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Tectonic control on changes in sediment supply: Quaternary alluvial

systems, Kiiriis sub-basin, SE Hungary
EDIT THAM0-BOZS0, ZSOLT KERCSMAR & ANNAM/~RIA NADOR
Geological Institute o f Hungary, Stefdnia l~t 14, H-1143 Budapest, Hungary
( e-mail : bo zso @ marl. hu )

Abstract: The Pannonian Basin of Hungary is Europe's largest inter-mountain basin, where an
evolution in drainage development patterns during the Quaternary was caused by changes in
sediment flux to the basin, the dynamics of basin morphology development and the uplift history
of the Apuseni Mountains source area, all directly or indirectly related to the tectonic systems
operating in the region. Micro-mineralogical data of detrital heavy minerals from modern rivers
and two key boreholes covering a time span from the present back to 2.6 Ma have been grouped
by statistical analysis into two main clusters and some sub-clusters. The samples within the same
cluster have a similar composition, and originated from the same source area. Based on the
similar palaeogeographical setting of the potential source areas during the Quaternary, it has been
possible to extrapolate the present transport directions of the rivers with a well-known catchment
area geology and the heavy mineral composition to Pleistocene borehole data. The changes in
transport directions were clearly sharp and related to significant changes in the uplift history of
the Apuseni Mountains catchment area. During the Pliocene and Early Pleistocene the
compressional stress field operating in the East Carpathians region resulted in the thrust-driven
uplift of the Apuseni Mountains and the formation of a syn-sedimentary trap at the western
margin of the source area, which captured the sediments of short, transverse rivers. During this
period the drainage of the study area was characterized by axial drainage parallel to this trap, and
sediments were transported from the northeast, also shown by micro-mineralogical data of
detrital heavy minerals. At about 1.95 Ma this trap stopped being active due to the release of the
compressional stress field and the isostatic uplift of the Apuseni Mountains, together with the
adjoining basin area. This resulted in the filling of the thrust-bounded trap, and the development
of transverse drainage, which was shown by characteristic SE transport directions, based on
micro-mineralogical data in the study area, and also by an increase of sediment flux. The axial
capturing shifted further to the west, developing a configuration approaching to the present river
course pattern. By analogy with the Himalayan foreland and retro-arc basins of the
Cordilleran-Andean ranges, it was demonstrated that tectonic activity exerts a strong control on
the drainage pattern through its influence on variations in sediment supply.

Variations in alluvial architecture and geomor- obvious factor that controls sediment supply to
phology of the rivers are determined by a complex basins and may take the form of an increase or
interplay between climate, tectonics and base-level decrease in sediment input. Variations in precipi-
changes. These factors are usually interdependent, tation directly affect discharges, and vegetation
c o m m o n l y involve feedback mechanisms and can cover has an important role in trapping available
rarely be unravelled (Jones et al. 1999; Vincent sediments, while weathering processes control
1999). Most of the large alluvial plains in Europe grain size and mineralogy. Climate change,
are coastal plains, where base-level control through especially during the Pleistocene has often been
eustatic changes is emphasized when discussing cited to explain changes in river aggradation and
fluvial sedimentology (e.g. Po Plain - Amorosi et incision (Vandenberghe 1993, 1995; Blum 1994;
al. 1999, River Meuse - Van den Berg 1994, Jones et al. 1999; N4dor et al. 2000). Limited
southern Finland - Mansikkaniemi 1991). On the vegetation favoured c a t c h m e n t erosion during
other hand, in continental interior settings eustasy glacial periods and, as a consequence, increased
is not relevant, and the major allogenic controls in sediment supply to the rivers resulting in aggra-
determining fluvial architecture are basin sub- dation. More temperate and h u m i d interglacials
sidence, source area uplift and climate changes lead to extended vegetation, a reduction in sedi-
(Shanley & McCabe 1994). Climate change is an ment supply and a vertical incision of the rivers,

From: JONES, S. J. & FROSTICK,L. E. (eds) 2002. Sediment Flux to Basins: Causes, Controls and Consequences.
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 191, 37-53. 0305-8719/02/$15.00
9 The Geological Society of London 2002.
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38 E. THAM0-BOZS0 ET AL.

also as a consequence of the increased discharge. changes in the drainage pattern are important for
However, based on the study of NW European understanding not only the erosion of the orogens,
Pleniglacial to Late Glacial fluvial systems, but also of the infill of the adjacent sedimentary
Vandenberghe (1995) showed that a direct and basins. Drainage network development is governed
linear response between climate and fluvial by a number of factors, the most important of which
development does not exist. Incision takes place at are slope, water discharge, lithology and rate of
climate transitions (from cold to warm, or from uplift (Seidl & Dietrich 1992; Howard et al. 1994).
warm to cold), when the fiver system becomes An additional control on sediment flux to a basin is
unstable, compared to its environment due to drainage diversion in response to folding or
climatic change. The effects of such delays, mostly thrusting of the catchment area, which can produce
caused by vegetation retreat or development, play a major shifts in the location and magnitude of
crucial role in the origin of these instability phases. sediment source.
During stable climate conditions, whether it is a The main aim of our research is the study of the
glacial or interglacial period, the rivers are long-term dynamics of the Quaternary fluvial
characterized by approximately balanced lateral systems in the southeastern part of the inter-
sediment accretion and erosion. mountain Pannonian Basin and their response to
In tectonically active areas, fluctuations in allogenic controls. This paper discusses the
sediment supply are often linked to phases of changes in catchment areas, river transport
episodic tectonic activity in the deforming directions based on micro-mineralogical data and
catchment area (Seeber & Gornitz 1983; Burbank sediment supply to the basin. The conclusions
1992; Hovius 1996; Vincent 1999). Since fluvial drawn from this approach are used as supporting
processes are responsible for the transport of most evidence for a model of the large-scale tectono-
erosional material out of the mountain range, any evolutionary history of the region in terms of

Fig. 1. Geological sketch of the Carpathian-Pannonian area. For a detailed map of the study area on the southeastern
part of the Pannonian Basin see Figs. 2 and 3.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Birmingham on June 3, 2015

QUATERNARY ALLUVIALSYSTEMS, KOROS SUB-BASIN 39

source area uplift and basin subsidence. A cyclo-

stratigraphic model emphasizing Milankovitch-
scale climate control on the Quaternary fluvial
sequence of the area has been presented previously
(N~idor et al. 2000) and is briefly summarized in
this paper for the fuller evaluation of allogenic
controls on sediment supply to the southeastern part
of the Pannonian Basin during the Pleistocene.

Study area
The Pannonian Basin, located in Central Europe
and surrounded by the Alps, Carpathians and
Dinarides, is Europe's largest inter-mountain basin
(Fig. 1). The Danube River, which is the major
outflow is connected to the Black Sea only through
a narrow opening in Romania.
The study area, the K6r6s sub-basin, is situated
in the southeastern part of the Pannonian Basin, and
currently the covers about 1600 km 2, although it
cannot be clearly separated on the basis of surface
topography. Its average height is 84-85 m above
sea level, thus representing one of the lowest parts
of the Pannonian Basin. The main rivers of the area
are the Beretty6, the Sebes-, Fekete- and Feh6r-
K6r6s rivers, displaying a transverse pattern,
orientated approximately E-W, draining the
Apuseni Mountains and transporting sediment to
the Pannonian Basin to the west. After the
confluence of the Fekete- and Feh6r- K6r6s rivers,
they are called Kett6s-KOr6s. The Beretty6 and
Sebes-K6r6s rivers to the north join the Kett6s-
K6r6s at the western part of the K6r6s sub-basin in
a fan shape, and continue as the H~irmas-K6r6s to
their confluence with the low-gradient, southerly
directed, axial Tisza river in the central part of the
Pannonian Basin (Fig. 2). The lengths of the four
transverse rivers are quite similar (Table 1),
however there are differences in the size, geology
and morphology of their catchment areas in the
Apuseni Mountains in Romania, resulting in
characteristic differences in the stream gradients
(Fig. 2). Generally the large (>20 cm km-1) stream Fig. 2. Present river course pattern in the southeastern
gradient of the rivers coming from the mountain part of the Pannonian Basin with the location of the
belt drops suddenly at the basin margin, close to the studied boreholes (D-1, V-1) and stream gradients.

Table 1. Hydrological characteristics of the rivers of the K6rOs sub-basin (also see Fig. 2)

Name of the fiver Length C a t c h m e n t Highest point Average Average discharge

(km) area of the catchment dischargeat at the K6r6s
(km2) area (m) the border (m3 s-1) sub-basin(m3 s-1)

Be~tty6 203.8 6095 915 11 16

SebesK6r6s 209.3 2788 1838 20 38
Fekete K6r6s 167.6 4729 1849 40 60
Feh6rK6r6s 235.5 4275 1541 33 50
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40 E. THAMO-BOZS6 ET AL.

border of Hungary, and the rivers continue with a (Cooke et al. 1979; R6nai 1985) provide a precise
1-8 cm km -1 gradient towards the axial Tisza river. chronostratigraphic framework.
In the studied Hungarian parts, the rivers now The fluvial deposits of the K6r6s sub-basin are
mostly carry suspended load and display no represented by fine-grained sediments, which are
discernible systematic variations in alluvial predominantly silt and clay with minor fine-grained
architecture. sands, deposited from rivers coming from the
Apuseni Mountains in Romania and the
Carpathians (R6nai 1985). Quaternary transport
directions and source areas of the Pleistocene
Regional geology fluvial sediments have been mostly modelled on the
The formation of the Pannonian Basin started in the basis of the mineralogical composition of sands and
Early-Middle Miocene by back-arc style rifting, silts (Moln~r 1964, 1965a, b, 1966a, b, 1980;
coeval with the late stages of thrusting of the Gedeonnd Rajetzky 1973, 1976a, b; Elek 1979,
Carpathian belt. Following the Middle Miocene 1980), and on the basis of the position of alluvial
rifting, characterized by two independent fans (Borsy 1989, 1992). Previous large-scale
extensional phases, a post-rift thermal subsidence mineralogical studies supposed that the K6r6s and
occurred during the Late Miocene-Pliocene Beretty6 rivers, and their precursors, deposited
(Horvfith 1993; Horvfith & Cloetingh 1996; their sediment load over the area of the K6r6s sub-
Csontos & Nagymarosy 1999). The subsided basin basin (Elek 1980; Molnfir 1980), changing their
was covered by the Pannonian lake, which was in flow pattern over the area through time and space,
contact with the former Paratethys up to the end of as also did the precursor of the Tisza river (Elek
the Badenian. After the complete isolation of the 1980; Borsy 1989, 1992). However, the variations
Pannonian lake from the marine environment, it in transport directions have not been reconstructed
was filled up by prograded delta systems coming in detail. The relationship between the uplift history
from the northwest and northeast (B6rczi & Phillips of the hinterland area and its influence on the river
1985; Pog~cs~is et al. 1988). Therefore, the Upper course pattern had also not been studied.
Miocene-Pliocene sequence represents a time-
transgressive facies change from offshore basin
sediments through basin slope and delta slope to
delta front and delta plain sediments, passing up
Study methods
into the alluvial facies, which represent the latest The K6r6s sub-basin area represents the
stage of basin fill (Juh~sz 1992, 1994). downstream, lowland part of the K6r6s and
The latest phase of the multistorey development Beretty6 rivers. The Pleistocene fluvial strata under
of the Pannonian Basin comprises a still active discussion do not crop out in the study area, but are
basin inversion, characterized by NW-SE and N-S known only from borehole data and well logs.
compression, which resulted in significant uplift of Palaeocurrent direction indicators (planar cross-
the marginal parts and local subsidence of the basin bedding, clast imbrications, etc.) could therefore
centre during the Quaternary (Csontos et al. 1992; not be evaluated.
Horvfith & Cloetingh 1996; Sanders 1998; Csontos Changes in catchment areas and transport
& Nagymarosy 1999; Fodor et al. 1999; Horvfith & directions to the basin have been studied on the
Taft 1999; Mtiller et al. 1999; Van Balen et al. basis of micro-mineralogical data. To be able to
1999). As a result of this varied morphology, the reconstruct more precisely the variations in
main rivers transported sediments from the north- transport directions, changes in the detrital heavy
west, north, northeast and east mountain regions mineral composition of 123 samples from two key
towards the central part of the Pannonian Basin. boreholes (D6vav~inya D- 1, Vdszt6 V- 1) have been
The uninterrupted subsidence of the K6r6s sub- re-evaluated in detail, and these data have been
basin, which has been investigated here, was one of compared with the composition of the present
the largest subsiding areas, represented by a fluvial sediments of the main rivers in the
400-500-m thick continuous Pleistocene fluvial Hungarian Plain. The mineralogical data of the
record (Fig. 3) (Cooke et al. 1979; R6nai 1985; studied boreholes comes from earlier examinations
J~mbor et al. 1993; N~dor et al. 2000). The K6r6s of the 0.1-0.2-mm fraction of sands (Elek 1980;
sub-basin is bounded on the north and south by Molnfir 1980), determined by petrographic micro-
ENE-WSW transtensional faults (Csontos & scope. The heavy minerals have been quantified by
Nagymarosy 1999; Fodor et al. 1999), and by a point-counting. The mineralogical composition of
NNE-SSW fault on the east. Pleistocene fluvial the modern river sediments has been determined by
sequences are best represented by two keybore- P. Szab6 (1955), Molnfir (1964), D. Szab6 (1967)
holes (Ddvavfinya D-1 and V6szt6 V-l), the focus and Gyuricza (in Kuti et al. 1987; Molnfir et al.
of this study, where palaeomagnetic measurements 1989, 1990).
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QUATERNARY ALLUVIAL SYSTEMS, KOROS SUB-BASIN 41

Fig. 3. Thickness of Quaternary sediments in the southeastern part of the Pannonian Basin, with the location of the
studied boreholes (D-I, V-1) and the most important tectonic lines bounding the K6rOs sub-basin.

To be able to reconstruct transport directions of applied that clusters large numbers of samples by
the palaeo-rivers, the detrital heavy minerals of the the weighted pair-groups method with arithmetic
source rocks were initially considered, and the average, using Euclidian distance (Davis 1986).
authigenic, diagenetic and secondary minerals were This method of cluster analysis was also used by
neglected. The frequencies of 22 detrital heavy Ibbeken & Schleyer (1991) to trace provenances of
mineral components of the sand samples from recent fluvial sediments in southern Italy, based on
Pleistocene borehole data and modern river the light and heavy mineral composition and other
sediments have been compared using cluster sediment properties. In our case each sample,
analysis. characterized by the frequency of their 22 detrital
Cluster analysis is a standard technique of heavy mineral constituents, represented a point in
numerical classification that arranges samples into the 22-dimensional space. The Euclidian distance
more or less homogeneous groups based on between the samples in this space defined by 22
similarities among multiple variables. In this case, variables was used as a measure of similarity. The
after several attempts of different methods of lower the distance is, the higher the similarity
cluster analysis, a hierarchical classification was between two samples. This type of cluster analysis
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42 E. THAMO-BOZS6 ET AL.

was performed using 'Deli-Clus-Dend' in-house content, which is not known from the present river
software of O. Kovfics and Kov~ics (O. Kov~cs sediments, but it is considered to have a north-
1987). The samples within the same group have a eastern origin since characteristic chlorite-rich
similar detrital heavy mineral composition, their Pliocene sediments of this area have been
main detrital heavy minerals are the same and, transported from the metamorphic rocks of the NE
given the geological and geographical constraints Carpathians (Molnfir 1966b).
of the region, it can be concluded that they The two studied boreholes, representing the
originated from the same source area. continuously cored Pleistocene sedimentary
Some additional data, such as the distribution of sequence of the Krrrs sub-basin with a thickness of
fluvial sediments with contrasting grain size 416 and 482 m respectively, are not identical in
distribution and sedimentation rates in the studied terms of their heavy mineral composition, as can be
boreholes, calculated on the basis of palaeo- seen by their average values (Table 2). Of the main
magnetic dating and thickness of sedimentary units, heavy minerals, chlorite, magnetite, garnet and
were also used as supplementary information in pyroxene are more common in the D-1 borehole,
evaluating changes in sediment flux to the basin. while the V-1 borehole is typically characterized by
amphibole and epidote. The characteristic detrital
heavy mineral composition of the clusters and,
accordingly, their distribution in the borehole logs
Micro-mineralogical investigations is shown in Fig. 7.
To be able to reconstruct more accurately the In the two boreholes studied here, sediments
variations in transport directions, the detrital heavy with a similar detrital heavy mineral composition
mineral composition of the D-1 and V-1 boreholes (chlorite, garnet) and similar age are known from
(for location see Figs 2 and 3), together with that of the lower parts of the boreholes (Fig. 7). At about
the sediments of the present fiver system, have been 1.95 Ma (known from the palaeomagnetic dating of
compared by cluster analysis. The results showed the borehole sections: Cooke et al. 1979; Rrnai
that the samples group into two major clusters and, 1985) there is a clearly defined change in the
within those, some sub-clusters (Fig. 4). Cluster I is detrital heavy mineral composition of the two
characterized by hornblende, orthopyroxene, boreholes, characterized by the appearance of
epidote, garnet and magnetite. Within this group, epidote-hornblende minerals (Fig. 7), indicating a
sub-cluster Ia is characterised mostly by horn- change in provenance areas. The cluster analysis of
blende, orthopyroxene and epidote, a characteristic the borehole sections showed that these sediments
assemblage for the current sediments of the Tisza reached the area cut by the D-1 borehole only for a
fiver and its tributaries, with the exception of the limited period, then most of the upper part is
Beretty6 and the Sebes-KOrrs (Figs 5 and 6). Sub- characterized by chlorite, pyroxene or garnet-rich
cluster Ib is characterized by a high garnet content, sediments. Sands with different detrital heavy
which is characteristic for the source area of the mineral contents vary frequently in the middle and
current Beretty6 and Sebes-Krrrs rivers (Figs 5 upper part of the V- 1 borehole, however hornblende
and 6). Cluster II is characterized by a high chlorite and epidote remain dominant.

Cluster groups most frequent detrial heavy minerals sediments of modern rivers transport
of the cluster-groups frorr
direction

am-e hornblende + epidote, garnet, magnetite - SE

e-am epidote, hornblende, magnetite, garnet, chlorite Fekete-Koros SE

la px orthopyroxene + clino-pyroxene, hornblende Tisza, Szamos, Bodrog, Saj6, (Hernad) NE (N]

F
i/ am-px hornblende + pyroxene, epidote Fekete-, Feher-, H6rmas-Kor6s, Maros SE

LI
px-am

gr
orthopyroxene + hornblende, epidote, magnetite

garnet + magnetite, hornblende, pyroxene

Feher-Koros

Beretty6, Sebes-KOros, Zagwa

SE

NE [NW1
I I - -
kl chlorite + magnetite, biotite, hornblende - NE?

Fig. 4. Composition of the detrital heavy mineral clusters and the sediments of modern rivers with similar
mineralogical composition and their transport directions (for explanation see text).
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QUATERNARY ALLUVIAL SYSTEMS, KOROS SUB-BASIN 43

Fig. 5. Characteristic detrital heavy mineral clusters of the catchment area of the modern rivers in the study area, with
the location of the studied boreholes (D-l, V-1). For the composition of the clusters see Fig. 4.

of sediment flux to the studied basin, summarized

Additional sedimentary data
below.
In order to get a more precise picture of the A sharp contrast in grain size distribution of the
transport directions that are based on micro- alluvial strata has been shown by Siimeghy (1944),
mineralogical data, a few other observations were who found that coarse-grained fluvial sediments are
also considered during the interpretation of changes missing from the area of the K6r6s sub-basin, and
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Birmingham on June 3, 2015

44 E. THAM0-BOZS0 ET AL.

:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....:-Y ~ ~ A:~-<.:.:..4.... 9
9 1.5 / ~ ""M.:V.:-:-:.I.~.:.:.Z.: 9

> ==================================
9-.9 . , . ,9', , . . . ,.9149149149
9 . . . . . . ~s
..~...........~
. . . 9 4 "/~
....
.
.........~.............~.....,9

..... ,~.~. . . . . . 9149

:::::::::::::::::::::::::::
9:i: 9
~i:i:)i:i:i:i:!:i:i:i:
I

/ \
/ ;
I
// , / 9 o
/
/

D-'~
o~

~'\ Feke'

"'~ % -KOrOs
~,rA x,,

F •metamorphic
] rocks ~ flysch

F-~ granitoids ~ molasse

--~ volcanites ~.i t * catchment area
~ carbonates

Fig. 6. Lithological sketch of the source area geology of the Tisza river and its tributaries (after Ianovici et al. 1976;
Brezsnyfinszky 1989; Ftil6p 1989) with the location of the studied boreholes (D-l, V-l).

are known only along the western margin of the palaeomagnetic data (Cooke e t al. 1979; R6nai
Apuseni Mountains where they form a great 1985) of the D-1 and V-1 boreholes, and the
thickness at depth, bounded by a NNE-SSW-strike thickness of the sedimentary units that deposited at
fault. Beyond this fault the continuation of the the corresponding time intervals (Fig. 7). As the
coarse-grained sediments towards the western basin regional subsidence of the area is considered
areas is unknown, where only fine-grained sedi- to be uniform during the Quaternary (R6nai
ments (mostly silt) are found9 1985), changes in sedimentation rates are
An approximate sedimentation rate was possible indicators for changes in sediment flux to
calculated on the basis of ages inferred from the basin.
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QUATERNARY ALLUVIAL SYSTEMS, K()ROS SUB-BASIN 45

Table 2. Average values of heavy minerals in sand layers The most frequent detrital heavy minerals of the
in the D-1 and V-1 boreholes. Detrital heavy minerals, Pleistocene sands of the K6r6s sub-basin might
which have been evaluated by cluster analysis are with fat have originated from several different rock types in
letters (also see Fig. 7) the potential source areas, but the main source
rocks of some minerals can be identified. Garnet
Heavy minerals D6vavfinya D-1 V6szt6V-1
and hornblende are characteristic for gneiss, mica
43 samples 80 samples
(%) (%) schists and amphibolites. Epidote and chlorite
might have been eroded from low-grade meta-
Chlorite 22.61 16.36 morphic rocks, while pyroxenes are characteristic
Oxyhornblende 5.97 } 2.06 / for volcanic rocks of the source area (Figs 5 and 6).
Hornblende 4.66 11.82 19.33| 22.47 Based on a similar detrital heavy mineral
Other amphiboles 1.19 1.08/ composition known from the lower parts of the
Magnetite 11.73 9.19 boreholes (Fig. 7), it is concluded that chlorite-rich
Epidote 0.74 11.81 sediments have been transported by the same river,
Garnet 10.38 8.69 probably coming from the northeast, from the low-
Orthopyroxene 3.34 [ 7.62 3.37~
Ciino-pyroxene 4.28 / 1.25/ 4.62 grade metamorphic units of the NE Carpathians.
Biotite 4.51 4.25 Garnet-rich sediments were deposited by another
Apatite 1.42 0.01 river, also coming from the northeast, mostly
Tourmaline 1.01 2.62 derived from Early Palaeozoic and older meta-
Rutile 0.57 0.05 morphites of the Bihar autochthon of the Apuseni
Clinozoisite 0.54 0.77 Mountains, as well as from Tertiary and Quaternary
Kyanite 0.26 0.56 sedimentary rocks (molasse) (Fig. 6) similar to the
Staurolite 0.18 present source area of the Beretty6 and Sebes-
Zoisite 0.11 0.14
K6r6s rivers (Fig. 5). The reconstruction of the
Topaz 0.07
Sphene 0.04 0.11 river course pattern for the Early Pleistocene
Zircon 0.03 0.31 (Borsy 1992) also showed that axial rivers were
Olivine 0.02 flowing at this time from the northeast to the area of
Piemontite 0.01 the K6r6s sub-basin.
Pyrite 3.03 1.76 The occurrence of epidote and hornblende-rich
Carbonate 1.25 sediments indicate that SE transport directions,
Altered minerals 22.17 16.24 mostly from the sedimentary rocks and from Early
Total 100.09 99.99 Palaeozoic metamorphics of different thrusts of the
Apuseni Mountains, as well as from Neogene
volcanic rocks of the present source area of the
Fekete-K6r6s river, were important (Figs 5 and 6).
Discussion The cluster analysis of the borehole sections
showed that these southeast-derived sediments
C h a n g e s in t r a n s p o r t d i r e c t i o n s a n d s o u r c e reached the area of the distal D-1 borehole for only
a short time. Subsequently, most of the upper part
areas
of the D-1 borehole is characterized by NE
If transport directions are to be reconstructed on the transport directions, inferred from chlorite, garnet
basis of the micro-mineralogical composition of the or pyroxene-rich sediments (Fig. 7). Pyroxene is
formations, then the potential source rocks have to characteristic for the present source area of the
be identified. This is a difficult task as there are Tisza and its northern tributaries, mostly derived
only a few minerals that are uniquely characteristic from the north-northeast, from the Inner Carpathian
for certain magmatic or metamorphic rocks. Neogene volcanites. At the same time in the area of
However, in the case of the K6r6s sub-basin, the the V-1 borehole, which is closer to the Apuseni
situation is simplified by the fact that the Mountains, SE and NE transport directions,
Pleistocene palaeogeographical setting of the inferred from the different clusters, varied in the
potential source areas was similar to the current central part of the borehole, while the SE transport
one. Therefore, the present transport directions of direction became dominant in the upper part (Fig.
the rivers with a well-known catchment area 7). The orthopyroxene-hornblende-rich sediments
geology and detrital heavy mineral composition indicate SE transport directions, characteristic for
(cluster) can be extrapolated to the borehole data, the sediments of the present Feh6r-K6rOs river,
and the transport directions for the Pleistocene coming from Tertiary and Quaternary sedimentary
sediments have been deduced from the recent ones rocks (molasse) and Neogene volcanites.
on the basis of belonging to the same mineralogical Hornblende--epidote-rich sediments, dominant in
cluster. the upper part of the V- 1 borehole, are most similar
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46 E. T H A M O - B O Z S O ET AL.

I]-1
Age(Ma) 1:=
[ b a s e ~ on
depth Sedimentation ~ :~ paleomagnetic Sedimentation
[m) rate [cm/ky} ~ ~ data] rate (c m/k'y}
0 10 20 0 10 20 30
0-
0x_j am-e
kl
gr {

- om-e ~,,

<~m-e

am-e ~

100-
~x ~
~px-am
i"
0,78 .. am-e
:- px-arn
kl am-e ~1~

~
...
~Jr

kl- 0,99.. ~gr"eam , ~

kl- gr
kl
gr
200- :SP
'kl
-~
kl /
# px /
" ' " ' " " ' '" 9.'i .,.' '. ..'." " ' ' """.'.')"..'.'.
-kl
......
".,,._ ,,

e-am
e-or~
~ - e-am
300 - 1,77
/
j. g r -
kl' L~-~ ~
gr- "....,..
.. -- e-am ~
kl
....... ' ...... 1,95
gr-
Dx
ki--
gf- "...... .-....., .. , ",... / kl
_ _ / e-am
.......... 9.-;; ........
9.. -..
400 -
il~ gr-
:Jr ,e

.....
2,58 ......

Fig. 7. Characteristic detrital heavy mineral clusters, and inferred transport directions and sedimentation rates,
calculated on the basis o f palaeomagnetic data in the D-1 and V-1 boreholes.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Birmingham on June 3, 2015

QUATERNARY ALLUVIAL SYSTEMS, KOROS SUB-BASIN 47

to the sediments of the Fekete-K6r6s river source

Tectono-morphologicaI model
area, and also indicate a SE transport direction
(Figs 5 and 6). These last alternations in the As was discussed above, the Pleistocene fluvial
mineralogical composition indicate that different deposits share the same regional subsidence and
rocks were sub-aerially exposed on this south- climate histories. Therefore, it is necessary to turn
eastern source area due to tectonic and erosional to other regional changes to explain the observed
unroofing. variations in sediment flux, particularly to
differential rates of tectonic uplift and rates of
denudation of the potential source areas. Such
Base-level and climate changes
major shifts in transport directions, inferred from
The clear and abrupt change in transport directions the cluster analysis of detrital heavy mineral data,
from NE to SE at about 1.95 Ma ago, recorded in are important indicators of tectonic control through
the boreholes (Fig. 7), was inferred from the cluster its influence in topography. Plate tectonics play a
analysis of detrital heavy minerals. This switch in predominant role in dividing land masses into
the provenance reflects shifts in transport sediment source regions, transport routes and
directions. This time interval of the transport sedimentary basins, and thus is primarily
direction changes is also characterized by an responsible for the accumulation of alluvial strata.
increase in sediment flux, represented by a higher The uplift style of the hinterland area strongly
rate of sedimentation in the boreholes (Fig. 7). controls the associated basin morphology and
Considering the possible causes responsible for drainage pattern (Burbank 1992; Jordan 1995;
the variations in sediment flux to the Krrrs sub- Hovius 1996).
basin during the Pleistocene, eustasy controlled To be able to understand the basin evolution and
base-level change is an unlikely allogenic factor. related change in drainage pattern in the study area
The section of the Krrrs rivers that is the focus of throughout the Late Neogene and Quaternary, it is
this study is over many hundred kilometres from important to emphasis that the back-arc style,
the Black Sea and its associated sea-level extensional formation of the Pannonian Basin
fluctuations, and therefore basin-scale, base-level occurred during the Middle Miocene and termi-
changes are unlikely to have influenced variations nated in the Pliocene when it was infilled by
in sediment flux. Large-scale base-level change prograding delta systems. It means that by the
(e.g. regional subsidence) would have been beginning of the period under investigation (Late
common to the system, and would not cause Pliocene and Pleistocene), the basin was filled up
differences in transport directions to the boreholes, and the Quaternary tectonics were superimposed on
as was revealed on the basis of detrital heavy the earlier extensional back-arc tectonic style.
mineral data (Fig. 7). To reconstruct the changes in sediment flux to
The Quaternary fluvial systems of the south- the Krrrs sub-basin throughout the Pleistocene, it
eastern part of the Pannonian Basin were affected is important to focus on the uplift history of the
by the same climate histories. Based on high- Apuseni Mountains within the geotectonic regime
resolution magnetic susceptibility measurements, of the East Carpathians, as this was the key source
correlated by pollen and gastropod data, as well as area of the Krr6s fluvial sediments. The uplift
with the ODP 677 oxygen isotope proxy, cyclo- history of the Apuseni Mountains was strongly
stratigraphical and palaeoclimate analyses showed controlled by the evolution of the subduction zone
that the Pleistocene fluvial sequences of the D-1 along the East Carpathians (Sanders 1998). Based
and V- 1 boreholes represent fifth-order on fission-track data, Sanders (1998) determined
Milankovitch cycles. The cyclicity is 100 ka for the that the large-scale uplift of the Apuseni Mountains
upper 1 Ma old section of the boreholes, while it is started in the Late Badenian-Early Sarrnatian due
40 ka for the older parts of the boreholes, which is to continent-continent collision along this
also in good agreement with the global palaeo- subduction zone. East-west compression resulted
climate records (N~idor et al. 2000). There was no in thrust-bounded uplift (Fig. 8a, constructive phase
difference in the climatic cycles between the two of Sanders 1988). Fission-track data (Sanders
boreholes, which means that Milankovitch-scale 1998) shows that the large-scale uplift of the
climate changes exerted a regional influence on the Apuseni Mountains was waning throughout the
river systems of the area. Intrinsic evolution within Pleistocene, which has been related to the cessation
the system and local thresholds, which might have of subduction at the East Carpathians and the
modified the global climate signal and could have release of the compressional stress field (Fig. 9a,
influenced sediment flux, operate at scales of destructive phase of Sanders 1998). However, these
hundreds to thousands of years (Vandenberghe phases represent a continuous tectonic evolution,
1995), whose resolution was not obtained in the D- and no sharp boundaries in the processes can be
1 and V-1 boreholes. defined.
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48 E. THAMO-BOZS0 ET AL.

APUSENI MTS. & KOROS SUB-BASIN ANALOGUES

A Thrust-drivenuplift of the Apuseni Mountains B Tectonicloading and uplift,

[constructive phase of Sanders 1998} Himalayan foreland [Burbank 1992]
E W
Longitudinalriversdominant
Active thrust front /

~syn_sedimentary

C Underfilledretroarc foreland
Inferred drainage pattern in the KOrossub-basin basin [Jordan 1995]
~=,~ axialdrainage

Fig. 8. Geotectonic model for the thrust-driven uplift of the Apuseni Mountains. A thrust-bounded syn-sedimentary
trap captured the sediments of the transverse rivers and favoured the development of axial drainage.

The next step in reconstructing variations in margin of the Apuseni Mountains, the sediments of
transport directions and sediment flux to the basin the transverse rivers draining the Apuseni
is to envisage the palaeo-drainage pattern during Mountains did not reach the area of the K6r6s sub-
the different tectono-evolutionary periods, basin. Partly based on these tectonic considerations,
described above. In a tectonically active area, the and partly on the basis of the reconstruction of the
drainage pattern is predetermined by tectonics. river course pattern for the Early Pleistocene
River courses are often fault controlled, and (Borsy 1989, 1992), it is concluded that during the
differential subsidence due to faulting may control Pliocene and Early Pleistocene axial rivers were
local base levels and flow directions. flowing from the northeast along re-activated
The restricted occurrence of Lower Pleistocene NE-SW-striking tectonic lines parallel to the
coarse-grained fluvial sediments in a trough along mountain chain in the area of the K6r6s sub-basin
the western margin of the Apuseni Mountains has (Fig. 8a), depositing their fluvial sediments. The
been known for a long time (S0meghy 1944). To transport directions, inferred from mineralogical
explain this limited occurrence towards the basin composition, coincided with this predicted river
area a sedimentary trap is envisaged, parallel to the course pattern, that is sediments have been
strike of the mountain front, which captured the deposited by rivers flowing from the northeast,
proximal coarse-grained sediments of the trans- carrying sediments from the source area of the
verse rivers, draining the rapidly uplifting Apuseni present Beretty6 and Sebes-K6r6s rivers to the
Mountains. Such short transverse rivers are northeast.
characteristic for actively uplifting mountain belts The present arrangement of the K6r6s rivers
(Hovius 1996). The NNE-SSW-striking fault at the coming from the Apuseni Mountains shows a
margin of the Apuseni Mountains, most probably different drainage distribution. The cone-shaped
functioning as a thrust fault, due to E-W com- alluvial fans extend as far as 50 km into the basin
pression during the Pliocene, might have been and indicate a well-developed transverse river
responsible for creating this sedimentary trap (Fig. course pattern with only a very distal axial
8a). Owing to this sedimentary trap at the western capturing by the Tisza river (Fig. 2), quite different
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QUATERNARY ALLUVIAL SYSTEMS, KOROS SUB-BASIN 49

APUSENI MTS. & KOR6S SUB-BASIN ANALOGUES

A Isostatic uplift of the Apuseni Mountains B Erosional unloading and uplift,
[destructive phase of Sanders 1998) Himalayan foreland [Burbank 1992]
E W

# transverseriversdominant
Inactive thrust front

C Overfilled retroarc foreland

Inferred drainage pattern in the KOrOssub-basin basin [Jordan 1995)

Fig. 9. Geotectonic model for the isostatic uplift of the Apuseni Mountains. The filling of the syn-sedimentary trap
allowed the development of extended transverse rivers, while axial capturing shifted further to the west due also to
the general uplift of the area.

from the Lower Pleistocene arrangement. This because it allowed the formation of well-developed
drainage reorganization could have been caused transverse rivers, carrying sediments from the
only by some significant change in allogenic southeast from the Apuseni Mountains. This is
controls, such as catchment area uplift linked to supported by the occurrence of a SE transport
renewed sediment flux, basin subsidence or some direction in the borehole sections at about 1.95 Ma
major climate change, influencing sediment supply ago (Fig. 7). These SE-derived sediments reached
to the basin. Regional basin subsidence and climate the area of the distal D-1 borehole only for a short
changes have already been excluded as relevant period, then most of the upper part is characterized
factors for variations in sediment flux, therefore the again by NE transport directions, characteristic for
changes in tectonic evolution of the area must be the axial rivers. However, after an alternation with
considered the dominant factor. NE directions, the SE transport direction became
The development of a transverse river, extending dominant in the area of the V-1 borehole (Fig. 7),
far into the basin, presumes that the former closer to the Apuseni Mountains, showing an active
sedimentary trap capturing these rivers at the sediment supply from the southeastern source area
western margin of the Apuseni Mountains was no towards the proximal parts of the K6r6s sub-basin.
longer functioning. Based on the changes in the Individual basins rarely follow the ideal behav-
tectonic regime of the studied region (Sanders iour of basin models, especially a basin with such a
1998), it is concluded that the marginal fault that complicated and multiphase development like the
bounded the syn-sedimentary trap, characteristic Pannonian Basin. However, some analogues for
for the first phase of uplift of the Apuseni basin evolution with similar stress fields help to
Mountains, was not active by the Pleistocene, unravel links of drainage development and large-
which contributed to the filling up of this tectonic scale tectonic evolution of the region, and might
trough (Fig. 9a). The disappearance of this trough support further evidence for the tectono-morpho-
was the main cause of drainage pattern changes, logical model described above. The following basin
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50 E. THAMO-BOZS6 ET AL.

evolution models, as possible analogues, include Himalayas (Burbank 1992), as well as with the
the Himalayan foreland basin (Burbank 1992) and thrust-bounded syn-sedimentary trap and resulted
the retro-arc foreland basin model of Jordan (1995) axial drainage of the K6r6s sub-basin in Hungary.
of the Cordilleran-Andean ranges. Both models When sediment supply exceeds subsidence,
have genetic similarities in their stress field proximal alluvial fan facies propagate and the retro-
evolution history with the southeastern part of the arc foreland basin becomes 'over-filled', resulting
Pannonian Basin and its hinterland area. However, in a sedimentary plain extending across the
the dimensions of the Himalayan foreland, or forebulge. In this case the sedimentary basin is a
Cordilleran-Andean retro-arc foreland basins, are lowland region, and not restricted to an axial valley
obviously different and plate tectonic settings (Fig. 9c, Jordan 1995). This 'over-filled' scenario is
cannot be fully compared. Despite these differences comparable to the erosional unloading and uplift of
in reorganization of drainage pattern resulting from the Himalayas and its related change in drainage
tectonic uplift, and related variations in sediment pattern (Burbank 1992), that is the dominance of
supply to the adjacent basins, these analogue areas transverse rivers with extended alluvial fans
show similarities with the Krr6s sub-basin. propagating into the basin, as well as with the
Based on the study of Plio-Pleistocene foreland K6r6s sub-basin where the filling up of the syn-
in the Himalayan massif, Burbank (1992) described sedimentary trap allowed the formation of
the infilling of the Ganges Basin based on sediment transverse drainage.
infill and amount of sediment supplied to the basin, Both the Himalayan foreland and the retro-arc
which controlled drainage patterns. Burbank (1992) foreland basin models show that tectonic uplift has
identified two different scenarios in the tectonic an important role in controlling drainage patterns
evolution of the area: through changes in amount and style of sediment
supply to basins. By analogy with these models it is
9 when the uplift of the hinterland is controlled by
proposed that variations in sediment supply and
tectonic loading, then the associated basin
changes in source areas, as well as in drainage
morphology will be narrow and asymmetric. The
pattern, are responsible for the alterations in
major sediment accumulation is proximal to the
transport directions inferred from detrital heavy
mountain area, and the river course pattern is
minerals observed in the boreholes. These are
characterized by relatively short transverse
likely to be caused by the changes in the style of
streams, perpendicular to the strike of the
tectonic uplift of the Apuseni Mountains and stress
mountain, depositing smaller alluvial fans, and
field, which exerted a strong control on the
by axial main river(s), parallel to the mountain
formation and subsequent cessation of a syn-
front (Fig. 8b);
sedimentary trap along the western margin of the
9 when tectonic loading is replaced by erosional
catchment area.
unloading and uplift, the formerly strongly
subsiding basin also uplifts together with the
isostatically uplifting hinterland area, and the Conclusions
area for fluvial sedimentation increases. This
Changes in transport directions in the Pleistocene
setting is characterized by the dominance of
fluvial sediments on the southeastern part of the
transverse rivers with large alluvial fans. Axial
Pannonian Basin have been studied by cluster
rivers are subordinate in this case (Fig. 9b).
analysis of detrital heavy minerals from modern
The characteristic axial and transverse drainage rivers and two key boreholes covering the whole
patterns of the Himalayas are comparable with the Pleistocene period. Samples within the same cluster
under-filled and over-filled states of retro-arc have a similar composition, and they originated
foreland basin development (Jordan 1995), how- from the same source area. Based on a similar
ever plate tectonic settings are different. Retro-arc palaeogeographical setting of the potential source
foreland basins form along the continental interior areas during the Quaternary, the present transport
flanks of continental-margin orogenic belts due to directions of the rivers with a well-known catch-
the compression and tectonic loading resulting ment area geology and heavy mineral composition
from the subduction (Jordan 1995). If sediment have been extrapolated to the Pleistocene borehole
does not completely fill the tectonically subsiding data. The results of cluster analysis showed that the
basin, then a topographic trough develops between samples group into two major clusters and, within
the thrust belt and the forebulge. This valley has a those, some sub-clusters. Cluster I is characterized
drainage parallel to the thrust front (under-filled by hornblende, orthopyroxene, epidote, garnet and
basin), and the basin may receive sediment along magnetite. Within this group, sub-cluster Ia is
strike, through axial drainage (Fig. 8c). This drain- characterized mostly by hornblende, orthopyroxene
age scenario is comparable to the axial main river and epidote, indicating a SE transport direction,
course pattern of the tectonic loading uplift of the however the dominance of pyroxene indicates NE
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QUATERNARY ALLUVIALSYSTEMS, KOROS SUB-BASIN 51

transport direction. Sub-cluster Ib is characterized active and was filled up rapidly by the sediments of
by a high garnet content, referring to a NE transport the transverse rivers, and also allowed the spread of
direction. Cluster II is characterized by a high alluvial fans over the basin to the west. This is
chlorite content, which is not known from the indicated by the occurrence of SE transport
present fiver sediments but it is supposed to have a directions in the boreholes at about 1.95 Ma ago,
northeastern origin. In the D-1 and V-1 boreholes which also gives the timing for the tectonic
there is a clearly defined change in the detrital processes. These southeast-derived sediments
heavy mineral composition at about 1.95 Ma reached the area of the distal D-1 borehole only for
characterized by the occurrence of epidote and a short period, then most of the upper part is
hornblende minerals indicating a switch in characterized again by NE transport directions,
provenance areas and a change in transport characteristic of axial rivers. However the SE
direction from a NE to a SE one. This time transport direction became dominant in the area of
coincides with an increased sediment flux to the the proximal V-1 borehole, showing an active
basin, shown by the higher rate of sedimentation. sediment supply from the southeastern Apuseni
Owing to the inter-mountain basin setting, the Mountains source area. The isostatic uplift of the
Pleistocene fluvial sediments under discussion whole area was responsible not only for the
share the same regional subsidence, where base- development of transverse rivers, extending far to
level changes were unaffected by eustatic changes. the basin, but also for gradual shift to the west of
The Pleistocene climatic signal is preserved in the the axial capturing throughout the Pleistocene.
sediment record as fifth-order Milankovitch cycles, Analogues from the Himalayan foreland and
identical in the two boreholes, therefore climate can Andean retro-arc basins also showed that tectonic
also be considered as a regional influence on the activity exerts a strong control on the drainage
fiver systems of the area. Variations in transport pattern through its influence on variations in
direction, determined on the basis of detrital micro- sediment supply.
mineral composition as revealed by cluster analy-
sis, were caused by changes in sediment supply, This research were funded by the Hungarian National
source areas and drainage pattern reorganization. Scientific Research Fund (OTKA T-32956) and by the
These changes have been shown to be comparable Bolyai J~inos Research Fund of the Hungarian Academy
to transport directions predicted on the basis of a of Sciences (A.N.). Helpful and constructivereviews from
S. Jones, L. Frostick and O. Sztan6 are gratefully
theoretical tectono-morphological model, based on
acknowledged.
sedimentological observations and tectonic data, as
well as on analogues for basin evolution with
similar stress fields. References
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