Land Grants To Temples Under The Pallavas: Chopra.P.N., History of South India, Delhi, 1979, p.66. E.I., Vol - XVII, p.17
Land Grants To Temples Under The Pallavas: Chopra.P.N., History of South India, Delhi, 1979, p.66. E.I., Vol - XVII, p.17
Land Grants To Temples Under The Pallavas: Chopra.P.N., History of South India, Delhi, 1979, p.66. E.I., Vol - XVII, p.17
123
Chopra.P.N., History of South India, Delhi, 1979, p.66.
124
E.I., Vol.XVII, p.17.
and granted the village Paramesvara Mangalam.125
The Pallava power was eclipsed by the rise of the Imperial Cholas.
Kampavarman's reign marked the close of Pallava power in 980 A.D. The
Cholas rose again and grew into glory and greatness at the expense of the
Pallavas.
During the Pallava period the concept of divine origin of kingship was
125
Thirty Pallava Copper Plates, pp.33-60; S.I.I., Vol.I, pp.141-155.
accepted. They claimed that they belonged to the Bharadvaja gotra. The
kings were ardent followers of Hindu sastras.
In the early Pallava period the royal land donations made to the
Brahmins is comparatively more than that to the temple. The Pallavas,
Pandyas and the Cholas welcomed the Brahmin migrants to Tamilnadu from
various parts of India and made enormous gifts to them.128 Only scanty
information is available regarding the other sections of the society.
During the key days of Pallava rule, their territory included the
present Madras, Chengai, M.G.R.Vallalar in South Arcot, Sambuvarayar in
North Arcot and parts of Trichi Districts of Tamilnadu. Even their rule
extended upto Chittoor district in Andhra Pradesh.129
130
Ibid., pp.51-52.
131
Subramanian, N., History of Tamilnadu upto 1336 A.D., Madurai, 1972, p.383.
132
Cultural and Religious Heritage of India, Vol.III, Delhi, 2004, pp.1-3.
133
Ramasamy Sastri, K., The Tamils and their Culture, Annamalai Nagar, 1967,
p.77.
materials like brick and timber. The last inference of the Mandagapattu
inscription134 is important it proves that the Hindus knew perfectly well how
to build temples during the period of Mahendravarman I. Which led to the
evolution of so many temples during the period of the Pallavas followed by
the Pandyas and the Cholas. Mahendravarman I built the temple for
Triumvirate namely Siva, Vishnu and Brahma.
134
E.I., Vol.XVII, p.17.
135
S.I.I., Vol.XII, Nos.8 and 9.
136
S.I.I., Vol.XIV, No.44.
137
S.I.I., Vol.XII, No.129.
138
S.I.I., Vol.XIV, No.27.
139
S.I.I., Vol.XIII, No.287; S.I.I., Vol.XIV, No.98.
140
E.I., Vol.VI, p.32b; S.I.I., Vol.XIV, No.3.
141
S.I.I., Vol.VIII, No.663.
142
Ibid.
143
S.I.I., Vol.XIII, No.314.
Land being the immovable property, (i) it was easy for the donors to
donate them having easy access to the temples; (ii)donors preferred donating
the lands which ever yielding, perpetual gifts unmarred by the change of
time and fury of nature; (iii) yields from the lands became the major fiscal
source of revenue for the temples and it was to be used only for the specific
services;144 (iv) land was the most important, the most valuable, and most
desired commodity of gifts in medieval times. It enabled the donees to meet
almost all the wants of medieval households economy directly or
indirectly;145 (v) the enormous endowments in land made to the temples
show that the king and his people aimed at leaving no want of the temple
unsupplied;146 and (vi) attainment of a place in heaven is the fruit of gifts of
land.147
The land were measured in terms of veli, kuli and ma. Generally
when the lands were to be given away as gifts, the boundary of the
village to be given away was fixed by following the beat of a female
elephant.148 In Prakrit and early Sanskrit inscriptions mention the extent of
land measured by the plough, nivartana or pattika. Later on padagam is
used in the sense of cultivable land. The boundaries of lands in Pallava
times were measured and fixed differently.149
Gift lands donated to Siva temples were marked by a stone called
"tirsulakkal" and in case of Vaishnava temple by tirunalikkal and on the
144
S.I.I., Vol.II, p.76.
145
Pandeya, B.K., Op.cit., p.10.
146
S.I.I., Vol.II, p.11.
147
Appadurai, A., Economic Conditions of South India, 1000-1500 A.D., Vol.I,
Madras, 1936, p.26.
148
Sastri, K.A.N., Pandyan Kingdom - from Earliest Time to 16th Century A.D.,
Madras, 1972, p.88.
149
Minakshi, C., Op.cit.‚ pp.107 - 108.
boundary stones of Jain temple the three umbrellas (mukkudaikkal) were
inscribed.150
The kings not only built most of these temples but made liberal
endowments for the regular services and special festivities. The large tracts
of lands were granted to big and small temples by kings. They were called
as devadanams which were either partly or fully exempted from taxes.
In the early Pallava grants, the orders of the village or land gifts as
150
A.R.E., 135/1939 - 40.
151
Ananthi, B., Crime and Punishment in Early Tamil Society, Madurai. 2002,
p.96.
devadana was issued by the king himself to his officials with instructions to
make a note of the gift in the register and to grant the village all kinds of
immunities making it an entirely tax - free village.152
In the early Pallava period, the royal land donations made to the
Brahmins is comparatively more than that to the temple. Gift of villages
formed an important source of revenue to the temple. It placed the temples
on permanent financial status. There are only few instances of village grants
to temples during the period of the Pallavas.
The earliest known copper plate inscription in Tamil and the earliest
village grant to the religious institution was issued by Simhavarman in his
sixth regnal year in 550 A.D was Pallankovil grant. It records the grant of
the village Amanserkkai in Perunagarnadu in Venkunrakkottam and
Sixteen and half patti of land in Tamar to Vajranandikkuravar, a Jaina
teacher of Paruttikkunru as pallichchandam.157 The boundaries of the
donated village are clearly mentioned in the inscription. Narabhaya, the
minister figures as the ajnapati of the grant. It indicates the spirit of
152
Minakshi, C.., Op.cit., p.163.
153
Svadatti : Indicates the gift made out of one's own will.
154
Paradatti : gift made at the request of others.
155
S.I.I.,Vol.XII, No.44.
156
Executing officer.
157
Thirty Pallava Copper plates, pp.18 – 31; T.A.S.S.I, 1958-59, pp. 41-83.
tolerance that prevailed among the members of the Pallava royal family
towards the other religious sects.
The donor of the Velurpalayam grant is Nandivarman III who was the
grandson of Nandivarman II. He was a great devotee of Siva. His reign
158
Thirty Pallava Copper plates, pp. 33 – 60; S.I.I., Vol.I, pp.141 -155.
159
S.I.I., Vol.XII, No.44; A.R.E., 89/1921.
160
Chopra, P.N., Op.cit., p.66.
witnessed the ascendancy of Saivism. In this case, the complete
proprietorship rights over the village were not given to the donees. Only the
kings income from the village is diverted to the religious institution. The
village Tirukattupalli was donated by the Pallava king Nandivarman to the
temple of Mahadeva at Velurpalayam in 852 A.D. The Velurpalayam plates
clearly state that taxes and immunities received by the king within the
jurisdiction of the village were now assigned to the temple and not the
ownership of the village.161 Nandippottaraiyar who defeated his enemies
at Tellaru made a gift of land to the pidari temple of Mangalam at
Niyamam.162
161
A.R.E., 1911-14, p.14; S.I.I., Vol.II., Part V, No.98.
162
A.R.E., 11/1899.
163
S.I.I., Vol.III, No.43.
of vamana.164
It was also necessary for the king to maintain properly the land
donations previously made to the temple. At Tirukkalukkunram the Pallava
king Skandasisya gifted certain tax free land to the local temple and
accordingly Narasingapottaraiyar Narasimhavarman I had to confirm the
grant. Following this Rajakesarivarman Aditya I at the request of an
individual maintained the grant like the former kings.167
There are occasional references to the grant of pallichchandams in
the stone inscriptions of the later Pallava rulers such us those of
Nandivarman II and Kampavarman.168
The status of women was fairly high in the upper strata of Pallava
164
Thiruttani and Velanjeri copper plates, A.R.E., 1977 - 78, p.35.
165
S.I.I., Vol.XII, No.93; A.R.E., 180/1912.
166
A.R.E., 309/1969-70.
167
E.I., Vol.III, No.38A.
168
Minakshi, C., Op.cit., p.168.
society. The Pallava queens were pious and made endowments to the
temple. Charudevi one of the earliest Pallava queen of the heir-apparent
Vijaya Buddhavarman made a gift of four nivartanas of land to a Vishnu
temple at Dalura.169
The royal ladies also made village grants after getting concurrence
from the reigning king. An inscription from Manalurpet, South Arcot
District registers a gift of village for offerings and lamp by a royal lady with
the permission of her elder brother.170
The Muttarayas were the petty ruling chiefs ruled the portions of
modern Thanjavur and Thiruchirappalli district, Sendalai,172 a small village
near Tirukkattupalli and Niyamam173 as centres of their activity. They were
the feudatories of the later Pallava kings like Dantivarman and his
successors. They also donated lands to temple.
169
E.I., Vol.VIII, p.146.
170
A.R.E., 469/1937-38.
171
Rajalakshmi.R, Tamil Polity, Madurai, 1983, p.65.
172
S.I.I.,Vol.XIII, No.187.
173
A.R.E., 202/1926.
A Tirumayyam inscription174 refers to a Perumbidugu Perundevi, the
mother of Sattan Maran. She has repaired the Vishnu temple namely
Satyagirinathaperumal temple at Tirumayyam and granted some lands for
the upkeep of the temple. She granted it as a tax free gift inclusive of
Karanmai, Kudimai and Miyatchi rights.
The Banas were orginally feudatories of the Satavahanas and after the
fall of them they became feudatories of the Pallavas of Kanchi. The Banas
figure as feudatories of the Pallavas from the reign of Nandivarman II.176
Bana inscription from Gudimallam.dated in the 23rd year of Nandivarma II
Pallavamalla records a gift of land for a lamp to burn in the Paramesvara
temple at Tiruvippirambedu (ie) Gudimallam.177
174
I.P.S., Part I, No.13.
175
Ibid., Part II, No.237.
176
S.I.I.,Vol.III, No.90.
177
A.R.E., 229/1923.
178
S.I.I., Vol.III, Nos.42 and 43.
(alias) Kadu Pattipperaraiyan, the chief who had connection with the
Pallavas made a gift of the village Turaiyur including its income in gold and
puravu179 for conducting the worship in the temple of Matangesvara at
Tirumatanganpalli in Tekkurnadu, a subdivision of Paiyyur Ilankottam.180
179
A tax on land collected either in kind or coin.
180
S.I.I.,Vol.XII, No.86.
181
A.R.E., 154/1942-43.
182
A person in charge of conduct of ceremonies in the temple
183
S.I.I.,Vol.XII, No.58.
of the temples and to the best of their capacity.
Another inscription of the same period records the gift of 250 kulis of
land free of tax in Nallur to the west of Simmali by Sadaiyan Attimallan of
Simmali to Intalainadu for providing food offerings at the time of the mid-
day worship to the deity Tirukkalisvarattu Mahadeva at Nallur, a
brahmadeya in the same nadu.185
A record dated in the 5th year of Nandivarman III registers the gift of
village for offerings and lamp to the Agastyesvara temple at Manalurpet, in
Thirukkoyilur taluk, South Arcot district by Mahadevadigal, the daughter of
Vanakovaraiyar Siddhavadavanar with the permission of her elder brother
Vayirimeganar.187
184
S.I.I., Vol.XII, No.47.
185
A.R.E., 120/1974-75.
186
A.R.E., 324/1992-93.
187
A.R.E., 169/1937-38.
epigraph of Nirpatunga in 871 A.D records a gift of six mas of land for
providing offerings to the god Mahadeva at Pillaipakkam by a certain
Ayyakkuttiyar for the merit of his elder brother Pillaippakkilar of
Pillaippakkam in Sriperumbudur Taluk, Chingleput district.188
In the 7th year of his reign, Paliyili Sriyanaigai, the wife of Minavan
Tamiladiyaraiyan189 made an endowment as archana bhogam to the Sattan
of the sabha a free gift of kani to the extent of 3 velis of land and for these
stipulating that the land should be inalienable and that not only the taxes due
there on be including irrigation taxes of every kind should be dedicated as
offerings to the temple but the land should be enjoyed by the Sattan of the
sabha and his descendants. If he failed or in case of the extent of the breach,
the donee shall be liable to a penalty of 25 kalanjus of gold to be paid to the
temple.190
188
S.I.I., Vol.XII, No.80, A.R.E., 172/1930.
189
The Pallavas of Tamil country.
190
I.P.S., part I, No.19.
191
A.R.E., 251/1967 - 68.
archanabhoga to provide for worship to the god Agastisvarar by a certain
sankan.192
A fragmentary record of the same king registers a gift of 7 mas of
land to the Siva temple at Pillaipakkam by a certain Padirikilar Singan.193
192
S.I.I., Vol.XII., No.83; A.R.E., 108/1933 - 34
193
S.I.I., Vol.XII No.81; A.R.E., 172 A/1929 - 30
194
Dharmigal : A body that managed the charitable endowments.
195
S.I.I., Vol.XII, No.95; A.R.E., 435/1905.
196
A.R.E., 433/1905 Thirutttani copper plates of Aparajithavarman
197
S.I.I., Vol.XII No.105; A.R.E., 372/1911
198
S.I.I., Vol.XII No.108; A.R.E., 345/1906.
South Walls of the Kailasanatha temple, Kilpulam, Arkonam Taluk, North
Arcot District registers a gift of land made by Mullikkudaiyan Adittanali for
conducting the sribali ceremony and for offerings during the three services
the temple of Triukkulichcharattu - Alvar at Palkalam in Damar - Kottam
with five persons one beating the gong (segandigai) and two for blowing the
trumpets (kalam). The assembly of Palkalam entrusted the endowed land to
Arayanichchingan, a drummer (uvachchan) residing in the village.199
The land donation by individuals mainly of non-brahmins were in
some cases made after getting concurrence from the reigning king. An
inscription from Tiruvallam in 793 A.D states that a Goldsmith granted some
land to a temple at Vanapuram after purchasing it from a manradi
(Shepherd) and the Bana king permitted the grant after circumambulating the
hamlet.200
199
S.I.I., Vol.XII, No.114; A.R.E., 152/1916.
200
S.I.I., Vol.XII, No.16.
201
A.R.E., 47/1913.
202
S.I.I., Vol.XII, No.47.
203
A.R.E., 435/1905.
204
S.I.I., Vol.XII, No.105.
The temples were great gifts of medieval Hinduism to the Tamil
country. For the construction, maintenance and renovation of temples, the
rulers, royal family members, village assemblies and chieftains lavishly
granted lands for the conduct of festivals, regular prayers and pujas. Of all
the benefactors, the kings of the medieval period involved themselves in the
philanthropic and religious activities on a large scale so next to the rulers the
temples were the chief land owners of the country.
The lands gifted by kings fall into one of the following four groups:
(i)land which was the property of the crown. The Pallava kings owned
personal farms in villages;205 (ii)land which was unoccupied; (iii) land
confiscated to the state for the non-payment of revenue or treason or for
some other cases; and (iv) the land which was in the hands of a private
individual or a village community. It was purchased by the state and made
over to the grantee.206
The lands endowed to the temple should not be always under its
absolute ownership. They were donated with many or any one of the rights
like karanmai, miyatchi and kani rights.207 The lands which were held
under the absolute ownership of temples of Siva and Vishnu temples were
called as tirunamattukani208 and tiruvidaiyattam209 respectively. In many
205
Thirty Pallava Copper Plates, p.326.
206
A.R.E., 433 and 435 /1906; S.I.I., Vol XII, No.93.
207
I.P.S., Part I, No.13; I.P.S., Part II, No.237.
208
S.I.I., Vol XVII, No.144.
cases the right of alienation of lands by temples was not given. The land
was donated after withdrawing the kings right on it. Kovum porium matri.210
The land became the major source of revenue to the temple so care
was taken before transferring the land to the temples. The rights of the
previous occupants known as kudi of the donated land were protected. In
most of the cases the occupants of the village or the lands were not evicted
and it was known in the records as kudininga devadanam. During the
medieval period this type of devadanam was popular. In some cases, the
rights of the previous occupants of the donated land were evicted and it was
known as kudinikki devadanam. But the reason for the eviction was not
209
A.R.E., 34/1936-37.
210
Thirty Pallava Copper Plates
211
Kenneth, R. Hall, Trade and Statecraft in the Age of the Cholas, Delhi, 1980,
p.23.
212
A.R.E., 324/1992-93.
213
Minakshi, C., Op.cit., p.167.
known.214
The Pallavas donated lands to Siva, Vishnu temples and Jain pallis.
The donated lands were situated in Kurram, Uttukkadu, Achcharavakkam,
Pillaipakkam, Satyavedu, Pillaipalayam, Tiruvorriyur in Chingleput district.
Tiruttani, Nenmali in Chittoor district. Manalurpet, Kilinelur in South Arcot
district. Velurpalayam Dusi in North Arcot district. Tirumayyam, Nallur
Tiruvaigavur, Mangalam in Tanjore District.
While Quantifying the land grants to the temples under the Pallavas
we came to know about the number of land measurement practised during
the Pallava period. Many of these continued even today in Tamil country.
The Pallavas made both village grants and land grants. The village
grants were made mostly by the kings. There are few instances of village
Grants to temples during the period of the Pallavas. The kings like
Simhavarman, Paramesvaravarman I, Aparajithavarman, Nandivarman III
granted villages to the temple.225 Perumbidugu Perundevi, the mother of
Videlvidugu Vilupperadi Araisan alias Sattanmaran, the feudatory of the
Pallavas granted village to the Siva temple, Tirumayyam.226
The most favourable kind of donation was the land donation. The
land donation was praised in the Pallava charters as the best dana than any
other dana.227 There are many kind of land donations referred to in the
inscriptions during Pallava period. In many cases the fallow or dry land was
219
S.I.I., Vol.XII, No.105; A.R.E., 372/1911.
220
E.I.,.Vol VIII, p.121.
221
S.I.I., Vol.XII, No.95; A.R.E., 433 and 435/1905.
222
Minakshi, C., Op.cit, p.108.
223
A.R.E., 33/1900.
224
Subramanian, N., The Tamils (Their History, Culture and Civilization), Madras,
1996, p.96.
225
S.I.I., Vol.I, pp.141-155; S.I.I., Vol.II, Part I, No.98.
226
A.R.E., 402/1906.
227
E.I., Vol.XXIV, pp.209-303; E.I., Vol..XXXII, pp. 91-92.
made fit for cultivation228 and donated to the temple. Lands were also
donated to the temple after their purchase from the corporate bodies 229 or
from the individuals.230 More than 33, 860 kulis of land were donated to
different temples in chingleput district, Chittoor district, North Arcot district,
South Arcot district, Tanjore district231 and so on. Some of the Pallava
inscriptions simply mentioned the gift of land, the
measurement was not given.232 Apart from the ordinary lands the garden
land were also donated to the temple.233
In the early Pallava period the land donations made to the Brahmins
was more than that made to the temple, but in the later Pallava period the
temples received lots of land donations and gradually the temple became the
biggest land holder.
228
S.I.I., Vol VI, No.446; S.I.I., Vol.III, No.45.
229
S.I.I., Vol.XII, No.58.
230
S.I.I., Vol.VI, No.356; S.I.I., Vol.III, No.42.
231
S.I.I., Vol.XII, No.114; I.P.S., Part I, No.19.
232
A.R.E., 324/1992 - 93.
233
A.R.E., 251/1967 - 68.