate of flow across the section as that produced by
the actual velocity distribution. Hence:
Q
V 
A
So for viscous flow in a pipe: V  1
2 Vmax

Alternatively - (By integration of the parabolic Velocity
Profile )
R
Q1  2  Vr rdr
0
Using a Normalised Velocity Profile
Parabola
Vr 2
y  x 2
 1   r
Vmax R2
Vr 2
or 1  r
Vmax R2
 Velocity at any
radius r
Vr  Vmax  1  r 2
R2 
So, substituting for Vr
Q1  2 Vmax  rdr  max 2  r 3 dr 

R V R
 0 R 0 
  
 2 Vmax 1 2 r 2 0  1 2 1 4 r 4 0
R
R
R

or
Q1  1
2  R 2  Vmax
124
Alternative Method for obtaining the velocity profile
equation
First writing a general second order polynomial (eq to any parabola):
y  ax 2  bx  c
Which becomes Vr  ar 2  br  c
r0 : Vr  Vmax
rR : Vr  0
Substituting the boundary conditions the known boundary conditions:
a  02  b  0  c  Vmax  c  Vmax
Vmax
a  R 2  b  R  Vmax  0  a  
R2
Now back substituting in the original equation
r2
Vy   Vmax 2  0 R  Vmax
R
 r2 
whence Vy  Vmax 1  2  as required
 R  Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 125
Summary
The Law of Conservation of Mass (Continuity Principle)
The rate at which mass enters a closed volume within a body of fluid
must equal the rate at which mass leaves the volume plus the rate of
change of mass within the closed volume.
Note
When dealing with liquids, the law of conservation of mass reduces
to the simpler law of conservation of volume since liquids can be
assumed to be incompressible in most Civil engineering applications.
Thus for liquids under steady state conditions the law reduces to
Rate of Inflow equals Rate of Outflow or
Qin = Qout
Calculate the values of Q1, V1, Q2, Q3, d3, Q4, and V4 in the pipe
network below.
Assume all quoted velocities are mean velocities.

Flow in a pipe
In this section we seek the relationship between the rate at which a
pipeline can transport the fluid (either as discharge Q or as mean
velocity V ) and the energy which will be required to maintain the
flow. We may expect this relationship will depend on a number of
factors including:
1. The size of the pipe d
2. The viscosity of the fluid 
3. The density of the fluid 
The energy loss will appear as a loss of pressure head called the
Friction head hf.
This is because friction cannot act to reduce the velocity of the flow
as it would reduce the speed of a solid (e.g. a car) since in pipe flow
the continuity law V = Q/A must always
Upaka Rathnayake (PhD)be obeyed. 128
Flow in a pipe
Discharge = Q1  Q2  Q
From Newton’s Law of Viscosity

Boundary Shear Stress dV
o  
dy
Where the differential value is taken at the pipe

wall (i.e. y = 0 or r = R)
Net pressure force acting d/s (i.e.

down stream) on the C.V.
Pressure Force = P1  P2  A  R 2 P1  P2 
 g R 2 h1  h2 
Where hf is the head loss due to fluid friction  g R 2 h f
If the flow is Steady (not accelerating) then this force must be in equilibrium with
the boundary shear force due to the boundary shear stress o, thus:
τ o  2 RL   g R 2
hf
 g R 2 h f
 τ o 
2 RL
Also h f is the slope of the Hydraulic Grade Line i.

L
Whence  o  1
2  gRi  1
4  gdi 
where d is the pipe diameter

Again using the Normalised Velocity Profile
1 
Vr
Vmax
Parabolic  1  Vr
V max
 R
 r
2
1
r
Vr
1
Vmax
Vertex
r
R
1
Velocity profile equation Vmax r 2
Vr  Vmax 
R2
dVr 2V r
Velocity gradient at radius r =   max
dr R2
But at the wall r = R

131
Upaka Rathnayake (PhD)
Velocity profile equation Vmax r 2
Vr  Vmax 
R2
dVr 2V r
Velocity gradient at radius r =   max
dr R2
But at the wall r = R
 
dVr
dr 
rR
 
2Vmax R
R2
 
2Vmax
R
dV  2Vmax
 y  
 dy  R
y o
By substituting in Newton's Law of Viscosity we find that the wall shear is:
2Vmax 4Vmax
 o   
R d
where d is the pipe diameter
Eliminating o between  and 
4Vmax  gdi

d 4
16Vmax
i 
 gd 2
32 V
Or in terms of the mean velocity i 
 gd 2
Therefore, friction head
32 L V
hf  This is the well known Hagen- Poiseuille equation.
 gd 2

Another Anomaly
Anomaly = something that deviates from what is standard, normal, or expected.
Results obtained using the Hagen-Poiseuille proved to be very puzzling

to both scientists and engineers.
Laboratory experiments using small diameter pipes and/or viscous fluids
gave results which agreed very well with theoretical results from the
equation.
However, when used to design water distribution systems, the losses
always seemed to greatly exceed those predicted leading to unsatisfactory
performance.
This lead to the introduction of a non-dimensional parameter called the
friction factor f (analogous to the coefficient of friction in solid body
mechanics) as a way for engineers to allow empirically for the effects of
fluid friction in their designs.

In current practice the friction factor is defined by the formula:
f 
 o
1
2 V 2
N.B. There is a rival defining formula for friction factor namely: f   o
1
8 V 2
suppose  o  1
2  V 2
f
 g R 2 h f
When used to substitute for o this gives: τ 
2 RL

o
 1  gRi  1  gdi 
o 2 4
 g Rh f
τ 
 gdh f
o
2L
1
2 V f 
2 1
4  gdi   g dh f
4L τ o 
4L
4 f LV 2
hf  This is called Darcy's equation
2gd
If this is made equal to Hagen's hf we get 4 f LV 2 32 LV

2gd  gd 2
4 f LV 2 32 LV

2gd  gd 2
16 16
f  
V d  Vd

It was soon recognised that the term  Vd contains just those factors which

seemed to determine whether Hagen's equation gave good or poor results.
This lead to a very famous series of experiments by Osborne Reynolds in which he
sought to explain these puzzling results.

Reynolds' Experiments
In essence Reynolds found that there were in fact two kinds of flow.
In the first the fluid progressed along the pipe in an orderly manner as
if it was in layers or laminae.
He called this kind of flow Laminar Flow.
He deduced this from the fact that his dye stream remained intact to
the end of the pipe.

The other kind of flow was characterised by a highly disorganised motion in
which random fluctuations in the flow direction caused his dye stream to
break up sending dye to all parts of the pipe.
He called this kind of flow Turbulent Flow.
He also found that Hagen's equation was satisfactory only for the
laminar kind of flow.
If the flow was turbulent the measured frictional resistance of the flow was
much greater

The non-dimensional parameter  Vd / is called the Reynolds' Number Re
in honour of this work.
 Vd
Re 

As flow changes from one kind of flow to the other we see slugs of turbulent
flow being produced as the laminar flow starts to break down.
This is called critical flow and it occurs over a narrow range of Reynolds'
numbers which lie between about 2,000 and 4,000 called the lower and upper
critical Reynolds’ Numbers.

How Turbulence effects the Velocity Profile
This change occurs because the same secondary flow that mixes the dye
over the cross section also mixes high velocity fluid from the centre line
with low velocity fluid from near the wall.
This has the effect of both reducing the maximum velocity and increasing
the velocity near the wall.

Summary
 Streamlines are the most commonly used means of describing flow
patterns.
 Stream tubes can be formed from streamlines.
 Stream tubes are used to create control volumes which control
calculations involving bodies of fluid.
 Flow causes fluid to enter the C.V. at a rate which depends on the
Velocity Distribution.
 Rate of flow into the C.V. is equal to the mean velocity V  Area of
cross section A
 Fluid Friction reduces pressure in the pipe (or head) not velocity.
 In Fluid Mechanics we use a parameter called the friction factor f which
takes the place of the Coefficient of Friction Cf in solid body mechanics.
141
Upaka Rathnayake (PhD)
Summary
 The value of the Reynolds’ number usually determines which kind of
flow will be occurring in a pipe.
 For a given flow rate, the pressure drop produced by a turbulent flow
will be greater than that produced by a laminar flow.

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Motion of Fluid Particles and Streams

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 93

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 94

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 95

These lines show the histories

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 97

Streaklines are also the lines

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 98

These lines, called

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 100

Here smoke from a chimney is being emitted into an unsteady

4. Streamlines are curves in space. They may bend in 2 planes or 1

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 103

Next launch streamlines from

Fluid entering the tube must exit through the

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 105

N.B. Streamlines will always coincide

Free Surface Flows -Impact of

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 106

Steady uniform flow - Conditions do not change with position or time

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 107

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 110

Surface 1 Elementary area a (a

Rate of flow Q through the elementary area

Discharge = Mean Velocity  Area

Where is the mass flux crossing surface 1

where n is a unit normal vector which converts da into a vector

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 115

The continuity equation for this control volume is : Q1  Q2  Q3

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 116

But since V is the same at all points

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 117

But in this case V is not constant

Flow across element Q  Vya  Vy by

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 118

Alternatively, using similar triangles

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 119

Flow across element Q  Vra  Vr  2 r r

Where R is the radius of the control volume

Bulk or Mean Flow Velocity

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 122

Using a Normalised Velocity Profile

Q1  2 Vmax  rdr  max 2  r 3 dr 

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 127

From Newton’s Law of Viscosity

Where the differential value is taken at the pipe

Net pressure force acting d/s (i.e.

Also h f is the slope of the Hydraulic Grade Line i.

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 130

But at the wall r = R

But at the wall r = R

Therefore, friction head

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 133

Results obtained using the Hagen-Poiseuille proved to be very puzzling

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 134

N.B. There is a rival defining formula for friction factor namely: f   o

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 136

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 137