The Western Gangas[edit]

Statue of Bahubali as Gommateshvara built by the Western Ganga is one of the largest monolithic statues
in the world.

Main article: Western Gangas

The Western Ganga Dynasty (3501000 CE) (Kannada: ) was an important
ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India. They are known as Western Gangas to distinguish
them from the Eastern Gangas, who in later centuries ruled over modern Odisha. The general
belief is the Western Gangas began their rule during a time when multiple native clans asserted
their freedom due to the weakening of the Pallava dynasty of South India, a geo-political event
sometimes attributed to the southern conquests of Samudragupta. The Western Ganga
sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550 CE, initially ruling from Kolar and later moving their
capital to Talakad on the banks of the Kaveri in modern Mysore district.
After the rise of the imperial Chalukya dynasty of Badami, the Gangas accepted Chalukya
overlordship and fought for the cause of their overlords against the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
The Chalukyas were replaced by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta in 753 CE as the dominant
power in the Deccan. After a century of struggle for autonomy, the Western Gangas finally
accepted Rashtrakuta overlordship and successfully fought alongside them against their foes,
the Chola dynasty of Tanjavur. In the late 10th century, north of Tungabhadra river, the
Rashtrakutas were replaced by the emerging Western Chalukya Empire and the Chola Dynasty
saw renewed power south of the Kaveri. The defeat of the Western Gangas by Cholas around
1000 resulted in the end of Ganga influence over the region.
Though territorially a small kingdom, the Western Ganga contribution to polity, culture and
literature of the modern south Karnataka region is considered important. The Western Ganga
kings showed benevolent tolerance to all faiths but are most famous for their patronage
towards Jainism resulting in the construction of monuments in places such
as Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. The kings of this dynasty encouraged the fine arts due
to which literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flourished. Chavundaraya's writing, Chavundaraya
Purana of 978 CE, is an important work in Kannada prose. Many classics were written on
subjects ranging from religious topics to elephant management.

The Badami Chalukyas[edit]

Main article: Chalukya Empire
See also: Badami Chalukya Architecture, Pattadakal, Badami Cave Temples, and Aihole
The Chalukya Empire, natives of the Aihole and Badami region in Karnataka, were at first a
feudatory of the Kadambas.[68][69] [70][71][72] They encouraged the use of Kannada in addition to the
Sanskrit language in their administration.[73][74] In the middle of the 6th century the Chalukyas came
into their own when Pulakeshin I made the hill fortress in Badami his center of power.[75] During
the rule of Pulakeshin II a south Indian empire sent expeditions to the north past the Tapti
River and Narmada River for the first time and successfully defied Harshavardhana, the King of
Northern India (Uttarapatheswara). The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II, written in classical
Sanskrit language and old Kannada script dated 634,[76][77] proclaims his victories against the
Kingdoms of Kadambas, Western Gangas, Alupas of South Canara, Mauryas of Puri, Kingdom
of Kosala, Malwa, Lata and Gurjaras of southern Rajasthan. The inscription describes how King
Harsha of Kannauj lost his Harsha (joyful disposition) on seeing a large number of his war
elephants die in battle against Pulakeshin II.[78][79][80][81][82]

Badami Cave Temples No 3. (Vishnu)

These victories earned him the title Dakshinapatha Prithviswamy (lord of the south). Pulakeshin
II continued his conquests in the east where he conquered all kingdoms in his way and reached
the Bay of Bengal in present-day Odisha. A Chalukya viceroyalty was set up in Gujarat and Vengi
(coastal Andhra) and princes from the Badami family were dispatched to rule them. Having
subdued the Pallavas of Kanchipuram, he accepted tributes from the Pandyas of Madurai, Chola
dynasty and Cheras of the Kerala region. Pulakeshin II thus became the master of India, south of
the Narmada River.[83] Pulakeshin II is widely regarded as one of the great kings in Indian history.
[84][85]
Hiuen-Tsiang, a Chinese traveller visited the court of Pulakeshin II at this time
and Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged ambassadors.[86] However, the continuous wars
with Pallavas took a turn for the worse in 642 when the Pallava king Narasimhavarman
I avenged his father's defeat,[87]conquered and plundered the capital of Pulakeshin II who may
have died in battle.[87][88] A century later, Chalukya Vikramaditya II marched victoriously
into Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital and occupied it on three occasions, the third time under
the leadership of his son and crown prince Kirtivarman II. He thus avenged the earlier humiliation
of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the
Kailasanatha Temple.[89][90][91][92] He later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the
Pandyas, Cholas and Keralas in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler.[93]
The Kappe Arabhatta record from this period (700) in tripadi (three line) metre is considered the
earliest available record in Kannada poetics. The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty
is the architecture and art that they left behind.[94] More than one hundred and fifty monuments
attributed to them, built between 450 and 700, have survived in the Malaprabha basin in
Karnataka.[95] The constructions are centred in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan
heartland. The structural temples at Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the cave
temples of Badami, the temples at Mahakuta and early experiments in temple building
at Aihole are their most celebrated monuments.[94] Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no.
1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are also credited to
them. [96] [97] Further, they influenced the architecture in far off places like Gujarat and Vengi as
evidenced in the Nava Brahma temples at Alampur.[98]

The Pallavas[edit]
Main article: Pallava Empire

Shore Temple in Mamallapuram built by the Pallavas. (c. eighth century CE)

The 7th century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the Pallavas under Mahendravarman I and his
son Mamalla Narasimhavarman I. The Pallavas were not a recognised political power before the
2nd century.[99] It has been widely accepted by scholars that they were originally executive officers
under the Satavahana Empire.[100] After the fall of the Satavahanas, they began to get control over
parts of Andhra and the Tamil country. Later they had marital ties with the Vishnukundina who
ruled over the Deccan. It was around 550 AD under King Simhavishnu that the Pallavas emerged
into prominence. They subjugated the Cholas and reigned as far south as the Kaveri River.
Pallavas ruled a large portion of South India with Kanchipuram as their capital. Dravidian
architecture reached its peak during the Pallava rule.[citation needed]Narasimhavarman II built the Shore
Temple which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Many sources describe Bodhidharma, the
founder of the Zen school of Buddhism in China, as a prince of the Pallava dynasty.[101]

The Eastern Chalukyas[edit]

Main article: Eastern Chalukyas
Eastern Chalukyas were a South Indian dynasty whose kingdom was located in the present
day Andhra Pradesh. Their capital was Vengi and their dynasty lasted for around 500 years from
the 7th century until c. 1130 CE when the Vengi kingdom merged with the Chola empire. The
Vengi kingdom was continued to be ruled by Eastern Chalukyan kings under the protection of the
Chola empire until 1189 CE, when the kingdom succumbed to the Hoysalas and the Yadavas.
They had their capital originally at Vengi now (Pedavegi, Chinavegi and Denduluru) near Eluru of
the West Godavari district end later changed to Rajamahendravaram (Rajamundry).
Eastern Chalukyas were closely related to the Chalukyas of Vatapi (Badami). Throughout their
history they were the cause of many wars between the more powerful Cholas and Western
Chalukyas over the control of the strategic Vengi country. The five centuries of the Eastern
Chalukya rule of Vengi saw not only the consolidation of this region into a unified whole, but also
saw the efflorescence of Telugu culture, literature, poetry and art during the later half of their rule.
It can be said to be the golden period of Andhra history.

The Pandyas[edit]
Main article: Pandyan Empire
Pallavas were replaced by the Pandyas in the 8th century. Their capital Madurai was in the deep
south away from the coast. They had extensive trade links with the Southeast Asian maritime
empires of Srivijaya and their successors. As well as contacts, even diplomatic, reaching as far
as the Roman Empire. During the 13th century of the Christian era Marco Polo mentioned it as
the richest empire in existence.[citation needed] Temples like Meenakshi Amman
Temple at Madurai and Nellaiappar Temple at Tirunelveli are the best examples of Pandyan
Temple architecture.[102][103] The Pandyas excelled in both trade as well as literature and they
controlled the pearl fisheries along the South Indian coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which
produced some of the finest pearls in the known ancient world.
The Rashtrakutas[edit]
Main article: Rashtrakuta Empire
See also: Rashtrakuta literature, Economy of Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta, Society of
Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta, and Ellora Caves

Rashtrakuta Empire in 800 CE, 915 CE.

Kailash Temple in Ellora Caves

In the middle of the 8th century the Chalukya rule was ended by their feudatory, the Rashtrakuta
family rulers of Berar (in present-day Amravati district of Maharashtra). Sensing an opportunity
during a weak period in the Chalukya rule, Dantidurga trounced the great Chalukyan
"Karnatabala" (power of Karnata).[104][105] Having overthrown the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas
made Manyakheta their capital (modern Malkhed in Gulbarga district).[106][107] Although the origins
of the early Rashtrakuta ruling families in central India and the Deccan in the 6th and 7th
centuries is controversial, during the eighth through the 10th centuries they emphasised the
importance of the Kannada language in conjunction with Sanskrit in their administration.
Rashtrakuta inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit only. They encouraged literature in both
languages and thus literature flowered under their rule. [108][109][110][111][112]
The Rashtrakutas quickly became the most powerful Deccan empire, making their initial
successful forays into the doab region of Ganges River and Jamuna River during the rule
of Dhruva Dharavarsha.[113] The rule of his son Govinda III signaled a new era with Rashtrakuta
victories against the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and Gurjara Pratihara of north western India
resulting in the capture of Kannauj. The Rashtrakutas held Kannauj intermittently during a period
of a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains.[114] Because of Govinda III's
victories, historians have compared him to Alexander the Great and Pandava Arjuna of the Hindu
epic Mahabharata.[115] The Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank the icy water
of the Himalayan stream and his war elephants tasted the sacred waters of the Ganges River.
[116]
Amoghavarsha I, eulogised by contemporary Arab traveller Sulaiman as one among the four
great emperors of the world, succeeded Govinda III to the throne and ruled during an important
cultural period that produced landmark writings in Kannada and Sanskrit. [117][118][119] The benevolent
development of Jain religion was a hallmark of his rule. Because of his religious temperament,
his interest in the arts and literature and his peace-loving nature, [117] he has been compared to
emperor Ashoka.[120] The rule of Indra III in the 10th century enhanced the Rashtrakuta position as
an imperial power as they conquered and held Kannauj again. [121] Krishna III followed Indra III to
the throne in 939. A patron of Kannada literature and a powerful warrior, his reign marked the
submission of the Paramara of Ujjain in the north and Cholas in the south.[122]
An Arabic writing Silsilatuttavarikh (851) called the Rashtrakutas one among the four principle
empires of the world.[123] Kitab-ul-Masalik-ul-Mumalik (912) called them the "greatest kings of
India" and there were many other contemporaneous books written in their praise. [124] The
Rashtrakuta empire at its peak spread from Cape Comorin in the south to Kannauj in the north
and from Banaras in the east to Broach (Bharuch) in the west.[125] While the Rashtrakutas built
many fine monuments in the Deccan, the most extensive and sumptuous of their work is the
monolithic Kailasanatha temple at Ellora, the temple being a splendid achievement.[126] In
Karnataka their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana
temple at Pattadakal. All of the monuments are designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[127]

The Western Chalukyas[edit]

Main article: Western Chalukya Empire
See also: Kannada literature in the Western Chalukya Empire and Western Chalukya
Architecture
In the late 10th century, the Western Chalukyas, also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas or 'Later'
Chalukyas rose to power by overthrowing the Rashtrakutas under whom they had been serving
as feudatories. Manyakheta was their capital early on before they moved it to Kalyani
(modern Basavakalyan). Whether the kings of this empire belonged to the same family line as
their namesakes, the Badami Chalukyas is still debated.[128][129] Whatever the Western Chalukya
origins, Kannada remained their language of administration and the Kannada and Sanskrit
literature of their time was prolific.[111][130][131][132] Tailapa II, a feudatory ruler from Tardavadi
(modern Bijapur district), re-established the Chalukya rule by defeating the Rashtrakutas during
the reign of Karka II. He timed his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused by the
invading Paramara of Central India to the Rashtrakutas capital in 973. [133][134][135] This era produced
prolonged warfare with the Chola dynasty of Tamilakam for control of the resources of
the Godavari RiverKrishna River doab region in Vengi. Someshvara I, a brave Chalukyan king,
successfully curtailed the growth of the Chola Empire to the south of the Tungabhadra
River region despite suffering some defeats[136][137] while maintaining control over his feudatories in
the Konkan, Gujarat, Malwa and Kalinga regions.[138] For approximately 100 years, beginning in
the early 11th century, the Cholas occupied large areas of South Karnataka region (Gangavadi).
[139]

Gadag style pillars, Western Chalukya art.

In 1076 CE, the ascent of the most famous king of this Chalukya family, Vikramaditya VI,
changed the balance of power in favour of the Chalukyas.[140] His fifty-year reign was an important
period in Karnataka's history and is referred to as the "Chalukya Vikrama era". [141] His victories
over the Cholas in the late 11th and early 12th centuries put an end to the Chola influence in the
Vengi region permanently.[140]Some of the well known contemporaneous feudatory families of the
Deccan under Chalukya control were the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya
dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri.[142] At their peak, the Western Chalukyas ruled a vast empire
stretching from the Narmada River in the north to the Kaveri River in the south. Vikramaditya VI
is considered one of the most influential kings of Indian history.[143][144] Important architectural works
were created by these Chalukyas, especially in the Tungabhadra river valley, that served as a
conceptual link between the building idioms of the early Badami Chalukyas and the later
Hoysalas.[145][146] With the weakening of the Chalukyas in the decades following the death of
Vikramaditya VI in 1126, the feudatories of the Chalukyas gained their independence.
The Kalachuris of Karnataka, whose ancestors were immigrants into the southern deccan from
central India, had ruled as a feudatory from Mangalavada (modern Mangalavedhe in
Maharashtra).[147] Bijjala II, the most powerful ruler of this dynasty, was a commander
(mahamandaleswar) during the reign of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI.[148] Seizing an opportune
moment in the waning power of the Chalukyas, Bijjala II declared independence in 1157 and
annexed their capital Kalyani.[149] His rule was cut short by his assassination in 1167 and the
ensuing civil war caused by his sons fighting over the throne ended the dynasty as the last
Chalukya scion regained control of Kalyani. This victory however, was short-lived as the
Chalukyas were eventually driven out by the Seuna Yadavas.[150]

The Yadavas[edit]
Main article: Yadava dynasty
The Seuna, Sevuna or Yadava dynasty (Marathi: , Kannada: ) (c. 850
1334 CE) was an Indian dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from
the Tungabhadra to the Narmada rivers, including present-day Maharashtra,
north Karnataka and parts of Madhya Pradesh, from its capital at Devagiri (present-
day Daulatabad in Maharashtra). The Yadavas initially ruled as feudatories of the Western
Chalukyas. Around the middle of the 12th century, they declared independence and established
rule that reached its peak under Singhana II. The foundations of Marathi culture was laid by the
Yadavas and the peculiarities of Maharashtra's social life developed during their rule.[citation needed]

The Kakatiyas[edit]
Main article: Kakatiya dynasty
The Kakatiya dynasty was a South Indian dynasty that ruled parts of what is now Telangana,
India from 1083 to 1323 CE. They were one of the great Telugu kingdoms that lasted for
centuries.

The Kalachuris[edit]
Main article: Kalachuri

Sangamanatha temple at Kudalasangama, North Karnataka

Kalachuri is this the name used by two kingdoms who had a succession of dynasties from the
10th-12th centuries, one ruling over areas in Central India (west Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan)
and were called Chedi or Haihaya (Heyheya) (northern branch) and the other southern Kalachuri
who ruled over parts of Karnataka. They are disparately placed in time and space. Apart from the
dynastic name and perhaps a belief in common ancestry, there is little in known sources to
connect them.[citation needed]
The earliest known Kalachuri family (550620 CE) ruled over northern Maharashtra, Malwa and
western Deccan. Their capital was Mahismati situated in the Narmada river valley. There were
three prominent members; Krishnaraja, Shankaragana and Buddharaja. They distributed coins
and epigraphs around this area.[151]
Kalachuris of Kalyani or the southern Kalachuris (11301184 CE) at their peak ruled parts of
the Deccan extending over regions of present-day North Karnataka and parts of Maharashtra.
This dynasty rose to power in the Deccan between 1156 and 1181 CE. They traced their origins
to Krishna who was the conqueror of Kalinjar and Dahala in Madhya Pradesh. It is said
that Bijjala a viceroy of this dynasty established the authority over Karnataka. He wrested power
from the Chalukya king Taila III. Bijjala was succeeded by his sons Someshwara and Sangama
but after 1181 CE, the Chalukyas gradually retrieved the territory. Their rule was a short and
turbulent and yet very important from the socio-religious movement point of view; a new sect
called the Lingayat or Virashaiva sect was founded during these times.[151]
A unique and purely native form of Kannada literature-poetry called the Vachanas was also born
during this time. The writers of Vachanas were called Vachanakaras (poets). Many other
important works like Virupaksha Pandita's Chennabasavapurana, Dharani
Pandita's Bijjalarayacharite and Chandrasagara Varni's Bijjalarayapurana were also written.
Kalachuris of Tripuri (Chedi) ruled in central India with its base at the ancient city of Tripuri
(Tewar); it originated in the 8th century, expanded significantly in the 11th century, and declined in
the 12th13th centuries.