2marks Unit I Introduction and Chain Surveying

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.
ne
CE6304 SURVEYING I YEAR:II/SEM:III CIVIL

2MARKS UNIT I
INTRODUCTION AND CHAIN SURVEYING
1. Define Surveying. What are the fundamental principles of surveying?

Surveying is an art of determining the relative positions of various points on,
above or below the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurement of
distance, direction and elevation.
The principles of surveying are:
(i). Working from whole to part.
(ii). To locate a new station by at least two measurements (angular, linear)
from fixed reference points.
2. What is the object or purpose of surveying?

The primary object of surveying is to prepare a plan or map to show the relative
position of the objects on the surface of the earth. It is also used to determine the areas,
volumes and other related quantities.
3. Name the different ways of classification of surveys.

a. Primary classification
(i). Plane surveying
(ii). Geodetic surveying.
b. Secondary classification
(i). Based on instruments used
(ii). Based on methods.
(iii). Based on object
(iv). Based on nature of the field
4. Differentiate between plane and geodetic surveying.
Sl.No. Plane surveying Geodetic surveying.
1. The curvature of the earth is The curvature of the earth is taken.

neglected.
2. A line joining any two points is A line joining any two points is
considered straight. considered as curved line.
3. The triangle formed by any three The triangle formed by any three
points is considered as plane points is considered as spherical
triangle. triangle.
4. It is done on a area less than 250 It is done on a area greater than 250
Km 2 Km 2
5. Classify surveying based on the equipments.

1. Chain surveying
2. Compass surveying
3. Plane table surveying
T.SHARMILA 2015-2016 Page 3 of 84
Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

4. Theodolite surveying
5. Tacheometric surveying
6. Photogram metric surveying
7. Aerial surveying
6. Explain the constructions of a diagonal scale.

For a given short length ( PQ=PR), draw a right angle triangle. Its base( PR)
and height (PQ) are equal. A short length is divided into a number of parts by using the
principle of similar triangles in which like sides are proportional.
Thus,
1-1 represents 1/ 10 PQ
9-9 represents 9/ 10 PQ
7. Define chain surveying. What is the fundamental principle of chain surveying?

Chain surveying is the type of surveying in which only linear measurements
are made in the field.
The main principle of chain surveying or chain triangulation is to provide a

framework consist of number of well-conditioned triangles or nearly equilateral triangles.
It is used to find the area of the field.
8. What is a well-conditioned triangle? What is its specific advantage?

A triangle is said to be well- conditioned or well proportioned when it
contains no angle smaller than 300 and no angle greater than 1200 .
The main principle of chain surveying is chain triangulation. It consists of

frame work of triangles. To plot the network of triangles accurately, the triangles must be
nearly equal to equilateral or well-conditioned. The distortion due to errors in
measurement and plotting should be minimum.
9. What are the operations involved in chain survey?

(i). Ranging: The process of locating intermediate points on a straight line
between two end points in a straight line.
(ii). Chaining: The process of measuring the distance with a chain or tape.
(iii). Offsetting: The process of measuring the lateral distance of the object
from the survey line to the left or right according to their positions.
10. What are the instruments required for a chain survey?

Chain or tape, Arrows, Pegs, Ranging rods, Offset rods, Laths or whites,
Plumb bob, Cross staff and Mallet.

11. Write the different types of Chain.

(i). Metric chain
(ii). Non-Metric chain
(a).Gunter’s chain or Surveyor’s chain
(b). Engineer’s chain
(c). Revenue chain
(d). Steel band.
12. Differentiate between Gunter’s chain and Engineer’s Chain
Sl.No. Gunter’s chain or Surveyor’s chain Engineer’s chain

1. It is 66 feet long and divided in to 100 It is 100 feet long and divided in
links. 1link = 0.66 feet to 100 links. 1link = 1 feet
2. Measurements are in miles and furlongs. Measurements are in feet and
decimals
Define: (a).Main stations.

Main station is a prominent point on the chain line and can be either at
the beginning of the chain line or at the end or along the boundary.
Subsidiary stations:
The stations located on the main survey lines are known as Subsidiary
stations.
Tie stations:
These are also subsidiary stations taken on the main survey lines to locate
the details of the object.
Distinguish between a check line and a tie line.
Sl.No Check line Tie line

1. Check lines or Proof lines are the The main object of running a tie line
lines which are run in the field to is to take the details of the objects.
check the accuracy of the work
2. The length of the check line Tie line is a line which joints
measured in the field must agree subsidiary stations or tie stations on
with its length of the plan. the main line.
15. What are the instruments used for setting out right angles to a chain line?
(i). Cross staff.
a. Open cross staff
b. French cross staff
c. Adjustable cross staff
(ii). Optical square.
(iii). Prism square
(iv). Site square.
STAFF NAME: T SHARMILA 2015-2016

16. What are offsets? Classify them.

An offset is the lateral distance of an object or ground feature measured from
a survey line. The two types of offsets are,
(i). Perpendicular offset: The angle of offset from a point on a chain line is 900.
(ii). Oblique offset: When the angle of offset is other than 900 .
Perpendicular offset Oblique offset
17. What is the use of a line Ranger?

The line Ranger is a small reflecting instrument used for fixing intermediate
points on the chain lines. Without going to either end, we can fix the intermediate points.
18. What are the stages of fieldwork in chain surveying? Or What are the steps involved
in chain survey?
1. Reconnaissance: It is the preliminary inspection of the area to be surveyed.
2. Marking and fixing Survey lines.
3. Running survey lines.
4. Taking Offsets.
19. What are the different tape corrections?

1. Correction for absolute length or standardisation.
2. Correction for temperature.
3. Correction for pull or tension.
4. Correction for sag. (- ve)
5. Correction for slope. (- ve)
20. What are the errors in chaining?

(i). Compensating Errors: Which are liable to occur in either direction and
tend to compensate.
(ii). Cumulative Errors: Which occur in the same direction and tend to add or
subtract. It may be positive (measured lengths more than the actual length) or negative
(measured lengths less than the actual length).
21. What are the different sources of errors in chain surveying?

(i). Instrumental errors: incorrect length of the chain (Cumulative Errors).

(ii). Personal error: Bad ranging (Cumulative Errors).

Careless holding (Compensating Errors).
Bad straightening (Cumulative Errors).
Non- horizontality (Cumulative Errors).
Sag in chain (Cumulative Errors).
Miscounting and misreading and booking.
(ii). Natural Errors: Variation in temperature. (Cumulative Errors).
22. Enumerate the instruments used for measurement of lengths of survey lines.
(i). Chain or tape.
(ii). Passometer.
(iii). Pedometer
(iv). Odometer
(v). Speedometer.
UNIT II
COMPASS SURVEYING AND PLANE TABLE SURVEYING
1. Define: Compass surveying. What are the objects of compass surveying?

Compass surveying is the type of surveying in which the direction of the survey
lines are measured with a compass and the length of the survey lines are measured with a
tape or chain in the field.
2. Write the names of the instruments used in chain surveying.

(i). Instruments for the direct measurement of directions:
1. Surveyor’s compass.
2. Prismatic compass.
(ii).Instruments for the measurement of angles:
1. Sextant.
2. Theodolite.
3. Define: (a). True meridian and bearing.

True meridian:
The line or plane passing through the geographical North Pole, South Pole and
any point on the surface of the earth, is known as true meridian or geographical meridian.
True meridian at a point is constant.
True bearing:
The angle between the true meridian and a survey line is known as true
bearing or Azimuth of the line.
(b). Magnetic meridian and Bearing.

Magnetic meridian :
Magnetic meridian at a point is the direction indicated by freely suspended,

properly balanced and unaffected magnetic needle at that point.
Magnetic Bearing:
The angle between the magnetic meridian and a survey line is known as
magnetic bearing or bearing .of the line. It changes with time.
4. What do you understand by Whole circle bearing and quadrantal bearing of a line?
Magnetic Bearings are designated by Whole circle bearing system and
quadrantal bearing system.
In Whole circle bearing system (WCB), the bearing of the line is measured
with magnetic north in clockwise direction. It varies from 00 to 3600.
In quadrantal bearing system (Q.B or R.B) the bearing of the line is measured
eastward or westward from north or south, whichever is nearer. The directions can be either
clockwise or anticlockwise. It varies from 00 to 900.
5. Convert the whole circle bearing into reduced bearing: 500, 1760, 2100, 2320, 1500, 760,
3100 ,2420.
Whole circle bearing Reduced bearing

WCB RB
500 N 500 E.
1760 S (1800 – 1760)E = S 40 E
2100 S (2100 – 1800)W = S 300 W
2320 S (2320 – 1800)W = S 520 W
1500 S (1800 – 1500) E = S 300 E

760 N 760 E
3100 N (3600 – 3100) W = N 50 0 W
2420 S (2420 – 1800)W = S 620 W
6.Differentiate between Prismatic compass and Surveyor’s compass with

reference to reading and tripod.
SI.No. Item Prismatic compass Surveyor’s compass

1. Reading (i). The reading is taken with a (i). The reading is taken by
help of prism provided at the eye directly seeing through the top of
slit. the glass.
(ii). Sighting and reading taking (ii). Sighting and reading taking
can be done simultaneously from cannot be done simultaneously
one position of the observer. from one position of the
observer.
2. Tripod Tripod may or may not be The instrument cannot be used
provided. without a tripod.
7.The fore bearing of a line PQ is N 280 W. What is its back bearing?

In quadrantal bearing (RB) system, the FB and BB are numerically equal
but the quadrants are just opposite.
The FB of a line PQ is N 280
W, Then its BB is S 280 E .
8.Define: Fore and Back bearing.

The bearing of a line is measured in the direction of the progress of
the survey is called the fore bearing of the (FB) line.
The bearing of a line is measured in the direction opposite to the survey is called the
back bearing of the (BB) line.
BB = FB + 180 0 . (FB greater than 180 0, use - sign)

(FB smaller than 180 0, use + sign)
9. The fore bearing of line AB is 155025’20”. Identify the back bearing of the line AB in
quadrantal system.
The fore bearing of line AB = 155025’20”.
The back bearing of line AB , BB = FB + 180 0
= 155025’20” + 180 0
= 335025’20” (WCB)
= N (3600 – 335025’20”) W
= N 24034’ 40’’ W
10. Define and distinguish between magnetic dip and magnetic declination.
Magnetic dip:
Due to the magnetic influence of the earth, the needle does not remain in the
balanced position. This inclination of the needle with the horizontal is known as the dip
of the magnetic needle. To balance the dip of the needle, a rider (brass or silver coil) is
provided along with it.
Magnetic declination:
The magnetic meridian of a place is variable one due to some local attractive
forces. Therefore, the true meridian and the magnetic meridian at a place do not coincide.
STAFF NAME: T SHARMILA 2015-2016

The horizontal angle between the magnetic meridian and the true meridian is known as
magnetic declination.
11. The magnetic bearing of a line is 48024’. Calculate the true bearing if the magnetic
declinations are 5038’ East and 50 38’ West.
True bearing = Magnetic bearing + Eastern magnetic declination

= 48024’ + 5038’
= 54002’.
True bearing = Magnetic bearing - Western magnetic declination
= 48024’ - 5038’
= 42046’.
12. The magnetic bearing of a line is S 28030’ E. Calculate the true bearing if the
magnetic declinations are 5038’ East and 50 38’ West.
Convert the reduced bearing into Whole circle bearing.

Magnetic bearing = S 28030’ E. (RB)
= 1800 - 28030’
= 1510 300 .
True bearing = Magnetic bearing + Eastern magnetic declination
= 151030’ + 7030’
= 159000’. (WCB)
= S(1800-159000’)E (RB)
= S 21 0 E .
True bearing = Magnetic bearing - Western magnetic declination

= 151030’ - 7030’
= 144000’. (WCB)
= S(1800-144000’)E (RB)
= S 36 0 E.
13. What is local attraction? What are the sources of local attractions?
Local attraction is a term used to denote any influence, such as magnetic
substances, which prevents the needle from pointing to the magnetic north in a given
locality.
The sources of local attractions are : magnetite in the ground, wire carrying
electric current, steel structures, rails, underground iron pipes, chain etc.,
14. Distinguish between closed traverse and open traverse.
SI.No. Closed traverse Open traverse

1. When the lines form a circuit, which If the circuit ends elsewhere, it is
ends at the starting point, it is known known as open traverse.
as closed traverse.
2. It is suitable for locating the It is suitable for surveying a long
boundaries of lakes, woods etc,. narrow strip of land required for
road canal etc,.
3. Check: No direct check on angular
Sum of interior angles = (2n – 4) 90 measurements.
Sum of exterior angles = (2n +4) 90
Where, n= number of sides of the
traverse.
15. What is plane table surveying? When is it preferred? Write its principle.
Plane tabling is the graphical method of surveying in which the field
observations and plotting proceed simultaneously.
It is mainly suitable for filling the interior details between the control stations
and also in magnetic areas.
The main principle of plane table surveying is that the lines joining the points
on the plane table are made to lie parallel to the corresponding lines joining the points on
the ground while working at each station.
16. Name four methods of plane surveying.

1. Radiation
2. Intersection.
3. Traversing
4. Resection.
(i). Resection after orientation by compass.
(ii). Resection after orientation by back sighting.
(iii). Resection after orientation by three point problem.
a. Mechanical method.(Tracing paper method)
b. Graphical method. ( Bessel’s method)
c. Lehman’s method. (Trial and error method)
(iv). Resection after orientation by two point problem
17. When a three- point problem resorted to in plane table surveying?

It is the method of orientation when the table occupies a position not yet
located on the drawing sheet.
This method is employed when during surveying the surveyor feels that
some important details can be plotted easily by choosing any stations.
18. State the First and second Lehman’s rule.

First rule: The distance of the point “p” (position of plane table on the

CE 6304 SURVEYING I YEAR: II/SEM: III CIVIL ENGINEERING
drawing sheet) to be fixed from each rays Aa (paper a, to ground A), Bb (paper ,b to ground
B) and Cc (paper c, to ground C) is proportional to the respective distances of the stations
A, B and C from the ground station P.
Second rule: While looking towards the stations the point “p” to be fixed, will
be either to the left or to the right of each of the rays.
19. What are the Advantages of plane table surveying?

1. It is useful in magnetic areas.
2. It is cheaper than the theodolite surveying.
3. It is most suitable for small-scale maps.
4. The surveyor can compare plotted work with the actual features.
5. No skill is required .
Name some of the errors in plane tabling.

Instrumental error.
Errors of plotting
Errors due to manipulation and sighting.
Non horizontality of the board.
Defective sighting.
Defective orientation.
Movement of board between sights.
UNIT IIIand IV
LEVELLING AND APPLICATIONS
1. Define Levelling. What are the uses of leveling?

Levelling is a branch of surveying, the object of which is; (i). To find the
elevations of given points with respect to a given or assumed datum, and (ii). To establish
points at a given elevation or at different elevations with respect to a given or assumed
datum.
2. Define benchmark and reduced level.

Benchmark:
Benchmark is a relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation with
respect to some assumed datum is known.
Reduced level or Elevation:

The vertical distance of a point above or below the datum is known as the
elevation or R.L of that point. R.L of a point may be positive or negative according as the
point is above or below the datum.
3. What are the different kinds of bench marks?

A BM is the reference point of known elevation. It may be classified into

following types.
(i).G.T.S Bench Mark: The great trigonometrical survey (G.T.S) bench marks
are established by the survey of India throughout the country. The levels of this bench marks
are established very accurately at a large interval with respect to the mean sea level at
Bombay port.
(ii). Permanent Bench Mark: These are established by different Government

departments like PWD, Railways, Irrigation etc,. The RL of these points are determined
with reference to the G.T.S Bench Marks. Points on rocks, culvert, gate pillars, etc,.
(iii).Temporary Bench Mark: These are established temporarily whenever

required. These are generally chosen to close the day’s work and to start the next days.
Points on roofs, walls, basements, etc,.
(iv). Arbitrary Bench Mark: When the RL of some fixed points are assumed,
they are termed arbitrary benchmark.
4. What do you mean by datum surface?

It is any surface, to which elevations are taken as a reference for the
determination of elevations of various points. In India the datum adopted for the great
trigonometrical survey (G.T.S) is the mean sea level at Bombay port.

5. What is mean by line of collimation and height of collimation?

Line of collimation (Line of sight): It is an imaginary line passing through the intersection
of the cross hairs at the diaphragm and the optical centre of the object glass and its
continuation.
Height of collimation(HOC): The elevation of the Line of collimation (Line of sight) is

known as Height of collimation. HOC = RL of BM + BS.
6. Write the different types of levels.

1. Dumpy level
2. Tilting level
3. Quick setting level.
4. Y-level.
5. Reversible level.
6. Automatic level
7. Lazer level.
7. List the essential parts of a Level.

Telescope, Eyepiece, Objective
Focusing screws. Longitudinal bubble
Foot screws, Upper parallel plate ( Tribrach), Foot plate( Trivet).
Diaphragm adjusting screws, Bubble adjusting screws, Tripod.
8. What are the different type’s leveling staffs?
1. Target Staff
2. Self reading Staff.
a. Solid Staff
b. Folding Staff
c. Telescopic Staff.
9. Define and distinguish between ‘Back sights’ and ‘Fore sight’ in the process of fly
Levelling.
SI.No Back sights (BS) Fore sight (FS)

1. This is the first staff reading taken This is the last staff reading
in any setup of the instrument. It is taken in any setup of the
always taken on a point of known instrument and, after that
elevation( BM). instrument is shifted.
2. It is used to determine the height It is used to determine the
of the instrument. elevation (RL) of the staff
HI = known RL + BS station.
RL = HI – FS.

10. Explain the theory of direct leveling.

It is the branch of leveling in which the vertical distances with respect to a
horizontal line may be used to determine the relative difference in elevation between two
adjacent points. Steps involved:
HI = known RL(BM) + BS
RL = HI – FS.
11. Distinguish between differential levelling and reciprocal levelling.
SI.No. Differential levelling Reciprocal levelling

1. Difference in elevation between Difference in elevation between two
two or more points is determined points is accurately determined by
by without any regard to the two sets of reciprocal observations..
alignment of the points is called
differential leveling.
2. It is used when: It is used when:
(i). two points are a large (i). The instrument cannot be setup
distance apart. between the two points due to an
(ii). The difference in elevation obstruction such as a valley, river,
between two points is large. etc,.
(iii). Some obstacles intervenes
between the points.
12. Reduced level of Bench Mark A - 50.000m

Reading on staff held at A - 2.435m
Reading on staff held at station point B - 1.650m
Find: (a) Height of collimation.
(b) Reduced level of station point B.
(c) Rise/fall of B with respect to A.
(a). Height of collimation = RL of BM A + BS

(HOC) = 50.000 + 2.435
= 52.435m
(b) Reduced level of station point B.

= HOC – FS.
= 52.435 - 1.650
= 50.785 m
( c). Rise/fall of B with respect to A.

= 2.435- 1.65 ( Lower staff reading being higher)
= 0.785m,
= with compare to A, the station point B being 0.785m higher.

13. Compare height of collimation method and rise and fall method.
SI.No Height of collimation method Rise and fall method
1. It is more rapid, less tedious and It is more laborious and tedious ,

simpler as it involves few calculation. involving several calculations.
2. There is no check on the RL of the There is a check on the RL of the
intermediate points. intermediate points.
3. Errors in intermediate RL’s cannot be Errors in intermediate RL’s can be
detected. detected.
4. There are two arithmetic checks on There are three arithmetic checks
the accuracy of RL calculation. on the accuracy of RL calculation.
∑BS -∑FS = Last RL –First RL. ∑BS -∑FS = ∑Rise -∑Fall =Last
RL –First RL.
5. It is suitable in the case of L.S and It is suitable in fly leveling where I
C.S, Contour etc. intermediate sights are less.
14. Write the formula for curvature correction, refraction correction and combined
correction.
Curvature correction CC = 0.07849 d2 ( negative) m
Refraction correction Cr = 0.01121 d2 (positive) m
Combined correction. C = CC – Cr = 0.06728 d2 (negative) m.
Note: ‘d’ is to be substituted in Km, while the corrections will be in m.
15. List out the various sources of errors in levelling.

Three principal sources:
(i). Instrumental error
a. Error due to imperfect adjustment
b. Error due to sluggish bubble.
c. Error due to movement of objective slide.
d. Error due to defective joint.
e. Error due to incorrect length of staff.
(ii). Natural error.
a. Earth’s curvature.
b. Atmospheric refraction.
c. Variations in temperature.
d. Settlement of tripod.
e. Wind vibrations.
(iii). Personal errors.
a. Mistakes in manipulation.
b. Mistake in staff handling
c. Mistake in reading the staff.
d. Error’s in sighting.
e. Mistakes in recording.

16. List out the leveling problems.

1. Levelling on Steep Slope.
2. Levelling on Summits and Hollows.
3.Taking Level of an Overhead Point.
4. Levelling Ponds and Lakes too Wide to be Sighted across.
5. Levelling across River.
6. Levelling on Past High Wall.
17. Define sensitivity of a bubble. State any two factors affecting the same.
The sensitiveness of a bubble is defined the angular value of one division of
the bubble tube. It means the capability of showing small angular movements of the tube
vertically. It can be increased by:
1. Increasing the internal radius of the tube.
2. Increasing the diameter of the tube.
3. Increasing the length of the tube.
4. Decreasing the roughness of the walls.
5. Decreasing the viscosity of the liquid.
18. What is a spire test?

It is used to make the horizontal axis perpendicular to the vertical axis. This
test is also known as the test for the adjustments of the standards. It is done by means of the
adjustments of the vertical hair. It is one of the permanent adjustment of the level and
theodolite.
19. Define Contour, contour interval and, horizontal equivalent.

Contour: A contour is an imaginary line on the ground joining the points of
equal elevation.
Contour interval: It is the vertical distance between any two consecutive
contours. It depends upon the nature of the ground, the scale of the map and the purpose of
the survey.
Horizontal equivalent: It is the horizontal distance between any two
consecutive contours. It varies according to the steepness of the ground.
20. What are the different Characteristics of contour?
1. Contour lines are closed curves. They may either within the map itself or
outside the map depending upon the topography.
2. Uniformly spaced, contour lines indicate a uniform slope.
3. A series of closed contours with increase in elevation from outside to inside
in plan denotes a hill.
4. A series of closed contours with increase in elevation from inside to outside
in plan denotes a depression.
5. The spacing between the contour lines depends upon the slope of the
ground. In steep slopes, the spacing is small and for gentle slope, the spacing is large.

21. What are the uses of contours?

1. Volume of earthwork for any work can be estimated.
2. The capacity of the reservoir or the area of the catchments can be
calculated.
3. Very useful in military operations to decide the position of the guns, the
line of march.
4. Longitudinal and cross section can be drawn along any direction to know
the nature of the ground.
22. Write the different formulae to calculate the area of the irregular plate.
1. By computations based directly on the field measurements:
(i). By dividing the area into number of triangles.
(ii). By offsets to base line.
a. Mid ordinate rule = ∑O .d
b. Average ordinate Rule = nd. ∑O
n+1
c. Trapezoidal rule = ( Oo + On + Ol +O2+O3+……On-1) d
2
d. Simpson’s rule = [( Oo + On )+ 4( O1+ O3+ …. On-1) +
2( O2+ O4+ …. On-2 ) ] (d/3)
Oo = Ordinate at one end.

On = Ordinate at other end.
Ol +O2+O3+……On-1 = Ordinate at end of each divison.
d = Length of the base
(iii). By latitudes and Departures:
a. By double meridian distance (D.M.D. method).
b. By double parallel distance (D.P.D. method).
(iv). By co- ordinates.
2. By computations based on measurements scaled from a map.
3. By mechanical method: By means of planimeter.
23. How do you calculate the capacity of the reservoir from the contour map?
From the contour map, the capacity of the reservoir is calculated by the
following formulas.
1. Trapezoidal rule = ( Ao + An + Al +A2+A3+……An-1)
2
2. Prismoidal rule = [( Ao + An )+ 4( A1+ A3+ …. An-1) +
2( A2+ A4+ …. … An-2 ) ] (d/3)
Ao, A1, A2, A3,……An = Areas enclosed by successive contours.

d = contour interval.

UNIT V
THEODOLITE SURVEYING
1. Define: Theodolite surveying. What are the uses of a theodolite?

Theodolite surveying is a branch of surveying, in which the theodolite is
accurate instrument used for the measurement of horizontal angles, vertical angles. It can
also be used for various purposes such as laying off horizontal angles, locating points on a
line, prolonging survey lines, establishing grades, determining differences in elevation, etc,.
2. Why a type of theodolite is called a transit theodolite?

A transit theodolite is one is which the line of sight can be reversed by
revolving the telescope through 1800 in the vertical plane.
List the essential parts of a theodolite.

The telescope, The vertical circle, The index frame (T- frame),
The levelling head, The scale plate (Lower), The Vernier plate (Upper).
The tripod, Plumb bob, The compass, Focusing screws,
The upper and lower clamp and its tangential screws,
Vertical clamp screw, Foot screws. etc,.
Differentiate between the Vernier theodolite and Micrometer theodolite.

In Vernier theodolite the verniers are fitted to read the angles upto 20”.
In Micrometer theodolite micrometers are fitted to read the angles.
List the essential qualities of a theodolite telescope.

The essential parts of the telescope:
(i).Objective (ii).Eye-piece, (iii). Diaphragm, (iv). Body and focusing device.
The essential qualities of a theodolite telescope:

The real image must be formed in front of the eye-piece.
The plane of the image must coincide with that of the cross-hairs.
6. What are the temporary adjustments of the theodolite?

1. Setting up.
2. Levelling up.
3. Elimination of parallax.
(i). Focusing the eye piece.
(ii). Focusing the Objective.
7. List out the permanent adjustments of Theodolite.

1. Adjustment of plate level (Plate level test).
2. Adjustment of line of sight ( Cross- hair test).
3. Adjustment of horizontal axis.(Spire test).

4. Adjustment of vertical index frame and altitude bubble.(Vertical arc test).

8. List out the fundamental lines of Theodolite
1. The vertical axis
2. The horizontal axis or trunnion axis
3. The line of collimation or line of sight.
4.Axis of plate level.
5. Axis of altitude level.
9. What is an anallatic lens? What is the use of an anallatic lens?

It is a special convex lens fitted between the object glass and eye piece, at a
fixed distance from the object glass, inside the telescope of a tacheometer.
The use of an anallatic lens is to reduce the additive constant ( C ) to zero.
Tacheometric equation, D = Ks + C. Where,
D = horizontal distance between the staff and the instrument station.
S = staff intercept
K = multiplying constant.
C = additive constant.
10. Name the two methods of measuring horizontal angles using a thedolite. When each
method is advantageously used?
The two methods: (i). Repetition method.
(ii). Reiteration method (Direct method).
The method of repetition is preferred for the measurement of a single angle.
The method of reiteration is preferred in triangulation, where a number of
angles may be required at one point by the instrument.
The method of repetition appears to be better, it is more time consuming and
even many repetitions may yield ordinary results.
11. State what errors are eliminated by repetition method.

1. Errors due to imperfect eccentricity of verniers and centres are eliminated
by reading both verniers and taking the mean of the reading.
2. Errors due to imperfect adjustment of the instrument are eliminated by
taking face left and right observations.
3. Errors due to inaccurate graduations on the main scale are eliminated as
the readings are spread over different parts of the circle.
4. Errors due to inaccurate bisection of the signal are eliminated, as they tend
to balance each other. All the errors are also minimized as the number of repetitions divides
the sum.
12. What are the methods used to plot the traverse?

1. By parallel Meridians Through Each Station.
2. By Included Angles
3. By Paper Protractor.
4. By rectangular co-ordinates.
5. Plotting by tangents and chords.

13.Define closing error.

If a closed traverse is plotted according to the field measurements, the end
point of the traverse will not coincide exactly with the starting point, due to the errors in
the field observations. Such as error is known as closing error.
Closing error e = √ ( ∑L) 2 + ( ∑D) 2.
where, ∑L = sum of latitudes.

∑D = sum of departures.
The direction of closing error
tan θ = ∑D / ∑L.
14. Define: Balancing. What are the methods used to balancing the traverse?
The term balancing is generally applied to the operation of applying
corrections to latitudes and departures. So that ∑L = sum of latitudes = 0; ∑D = sum of
departures = 0. This is applied only for closed traverse
Methods used to balancing (adjusting) the traverse:
1. Bowditch’s rule
2. Transit rule.
3. Graphical method.
4. Axis method.
15.Explain the Bowditch’s rule in balancing the traverse.

The Bowditch’s rule (compass rule) is used to balance a traverse where the
linear and angular measurements are of equal precision. In this method the error in linear
measurements are proportional to √l and the error in angular measurements are inversely
proportional to √l ,where l is the length of the line.
Correction to latitude (or departure) of any side

= Total error in latitude (or departure) x Length of that side
Perimeter of traverse.
C L = ∑ L .( l / ∑l)
C D = ∑ D .( l / ∑l)
where,
∑ L = Total error in Latitude.
∑ D = Total error in Departure.
l = Length of the side
∑l = Perimeter of traverse.

16. What is Gale’s table? What is its use?

Traverse computations are usually done in a tabular form. One such form is
known as Gale’s Table.
It is used to balance the traverse and also used to find the area of the closed
traverse.
17. Define: Omitted measurements.
Sometimes it is not possible to take all the measurements due to obstacles.
Such missing quantities are known as omitted measurements. They can be calculated from
the known latitudes and departures.
18. What is closed traverse? What are the two checks applicable in this case?
When the lines form a circuit, which ends at the starting point, it is known as
closed traverse.
Check:
(i). Sum of interior angles = (2n – 4) 90
(ii). Sum of exterior angles = (2n +4) 90
Where, n= number of sides of the traverse.
19. Define: Trigonometrical leveling or Heights and Distances.

Trigonometrical leveling is an indirect method of levelling. The relative
elevations of various points are determined from the observed vertical angles and horizontal
distances by the use of trigonometrical relations. The vertical angles are measured with a
theodolite and the horizontal distances are measured with a tape or chain. This method is
also known as Heights and Distances.
20. What are the methods used to find the elevations of the points in the case of
inaccessible points? Differentiate that?
1. Single plane method
2. Double plane method.
SI.No. Single plane method Double plane method

1. Two instrument stations are chosen Two instrument stations are chosen
in line with the object. which are not in line with the object.
2. The two vertical angles are measured The two vertical angles are measured
in the same vertical plane. in two different vertical planes.
3. Horizontal angles are not required. Horizontal angles are also measured.

1. Explain different Types of Surveying Chains

Following are the various types of chain in common use:
1. Metric chains
2. Steel band or Band chain
3. Gunter's chain or surveyors chain
4. Engineers chain
5. Revenue chain
1. Metric Chain:
 Metric chains are made in lengths 20m and 30m. Tallies are fixed at every five-meter
length and brass rings are provided at every meter length except where tallies are attached.
2. Gunter’s Chain
Length = 66’ (22 yards), No of links = 100, Each link = .66’

Used for measuring distances in miles or furlongs (220 yards), acres (Area).
3. Engineer’s Chain
Length = 100’, No of links = 100, Each link = 1’

Used in all Engineering Surveys.
4. Revenue Chain
Length = 33’, No of links = 16

Commonly used for measuring fields in cadastral Survey.
Types of Measuring Tapes in Surveying

Tapes are made of different materials:
1. Cloth or linen tape
Used for subsidiary measurements

Very light, easy to handle
May effect by moisture
2. Metric steel tape
Made of steel

Outer end is provided with a ring for holding
3. Invar tape
Used for high precision work

Made of alloy steel
4. Synthetic tape
Made of glass fiber with PVC coating

These are used for short measurements
2.Corrections for Baseline Measurement

It is necessary to apply the following corrections to the field measurements of
base line order its true length:
1. Correction for absolute length

Advertisements 2. Correction for temperature
3. Correction of tension or pull
4. Correction for Sag
5. Correction for slope of vertical alignment
It may be noted that each section of a base line is separately corrected.

1. Baseline Correction for Absolute Length:
It is given by the formula
Where CA = Correction for absolute length

L = measured length of base
l = Nominal length of measuring unit
C = Correction to measuring unit
Sign of CA is the same as that of C
Nominal length: The designated length i.e 50 tape, 100 tape (30 m tape)
Absolute length: The actual length under specified conditions

2. Correction for Temperature:
It is given by the formula

Where Ct =
Correction for temp
= co-efficient of thermal
Tm = Mean Temperature during To = Temp
at which the measuring is standardized
Steel = 0.0000099-0.000012/c
Steel = 0.0000055 – 0.0000070/ F
The sign of ‘Ct’ is plus or minus according to as ‘Tm’ is greater or less then ‘to’
3. Correction for Pull or Tension

Where
CP = Correction for pull Pm = Pull applied
during measurement Po = Pull at which the measurement unit
(tape) is standardized
L = length measured
A = Cross-Sectional area of measuring unit
E = Modulus of elasticity of measuring unit
E steel = 21 x 105 kg / cm2
E steel = 30 x 106 /bs/in2
The sing of this correction is always plus (T) as the effect of pull is to increase the length of the
tape and consequently to decrease the measured length of the base.
4. Correction for Sag:

Correction for sag is the deference in length between the are and its chord i.e b/t the curved
length of the laps and the distance between the supports. It’s us required only when the tape is
suspended during measurement. Since the effect of sag is to make the measured length too large,
it is always subtractive.
It is given by the formula.
Where Cs = Correction for Sag

L1 = Distance b/t supports. W
= wt of tape per unit length
Pm = applied pull
W = wt of tape b/t supports.

If there are ‘n’ equal space per tape length,

L = nL1
Sag correction per tape length is
Total sag correction to measures length
Cs=N x Cs/ + Cs//
Where N = no of whole tape length

Cs/ = Sag correction per tape length.
Cs// = Sag correction for any tape length
Normal tension:
The normal tension of a tape is a tension which will cause the effects of pull and sag to neutralize
each other. It may be obtained by equating the corrections for pull and sag
Where Pn = normal tension

W = wt of tape b/w supports
Pn is determine by trial
5. Correction for Slope or Vertical Alignment:

This correction is required when the points of supports are not exactly at the same level
L1, L2------------ = Successive length of uniform garages
B1, b2------------ = Difference of elevation b/t the extremities of each of these grades.
Cg = corr for slope
Cg = B1C1 = AC1 – AB1 = l –D

This correction is always negative for measured length.
If grades are given in terms in terms of vertical angle
T.S HARMILA 2015-2016 Page 27 of 84


UNIT II
1. Explain theINTERSECTION method.

This method is useful where it is not possible to measure the distances on ground
as in case of a mountainous country. Hence, this method is employed for locating
inaccessible points, the broken boundaries, rivers, fixing survey stations, etc. The
procedure is as follows:
(i) Select two stations P and Q so that the points to be located on paper are easily
seen from them.
(ii) Plot the line pq, which is known as the base line, on paper. This can be done
in one of the two ways:
a. The table can be centered and leveled at station P and then after orienting at
station Q, the distance PQ can be accurately measured and put up to some
scale on the paper.
b. The line pq can be drawn to some scale on the paper and then the board can
be adjusted from station P by back sighting at station Q.
(iii) From station P, draw rays for stations A, B, etc.
(iv) Shift the table to station Q and after proper orientation, take rays of stations A,
B etc.,
(v) The intersection of rays from stations P and Q will give points a, b etc. on
paper, as shown in figure.
(vi) For checking the accuracy of work, measure the distance AB on ground and
compare it with its corresponding length ab on paper.

A
B
a b
Plane Table
p q p q
Base line
Intersection method
T.S HARMILA 2015-2016 Page 29 of 84

III& IVUNIT LEVELLING AND ITS

APPLICATIONS
1. Explain the different types of levels ( Levelling Instrument) with neat

sketches?
Dumpy Level, Wye Level, Reversible Level, Tilting Level, and Digital level
1. Dumpy level:
A schematic diagram of an engineer's level is shown in. An engineer's level
primarily consists of a telescope mounted upon a level bar which is rigidly fastened to
the spindle. Inside the tube of the telescope, there are objective and eye piece lens at the
either end of the tube. A diaphragm fitted with cross hairs is present near the eye

Telescope : used to sight a staff placed at desired station and to read staff reading
distinctly.
Diaphragm : holds the cross hairs (fitted with it).
Eye piece : magnifies the image formed in the plane of the diaphragm and thus to
read staff during leveling.
Level Tube : used to make the axis of the telescope horizontal and thus the line of
sight.
Leveling screws : to adjust instrument (level) so that the line of sight is horizontal for
any orientation of the telescope.
Wye level:
Reversible level:
rigidly connected to the spindle through a stage.

4. Tilting level :
It consists of a telescope attached with a level tube which can be tilted within few
degrees in vertical plane by a tilting screw.
The main peculiarity of this level is that the vertical axis need not be truly vertical,
since the line of collimation is not perpendicular to it. The line of collimation, is,
however, made horizontal for each pointing of telescope by means of tilting screw. It is
mainly designed for precise leveling work.

5. Digital level
There are fundamentally two types of automatic levels.
First, the optical one whose distinguishing feature is self-leveling i.e., the instruments
gets approximately leveled by means of a circular spirit level and then it maintains a
horizontal line of sight of its own.
Second, the digital levels whose distinguishing features are automatic leveling, reading
and recording.
2. Explain, in details, the different types of leveling.
I ) Direct Leveling : Direct measurement, precise, most commonly used;
Types:
2. Differential leveling :
This method is called compound leveling or continuous leveling.
3. Fly leveling :
When differential leveling is done in order to connect a bench mark to the starting
point of the alignment of any project, it is called fly leveling. Fly leveling is done to

connect the BM to any intermediate point of the alignment for checking the accuracy of
the work. Only back sight and fore sight readings are taken at every set up of the level
and no distances are measured along the direction of leveling.
Low precision, to find/check approximate level, generally used during reconnaissance
survey.
(II) Indirect or Trigonometric Leveling : By measuring vertical angles and

horizontal distance; Less precise.
(III) Stadia Leveling : Using tacheometric principles.
(IV) Barometric Leveling : Based on atmospheric pressure difference; Using
altimeter; Very rough estimation.

3. Mention the differences between height of collimation method and rise and
fall method?
There are two Methods of Levelling:
1. Height of Collimation Method 2. Rise and Fall Method
Sl.No Height of collimation system Rise and fall system
1 It is rapid as it involves few It is laborious involving several
calculation calcuation
2 There is no check on the RL of the There is a check on the RL of the
intermediate sight intermediate points
3 Errors in the intermediate RLs cannot Errors in the intermediate RLs can
be detected. be detected as all the points are
correlated
4 There are two checks on the accuracy There are three checks on the
of RL calculation accuracy of RL calculation
5 This system is suitable for This system is suitable for fly
longitudinal leveling where there are a leveling where there are no
number of intermediate sights intermediate sights
4. What is a temporary adjustment? How it is done?
Temporary Adjustment of a Level
required to be carried out in proper sequence.

The temporary adjustment of a dumpy level consists of
(1)Setting , (2)Leveling and (3) Focusing .
During Setting, the tripod stand is set up at a convenient height having its head
horizontal (through eye estimation). The instrument is then fixed on the head by rotating
the lower part of the instrument with right hand and holding firmly the upper part with
left hand. Before fixing, the leveling screws are required to be brought in between the
tribrach and trivet. The bull's eye bubble (circular bubble), if present, is then brought to
the centre by adjusting the tripod legs.

Next, Leveling of the instrument is done to make the vertical axis of the instrument
truly vertical. It is achieved by carrying out the following steps:
Step 1: The level tube is brought parallel to any two of the foot screws, by rotating the
upper part of the instrument.
Step 2: The bubble is brought to the centre of the level tube by rotating both the foot
screws either inward or outward. (The bubble moves in the same direction as the left
thumb.)
Step 3: The level tube is then brought over the third foot screw again by rotating the
upper part of the instrument.
Step 4: The bubble is then again brought to the centre of the level tube by rotating the

In the case of four foot screws the levelling is to be carried out as follows
Focusing is required to be done in order to form image through objective lens at the
plane of the diaphragm and to view the clear image of the object through eye-piece. This
is being carried out by removing parallax by proper focusing of objective and eyepiece.
For focusing the eye-piece, the telescope is first pointed towards the sky. Then the
ring of eye-piece is turned either in or out until the cross-hairs are seen sharp and
distinct. Focusing of eye-piece depends on the vision of observer and thus required
whenever there is a change in observer.
For focusing the objective, the telescope is first pointed towards the object. Then, the
focusing screw is turned until the image of the object appears clear and sharp and there
is no relative movement between the image and the cross-hairs. This is required to be
done before taking any observation.
5. Describe in detail how would you proceed profile leveling or longitudinal
sectioning in the field.
Profile Leveling
Profile leveling is a method of surveying that has been carried out along the central line
of a track of land on which a linear engineering work is to be constructed/ laid. The
operations involved in determining the elevation of ground surface at small spatial
interval along a line is called profile leveling.
Stations

The line along which the profile is to be run is to be marked on the ground before taking
any observation. Stakes are usually set at some regular interval which depends on the
topography, accuracy required, nature of work, scale of plotting etc. It is usually taken
to be 10 meter. The beginning station of profile leveling is termed as 0+00. Points at
multiples of 100m from this point are termed as full stations. Intermediate points are
designated as pluses.
Procedure
In carrying out profile leveling, a level is placed at a convenient location (say I 1) not
necessarily along the line of observation. The instrument is to be positioned in such a
way that first backsight can be taken clearly on a B.M. Then, observations are taken

Field book for Reduction of Level

Difference
Staff Reading in
Pegs Distance(m) Direction (m) Elevation H.I (m) R.L(m) Remarks
(m)
B.S I.S F.S Rise Fall
A 3.005 108.620 105.615 B.M.
1 0+00 2.285 0.720 106.335
2 0+10 1.560 0.725 107.060
3 0+20 1.785 0.225 106.835
4 0+30 2.105 0.320 106.515
B 0+40 2.875 3.105 1.000 108.390 105.515 T.P.1
5 0+50 3.465 0.590 104.925
X 0+53.35 3.955 0.490 104.435
6 0+60 3.120 0.835 105.270
7 0+70 3.015 0.105 105.375
8 0+80 2.580 0.435 105.810
9 0+90 1.955 0.625 106.435
C 1+00 1.465 0.490 106.925 T.P.2
5.880 4.570 3.935 2.625

6. Describe in detail how the cross sectioning done using a leveling instrument.
Cross Sectioning
In many projects, terrain information transverse to the longitudinal section (through
Difference in
Staff reading (m)
elevation (m)
Pegs Distance(m) Direction H.I (m) R.L (m) Remark
Rise
B.S. I.S. F.S. Fall (m)
(m)
A 3.005 108.620 105.615 B.M.
:
4 0+30 2.105 0.320 106.515 0m
1.850 106.770 2m left
1.725 106.895 4m left
1.680 106.940 6m left
2m
1.985 106.635
right
1.875 106.745 4m

right
6m
1.780 106.840
right
B 0+40 2.875 3.105 1.000 108.390 105.515 T.P.1
:
7. Derive the value of curvature and refraction corrections.
Curvature correction:
For long sights , the curvature of the earth affects staff readings . The line of sight is
horizontal , but the level lines is curved and parallel to the mean spheroidal surface
of the earth. the vertical distance between the line of sight and thel level line at a
particular place is called the curvature correction. Due to the curvature objects appear
lower than they really are:

CE6304 SUR
ReVfEraYcItNio
GnI correction YEAR:II/SEM:III CIVIL
It varies with temperature, terrain and other atmospheric conditions. It is

usually considered to be one seventh times but in opposite nature to the error
due to curvature. To minimize this error, reciprocal observation at the same
instant of time is required to be adopted.In actual field condition, the line of
sight through a level is not straight but it bends downward due to the refraction of
rays of light as it passes through the intervening medium.
Cr= 1/7 × (D2/2R)
8. When is reciprocal leveling done? Describe the method along with a sketch.
In the case of an obstacle like river valley, it is not possible to set the up the level midway
between two points on the opposite banks. In such cases the method of reciprocal leveling
is adopted, which involv3es reciprocal observations from both

up very near a and after proper temporary adjustment , staff readings are taken
at A and B. Suppose the readings are a1 and b1.
2. 2. The level is shifted and set up very near B and after proper adjustment , staff
readings are taken aat A and B .Suppose the readings are a2 and b2.
Let h = true difference of level between A and B

e = Combined error due to curvature , refraction and collimation
9. Describe the two peg method of adjustment along with a neat sketch.
Procedure:
1. Suppose A and B are two points on the opposite banks of a river. The level is set

CONTOURS
10. Explain the uses of contours maps.
Contours provide valuable information about the nature of terrain. This is very important
for selection of sites, determination of catchment area of a drainage basin, to find
intervisibility between stations etc. Some of the salient uses of contours are described
below
Nature of Ground
To visualize the nature of ground along a cross section of interest,
To Locate Route
Intervisibility between Stations
To Determine Catchment Area or Drainage Area
Storage capacity of a Reservoir
indicating the full reservoir level (F.R.L) is drawn on the contour map. The area enclosed
between successive contours are measured by planimeter .The volume of water between
F.R.L and the river bed is finally estimated by using either Trapezoidal formula or
Prismoidal formula.
11□□. Explain the characteristics of contours.
Characteristics of Contour
The principal characteristics of contour lines which help in plotting or reading a
contour map are as follows:
1. The variation of vertical distance between any two contour lines is assumed to
be uniform. Contours are continuous.

(Fig: Contours are continuous)

2. The horizontal distance between any two contour lines indicates the amount of
slope and varies inversely on the amount of slope. Thus, contours are spaced
equally for uniform slope ; closely for steep slope contours; widely for moderate
slope
(Fig: Slope )
3. The steepest slope of terrain at any point on a contour is represented along the
normal of the contour at that point . They are perpendicular to ridge and valley
lines where they cross such lines.
4. Contours do not pass through permanent structures such as buildings

5. Contours of different elevations cannot cross each other (caves and overhanging
cliffs are the exceptions).
6. Contours of different elevations cannot unite to form one contour (vertical cliff is
an exception).
7. Contour lines cannot begin or end on the plan.
8. A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the limits of the
map.
9. A closed contour line on a map represents either depression or hill . A set of ring
contours with higher values inside, depicts a hill whereas the lower value inside,
depicts a depression (without an outlet).
(Fig: Contours showing Hill)
(Fig: Contours showing Depression)

10. Contours deflect uphill at valley lines and downhill at ridge lines. Contour
(Fig: Contours showing valley)
lines in
(Fig: Contours showing Ridge)

12. List the sources of error in leveling
Instrumental
Natural
Personal
Mistakes in manipulation
Mistakes in rod handling
Mistakes in reading the rod
Errors in sighting
Mistakes in recording

16 marks
UNIT V
1. Describe the components and their functions of theodolite.
Introduction
In Chapter , we discussed compass surveying. A compass measures the direction

by measuring the angle between the line and a reference direction, which is the
magnetic meridian. A compass can measure angles up to an accuracy of 30¢ and
by judgement up to an accuracy of 15¢. The principle of working of the compass is
based on the property of the magnetic needle, which when freely suspended, takes
the north–south direction. Compass measurements are thus affected by external
chapter, we will discuss another method of measuring directions of lines; a theodolite

is very commonly used to measure angles in survey work.
There are a variety of theodolites—vernier, optic, electronic, etc. The improve-
ments (from one form to the other) have been made to ensure ease of operation,
better accuracy, and speed. Electronic theodolites display and store angles at the press
of a button. This data can also be transferred to a computer for further processing.
We start our discussion with the simplest theodolite—the vernier theodolite. Other
forms of theodolites are discussed at the end of this chapter.
The vernier theodolite is a simple and inexpensive instrument but very valuable
in terms of measuring angles. The common vernier theodolite measures angles up
to an accuracy of 20¢¢

in a compass, where the line of sight is simple, restricting its range, theodolites are
provided with telescopes which provide for much greater range and better ac-
curacy in sighting distant objects. It is, however, a delicate instrument and needs to
be handled carefully. The theodolite measures the horizontal angles between lines
and can also measure vertical angles. The horizontal angle measured can be the
is the angle in a vertical plane between the inclined line of sight of the instrument
and the horizontal. In the following sections we will discuss the vernier theodolite
as well as its applications in surveying.
2. Define and explain the basic terms of the Theodolite.
6.1 Vernier Theodolite
The vernier theodolite is also known as a transit. In a transit theodolite or simply
transit the telescope can be rotated in a vertical plane. Earlier versions of theodolites
were of the non-transit type and are obsolete now. Only the transit theodolite will
be discussed here.
Two different views of a vernier theodolite are shown in Figs 6.1(a) and (b). The
instrument details vary with different manufacturers but the essential parts remain
the same. The main parts of a theodolite are the following.
11
14
12
12 13 14
10
11 8
8 15
10 9 6
7
15 16
6 4 5
7
2
4 5 3
17
2 1
3
1 18
18
(a) Sectional view (b) Another view
1. Trivet 7. Circle plate 13. Vertical circle clamp
2. Tribrach 8. A-frame 14. Telescope
3. Foot screw 9. Vertical circle clamp arm 15. Plate bubble
4. Inner axis 10. Vernier frame 16. Upper clamp
5. Outer axis 11. Vertical circle 17. Lower clamp
6. Vernier plate 12. Altitude bubble 18. Tripod head
Fig. 6.1 Vernier theodolite


Levelling head The levelling head is the base of the instrument. It has the provi-
sion to attach the instrument to a tripod stand while in use and attach a plumb bob
along the vertical axis of the instrument. The levelling head essentially consists of
two triangular plates kept a distance apart by levelling screws. The upper plate of
the levelling head, also known as the tribrach, has three arms, each with a foot
screw. Instruments with four foot screws for levelling are also available. In terms
of wear and tear, the three-foot-screw instrument is preferable. The lower plate,
also known as the trivet, has a central hole and a hook to which a plumb bob can be
attached. In modern instruments, the base plate of the levelling head has two plates
which can move relative to each other. This allows a slight movement of the level-
ling head relative to the tripod. This is called a shifting head and helps in centring
the instrument over the station quickly. The functions of the levelling head are to
support the upper part of the instrument, attach the theodolite to a tripod, attach a
plumb bob, and help in levelling the instrument with the foot screws.
Lower plate The lower plate, also known as the circle plate, is an annular,
cylindrical part. The graduations are provided all around, from 0° to 360°, in the
clockwise direction. The graduations are in degrees divided into three parts so that
each division equals 20¢. An axis through the centre of the plate is known as the
outer axis or the centre. Horizontal angles are measured with this plate. The
diameter of the lower plate is sometimes used to indicate the size of or designate
the instrument; for example, a 100-mm theodolite.
Upper plate The upper plate is also a horizontal plate of a smaller diameter
attached to a solid, vertical spindle. The bevelled edge of the horizontal part carries
two verniers on diametrically opposite parts of its circumference. These verniers
are generally designated A and B. They are used to read fractions of the horizontal
circle plate graduations. The centre of the plate or the spindle is known as the inner
axis or centre. The upper and lower plates are enclosed in a metal cover to prevent
dust accumulation. The cover plate has two glass windows longer than the vernier
length for the purpose of reading. Attached to the cover plate is a metal arm hinged
to the centre carrying two magnifying glasses at its ends. The magnifying glasses
are used to read the graduations clearly.
Two axes or centres The inner axis as mentioned earlier is the axis of the conical
spindle attached to the upper or vernier plate. The outer axis is the centre of the
hollow cylindrical part attached to the lower or circle plate. These two axes coin-
cide and form the vertical axis of the instrument, which is one of the fundamental
lines of the theodolite.
Clamps and tangent screws There are two clamps and associated tangent or
slow-motion screws with the plates. The clamp screws facilitate the motion of the
instrument in a horizontal plane. The lower clamp screw locks or releases the lower
plate. When this screw is unlocked, the lower and upper plates move together. The
associated lower tangent screw allows small motion of the plates in the locked
position. The upper clamp screw locks or releases the upper vernier plate. When
this clamp is released (with the lower clamp locked), the lower plate does not

move but the vernier plate moves with the instrument. This causes a change in the
reading. The upper tangent screw allows for a small motion of the vernier plate for
in the horizontal plane. The construction of the clamp and tangent screws is shown
in Fig. 6.2.
Outer cover
Outer axis
Inner axis
Tangent
screw
Spring
Lower clamp
box
(a) Clamp and tangent screw
6 7 8
(b) Vertical circle graduations (20¢ main scale)
90
0 0
Quadrants 0–90°
(c) Main circle plate graduations
Fig. 6.2 Parts of a theodolite

Plate level The plate level is a spirit level with a bubble and graduations on the
provided. The spirit level can be adjusted with the foot screw of the levelling head.
The bubble of the spirit level can be moved with the foot screws of the levelling
head, which is a very fundamental adjustment required for using the theodolite. A
small circular bubble may be provided for rough adjustment before levelling.
Index frame The index frame, also known as a T-frame or vernier frame, is a T-
shaped metal frame. The horizontal arm carries at its ends two verniers, which
C and D. The vertical leg of the T-frame, known as the clipping arm, has clipping
top of this frame. When the telescope is rotated in a vertical plane, the vertical
circle moves and vertical angles are measured on the vertical circle with the help
of these verniers.
Standard or A-frame Two standards in the shape of the letter A are attached to
the upper plate. The horizontal axis of the instrument is attached to these stan-
dards. The clipping arm of the index frame and the arm of the vertical circle clamp
are also attached to the A-frame. The A-frame supports the telescope and the
vertical circle.
Telescope The telescope is a vital part of the instrument. It enables one to see
stations that are at great distances. The essential parts of a telescope are the eye-
piece, diaphragm with cross hairs, object lens, and arrangements to focus the tele-
scope. A focusing knob is provided on the side of the telescope. Earlier, external
focusing telescopes were used. Today, only internal focusing telescopes are used
in theodolites. These reduce the length of the telescope. The telescope may carry
a spirit level on top in some instruments. The optics of the telescope and other
details have been discussed in Chapter 1.
Vertical circle The vertical circle is a circular plate supported on the trunnion or
horizontal axis of the instrument between the A-frames. The vertical circle has a
bevelled edge on which graduations are marked. The graduations are generally
quadrantal, 0°–90° in the four quadrants as shown in Fig. 6.2. The full circle system
of graduations can also be seen in some instruments. The vertical circle moves
with the telescope when it is rotated in a vertical plane. A metal cover is provided
to protect the circle and the verniers from dust. Two magnifying glasses on metal
arms are provided to read the circle and verniers. The cover has glass or plastic
Vertical circle clamp and tangent screw The vertical circle is provided with a
vertical circle, the telescope cannot be moved in a vertical plane. The tangent screw
allows for a slow, small motion of the vertical circle.
Altitude level
is used for levelling, particularly when taking vertical angle observations.

Compass
horizontal plates. Two plates with graduations are provided in the compass box for
ensuring that the needle ends are centred. The needle can be locked or released by
a pin. When released, the telescope can be turned in azimuth to make the north end
of the needle point to the north by making it read zero.
Tripod One accessory essential with the theodolite is the tripod on which it is
mounted when it has to be used. The tripod head is screwed onto the base or the
lower part of the levelling head. Its legs should be spread out for stability. The legs
of the tripod are also used for rough levelling.
Plumb bob A heavy plumb bob on a good string with a hook at the end is re-
hook or other device projecting from the centre of the instrument in a central
opening in the levelling head.
Main circle and vernier graduations In most of the instruments, the vernier
enables readings up to 20≤ of the arc. This is made possible by marking the gradu-
ations on the circle and the vernier suitably as follows. As shown in Fig. 6.2(b),
the main circle is graduated into degrees and each degree is divided into three
parts. Each main scale division thus represents 2¢. For the vernier, 59 main scale
divisions are taken and divided into 60 parts. 59 main scale divisions form 59 ¥
20¢. Therefore, each vernier scale division represents 59 ¥ 20/60 minutes. As you
would have studied earlier, least count of the vernier = difference between a main
scale division and a vernier scale division = main scale division – vernier scale
division. Hence, in this case,
Least count = 20¢ – 59 ¥ 20/60 = 1/3 = (1/3) ¥ 60≤ = 20≤
Thus the least count of the vernier in common theodolites is 20≤.
3. Describe the Terminology in Theodolite.
6.2 Terminology
It is important to clearly understand the terms associated with the theodolite
and its use and meaning. The following are some important terms and their
Vertical axis It is a line passing through the centre of the horizontal circle and
perpendicular to it. The vertical axis is perpendicular to the line of sight and the
trunnion axis or the horizontal axis. The instrument is rotated about this axis for
sighting different points.
Horizontal axis It is the axis about which the telescope rotates when rotated in a
vertical plane. This axis is perpendicular to the line of collimation and the verti-
cal axis.
Telescope axis It is the line joining the optical centre of the object glass to the
centre of the eyepiece.
Line of collimation It is the line joining the intersection of the cross hairs to the
optical centre of the object glass and its continuation. This is also called the line
of sight.

Axis of the bubble tube It is the line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the
bubble tube at its centre.
Centring Centring the theodolite means setting up the theodolite exactly over the
station mark. At this position the plumb bob attached to the base of the instrument
lies exactly over the station mark.
Transiting It is the process of rotating the telescope about the horizontal axis
through 180°. The telescope points in the opposite direction after transiting. This
process is also known as plunging or reversing.
Swinging It is the process of rotating the telescope about the vertical axis for the
purpose of pointing the telescope in different directions. The right swing is a
rotation in the clockwise direction and the left swing is a rotation in the counter-
clockwise direction.
Face-left or normal position This is the position in which as the sighting is done,
the vertical circle is to the left of the observer.
Face-right or inverted position This is the position in which as the sighting is
done, the vertical circle is to the right of the observer.
Changing face It is the operation of changing from face left to face right and vice
versa. This is done by transiting the telescope and swinging it through 180°.
Face-left observation It is the reading taken when the instrument is in the normal
or face-left position.
Face-right observation It is the reading taken when the instrument is in the
inverted or face-right position.
4. Describe theTemporary Adjustments of Theodolite

Theodolite has two types of adjustments—temporary and permanent. Temporary
adjustments are to be done at every station the instrument is set up. Permanent
adjustments deal with the fundamental lines and their relationships and should be
done once in a while to ensure that the instrument is properly adjusted. The funda-
mental lines and their desired relationships are explained later in this chapter and
the permanent adjustments are explained in detail in Chapter 4. In this section we
will discuss temporary adjustments.
The temporary adjustments are the following: (a) setting up and centring,
(b) levelling, (c) focusing the eyepiece, and (d) focusing the objective.
Setting Up and Centring
The following procedure is adopted for this operation.
the station where the instrument is to be set up. The tripod legs should be well
apart and the telescope should be at a convenient height for sighting.
2. Tie a plumb bob onto the hook provided at the base. If there is no shifting head
in the instrument, centre it by adjusting the tripod legs and shifting the instru-
ment as a whole to bring the plumb bob over the station mark.

3. To centre the plumb bob, shift the tripod legs radially as well as circumf-
erentially. Moving any leg radially shifts the plumb bob in the direction of the
leg. This does not affect the level status of the instrument. Moving any leg
circumferentially does not appreciably shift the plumb. However, this
movement tilts the instrument and affects the level of the plate bubbles. By
moving the legs the plumb bob is brought over the station mark at the same
time ensuring that the instrument is approximately level. This saves a lot of
time for the next operation of levelling.
(or the instrument as a whole) to bring the plumb bob over the station mark.
5. Describe the Three screw levelling head in Theodolite.

Levelling
After setting up and centring the instrument, levelling is done. Levelling has btoe
done at every station the instrument is set up. By levelling the instrument, it is
ensured that as the instrument is swung about the vertical axis, the horizontal plate
moves in a horizontal plane. The instrument may have a three-screw or a four-screw
levelling head. The levelling operations differ slightly in these two cases as detailed
in the following sections. Most instruments have only one bubble tube, but some
instruments have two bubble tubes set at right angles over the plates.
Three-screw levelling head
When the theodolite has a three-screw levelling head, the following procedure is
adopted.
1. Swing the theodolite and bring the plate bubble parallel to any two of the foot
screws. Centre the bubble by rotating the foot screws. To do this, hold the foot
rotate both either inwards
or outwards [see Fig. 6.3(a)]. Also note that the bubble moves in the direction
of movement of the left thumb during this operation.
2. Once the bubble traverses (or comes to the central position from the gradua-
tion of the tube), swing the instrument and bring the bubble over the third foot
screw. In this position, the bubble tube is at right angles to the earlier position.
Centre the bubble by rotating the third foot screw alone.
Foot screw
Bubble
Level movement Level Level
Thumb
movement
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.3 Three-foot-screw levelling head

3. Bring the plate bubble to its previous position by swinging the instrument back.
Check whether the bubble traverses. If it does not traverse, bring the bubble to
the centre using the two foot screws as before.
4. Repeat the procedure till the bubble traverses in both these positions.
5. Swing the instrument through 180° and check whether the bubble traverses.
The bubble should traverse in all positions if the instrument has been properly
adjusted.
If two plate bubbles are provided [see Fig. 6.3(b)], the procedure is the same
except that swinging the instrument through 90° is not required. When one plate
level is kept parallel to a pair of foot screws, the other plate level is over the third
foot screw (in a perpendicular direction). The third foot screw is adjusted
alternately by the same process using the foot screws over which they are paral-
lel.
Four-screw levelling head
When the theodolite has a four-screw levelling head, the following procedure is
adopted.
1. After setting up and centring the theodolite, bring the plate level parallel to
any one pair of diagonally opposite foot screws. Operate these foot screws to
centre the bubble (Fig. 6.4).
2. Swing the instrument to bring the plate level parallel to the other pair of foot
screws. Centre the bubble.
3. Swing it back to the previous position. Check whether the bubble traverses. If
it does not, centre it with the foot screws to which the level is parallel.
4. Swing it back, check the position of the bubble, and repeat the procedure.
5. Once the bubble traverses in the two orthogonal positions, swing it through
180°. The bubble should traverse in this position or in any other position.
If two plate levels are provided, the procedure is the same. Bring one plate level
parallel to a pair of opposite foot screws. The other pair will be parallel to the
remaining pair of foot screws. There is no need to swing the instrument. Bring the
bubble to the central position alternately and check in the other positions.
Fig. 6.4 Four-foot-screw levelling head
6.3.3 Focusing the Eyepiece

Focusing the eyepiece is the operation of bringing the cross hairs to focus. The
focusing position varies with the eyesight of the observer. If the same observer is

taking the readings, this has to be done only once. To focus the eyepiece, use the
following procedure.
1. Keep a piece of white paper in front of the telescope or direct the telescope
towards a clear portion of the sky.
2. Looking through the telescope, adjust the vision by rotating the eyepiece till
the cross hairs come into sharp and clear view.
3. If the eyepiece has graduations, note the graduation at which you get a clear
view of the cross hairs. This can help in later adjustment if required.
6. Describe the measurement of Horizontal and Vertical Angles
The objective lens has to be focused whenever an object is sighted, as this depends
upon the distance between the instrument and the object. A focusing screw on the
side of the telescope is operated to focus the objective. This operation brings the
image of the object in the plane of the cross hairs. This helps to exactly bisect the
object, be it a ranging rod or an arrow. To focus the objective, swing the instrument
to bring the object into view by looking over the telescope. Rotate the focusing
knob till the object is in sharp view along with the cross hairs.
Using the Theodolite
The theodolite is mainly used to measure horizontal and vertical angles, even though
many other operations can be done with the instrument. It is a delicate and sensi-
tive instrument and needs to be handled carefully. The following points should be
noted while using the instrument.
1. The theodolite should be set up and levelled at every station. This is a funda-
mental, necessary operation and should be carried out carefully.
The line of sight is arranged to bisect the object clearly.

3. The graduated circle plate gives the outer axis and the vernier plate provides
the inner axis. Both the axes coincide if the instrument is properly adjusted
and form the vertical axis.
4. There are three clamp screws each with its own tangent screw. The lower clamp
screw releases the lower plate, the upper clamp screw releases the upper ver-
nier plate, and the third vertical circular clamp releases the vertical circle. One
should be familiar with the location of the clamp screws and the corresponding
tangent screws.
5. Each clamp screw releases one plate. The lower plate is released by the lower
clamp screw. When this plate is released, swinging the instrument or rotating it
in a horizontal plane causes no change in the reading of the circle, as both the
plates move together. This is used when an object has to be sighted with the zero
setting of the circle or with any other reading without changing the reading.
6. Both the clamp screws should not be released together. When the lower clamp
is tight and the upper clamp screw is released, the upper plate moves relative to
the lower plate and the reading changes. This is done when one has to measure
an angle.
a very small movement has to be effected by the tangent screw. For each clamp

8. To set the instrument to zero at the plate circle, release the upper clamp and
rotate the instrument about the vertical axis. On the vernier A, make the zero
of the circle coincide with the zero of the vernier. Tighten the upper clamp and
using the upper tangent screw, make the zeros exactly coincide. This can be
-
tions on either side are symmetrical. Verify the condition on vernier B as well,
where the 180° graduation should coincide with the zero of the vernier.
9. While bisecting the signals or setting the zero reading, keep the line of sight
in such a position that the tangent screw moves the sight in the same direction
as the movement of the instrument. If the movement is clockwise, then the
tangent screw is adjusted to move the cross hairs from left to right.
10. Operate a tangent screw only after clamping the corresponding clamp screw.
Read the circle by bringing the glass over the reading and looking directly over
the reading to avoid any parallax error.
12. While bisecting stations with the theodolite, the station mark should be very
clear and must be a point. Bisect either the cross marks on pegs at their inter-
section or the ranging rod and arrow at their lowest pointed end.
13. Clamp screws and tangent screws need careful handling. Do not apply great
force on these screws and handle them delicately during survey work.
Measuring Horizontal Angles

To measure the horizontal angle between two lines, the following procedure is
adopted.
1. Referring to Fig. 6.5, the angle POQ is to be measured. Set up the theodolite
at O.
2. Set the instrument to read 0° 00¢ 00≤. P
This is not strictly required, as the
angle can be determined as the dif-
readings. However, it is convenient

to make the initial reading zero. For
this, release the upper clamp and O
rotate the instrument to make the Q
reading approximately zero. Clamp
the upper plate and using the upper Fig. 6.5 Measuring a horizontal angle
tangent screw, make the reading
exactly zero. Vernier A reads zero and vernier B reads 180° 00¢ 00≤.
3. Release the lower plate and rotate the instrument to bisect the station P. After
approximately bisecting it, clamp the lower plate and using the lower tangent
screw, bisect the signal exactly. The readings on the plates do not change as
both the plates move together in this operation. Check that the readings on
vernier A and B are zero and 180°, respectively.
4. Release the upper plate by loosening the upper clamp. Rotate the instrument to
screw, exactly bisect the signal at Q.


5. Read both the verniers A and B. The reading at A will give the angle directly.
The reading at B will be 180° + –POQ.
6. If there is any difference, take the average of the two values as the correct
angle.
Horizontal angles are measured this way for ordinary work. The accuracy can be
improved by reading the angles with face-left and face-right observations and taking
the average of the two. For more precise work, the angles are repeatedly measured
with both the faces and the average taken. This method is known as the repetition
method and is described below.
7. Describe theMethod of Repetition
In the method of repetition, the horizontal angle is measured a number of times
and the average value is taken. It is usual to limit the number of repetitions to three
with each face except in the case of very precise work. With large number of rep-
etitions, errors can also increase due to bisections, reading the verniers, etc. Very
large number of repetitions necessarily do not lead to a more precise value of the
angle. However, a number of errors are eliminated by the repetition method. The
procedure is as follows (Fig. 6.6).
P
P
P
2nd
O 3rd
1st
O O
Q
Q Q
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6.6 Repetition method
1. Angle POQ is to be measured. Set up, centre, and level the theodolite at O.
Ensure that the instrument is in the normal position, i.e., face left.
2. Set the instrument to read 0° 00¢ 00≤. For this release the upper clamp and
bring the zero of the vernier (at vernier A) very close to the zero of the circle.
Clamp the upper plate and using the upper tangent screw, coincide the two
zeros exactly.
3. Loosen the lower clamp and rotate the instrument so that the left signal at P is
approximately bisected. Tighten the lower clamp and using the lower tangent
screw, bisect the signal at P exactly. Read the verniers at A and B. The reading
should not change and they should read zero and 180°.
4. Loosen the upper clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise to approximately
Q exactly.
5. Read the verniers at A and B. The reading at A gives the value of the angle
directly. The reading on the vernier at B will be 180° + the angle. Record both
the readings.
6. Release the lower clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise to bisect the sig-

The method of repetition helps to eliminate the following errors.

(a) Errors caused by the eccentricity of the centres and verniers, by reading both
the verniers and averaging.
(b) Graduation errors by reading from different parts of the circle.
(c) Imperfect adjustment of the line of collimation and horizontal axis by face-left
and face-right observations.
(d) Observational errors and other errors tend to be compensated by the large
number of readings.
However, the errors due to levelling cannot be compensated. This has to be done
by permanent adjustment. Also a large number of repetitions tend to increase the
wear of clamp and tangent screws.
Therefore, from the two sets,
Mean value of the angle = (1/2)(61° 42¢ 47≤ + 61° 42¢ 40≤ ) = 61° 42¢ 44≤
8. Describe theMethod of Reiteration.
The method of reiteration is
Q
another method of measuring P
horizontal angles. This method is
useful when a number of angles
are to be measured at one point. In
Fig. 6.7, let O be the point where
the instrument is set up and P, Q, Closing O R
R, and S be the stations. Angle the horizon
POQ, QOR, and ROS are to be
measured. In the retiration
method, each angle is measured
of sight is brought back to P, i.e., S
the line of sight is made to close Fig. 6.7 Reiteration method

the horizon. The instrument is
turned through 360°. Obviously, the instrument should read, upon closing the ho-
rizon, the same reading set initially at P. The procedure is as follows.
1. Set up and level the theodolite at O. Keep the instrument in the normal posi-
tion, i.e., face left. Set the vernier at A to read zero using the upper clamp and
upper tangent screw. Check that the vernier at B reads 180°.
2. Loosen the lower clamp and swing the instrument to bisect the station mark at
at P. Check that the verniers at A and B read zero and 180°, respectively.
3. Release the upper plate with the upper clamp, swing the instrument clockwise
to bisect the signal at Q. Tighten the clamp and using the upper tangent screw,
bisect the mark at Q exactly.
4. Read the verniers at A and B and record both the readings.
5. Release the upper clamp screw, bisect the signal at R. Tighten the clamp and
bisect the mark at R exactly with the upper tangent screw. Read the verniers at
A and B and record the readings.


6. Continue the procedure with other stations.

–POQ = 68° 32¢ 30≤, –QOR = 61° 41¢ 10≤, –ROS = 102° 54¢ 20≤
9. Explain theMeasuring Vertical Angles

A vertical angle is made by an inclined line of sight with the horizontal. The line
of sight may be inclined upwards or downwards from the horizontal. Thus one
may have an angle of elevation or depression. See Fig. 6.8. For measuring vertical
angles, the theodolite is levelled with respect to the altitude bubble.
P
8° 46¢ 20≤ Q
12° 32¢ 40≤ Horizontal line
6° 52¢ 40≤ R
Fig. 6.8 Measuring vertical angles
The procedure for measuring vertical angles is as follows.

1. Set up the theodolite at the station from where the vertical angle is to be mea-
sured. Level the instrument with reference to the plate bubble.
arm. This bubble is generally more sensitive. The procedure for levelling is
the same. Bring the altitude level parallel to two foot screws and level till the
bubble traverses. Swing through 90° to centre the bubble again with the third
foot screw. Repeat till the bubble traverses.
3. Swing the telescope to approximately direct the line of sight towards the signal
at P. Loosen the vertical circle clamp screw and incline the line of sight to bisect
P. Clamp the vertical circle and bisect the signal exactly with the horizontal
cross hair.
4. Read the verniers C and D. The average of these readings gives the value of
the angle.
This procedure assumes that the instrument is properly adjusted. If there is an index
error, the instrument does not read zero when the bubble is in the centre and the
line of sight is horizontal, the adjustment is done by the clip screw. There may be
a small index error, which can be accounted for in the value of angle. The readings
can be recorded as shown in Table 6.3.
6.5.1 Measuring Vertical Angle Between Two Points
The two points may be above the horizontal or below the horizontal or one may be
above and the other below. In all cases, the vertical angles between the instrument
and the points are measured. If the points lie on the same side of the horizontal, the
vertical angle between the points is the difference between the measured angles. If
they lie on either side of the horizontal through the instrument, the vertical angle
between the points is the sum of the angles measured.

Table 6.7 Recording of observations

Face left
Instrument at Sight to Reading on vernier Angle Horizontal angle
A B
° ¢ ≤ ¢ ≤ ° ¢ ≤
O P 00 00 00 00 00
Q 62 43 40 43 40 POQ 62 43 40
R 120 38 00 38 00 QOR 57 54 20
S 192 53 40 53 40 ROS 72 15 40
T 273 15 00 15 20 SOT 80 21 10
P 359 59 40 59 40 TOP 86 44 50
6.7.3 Interconversion of Angles

The theodolite measures the whole circle bearings of lines. These can be converted
to reduced bearings by the methods discussed in Chapter 3. Also, one can calculate
included angles from bearings and vice versa. Included angles can also be calculated
The following relationships of the angles of a closed traverse are known from
geometry:
(a) sum of the interior angles = (2n – 4) right angles
(b) sum of exterior angles = (2n + 4) right angles
It is desirable to draw a rough sketch of the traverse before attempting to solve

problems. The following examples illustrate these principles.
Example 6.1 The whole circle bearings of the lines of a closed traverse are given below.
Find the included angles of the traverse.
Line AB BC CD DA
Bearing 78° 40¢ 20≤ 152° 31¢ 40≤ 251° 18¢ 40≤ 3° 44¢ 15≤
Solution It is desirable to draw a rough sketch of the traverse as shown in Fig. 6.25. The
solution is shown in Table 6.8.
Table 6.8 Solution to Example 6.1
Line Fore bearing Back bearing Angle at ° ¢ ≤

AB 78° 40¢ 20≤ 258° 40¢ 20≤ A 105 03 55
BC 152° 31¢ 40≤ 332° 31¢ 40≤ B 106 08 40
CD 251° 18¢ 40≤ 71° 18¢ 40≤ C 81 13 00
DA 3° 44¢ 15≤ 183° 44¢ 15≤ D 67 34 25
First we calculate the back bearings of the lines. The included angle is the difference between
the back bearing of a line and the fore bearing of the next line. Thus,
–DAB = bearing of DA – bearing of AB = 183° 44¢ 15≤ – 78° 40¢ 20≤
= 105° 03¢ 55≤
–ABC = bearing of BA – bearing of BC = 258° 40¢ 20≤ – 152° 31¢ 40≤
= 106° 08¢ 40≤

–BCD = Bearing of CB – bearing of CD = 332° 31¢ 40≤ – 251° 18¢ 40≤

= 81° 13¢ 00≤
–CDA = bearing of CD – bearing of DA = 71° 18¢ 40≤ – 3° 44¢ 15≤
= 67° 34¢ 25≤
Check: Sum of included angles of a traverse = (2n – 4) right angles = 360 or a four-sided
Q
87° 48¢ 40≤
N 62° 42¢ 20≤
N B 152° 31¢ 40≤
78° 40¢ 20≤
A P 139° 17¢ 20≤
132° 21¢ 00≤ R
251° 18¢ 40≤

D 100° 49¢ 00≤
T S
79° 44¢ 00≤
Fig. 6.25 Traverse of Example 6.1 Fig. 6.26 Traverse of Example 6.2
Example 6.2 ¢ 20≤. The

included angles of the traverse are given below. Calculate the whole circle bear-
ings of the lines.
Station P Q R S T
Angle 139° 17¢ 20≤ 87° 48¢ 40≤ 132° 21¢ 00≤ 100° 49¢ 00≤ 79° 44¢ 00≤
Solution A rough sketch of the traverse is shown in Fig. 6.26. The solution is given in
Table 6.9.
Station Included angle Line Fore bearing Back bearing

P 139° 17¢ 20≤ PQ 62° 42¢ 20≤ 242° 42¢ 20≤
Q 87° 48¢ 40≤ QR 154° 53¢ 40≤ 334° 53¢ 40≤
R 132° 21¢ 00≤ RS 202° 32¢ 40≤ 22° 32¢ 40≤
S 100° 49¢ 00≤ ST 281° 43¢ 40≤ 101° 43¢ 40≤
T 79° 44¢ 00≤ TP 21° 59¢ 40≤ 201° 59¢ 40≤
Example 6.3 A closed traverse ABCDEA was conducted and the included angles mea-
¢ 20≤
vertex and the bearings of the lines.
Station A B C D
Angle 105° 03¢ 55≤ 106° 08¢ 40≤ 81° 13¢ 00≤ 67° 34¢ 25≤
Solution A rough sketch of the traverse is shown in Fig. 6.27. The solution is given in
Table 6.10.


Station Included angle Line Bearing
° ¢ ≤ ° ¢ ≤ ° ¢ ≤
A 105 03 55 74 56 05 AB 78 40 20
B 106 08 40 73 51 20 BC 152 31 40
C 81 13 00 98 47 00 CD 251 18 40
D 67 34 25 112 25 35 DA 3 44 15
Example 6.4
measured in a closed traverse ABCDEA B
are given below. Find the included 78° 40 20 106° 08 40
angles of the traverse.
105° 03 55
A 81° 32 40
81° 13 00
B 65° 54 20
C
C 72° 14 30
D 68° 25 50
E
Solution
67° 34 25
either has not been measured or is not
Fig. 6.27 Traverse of Example 4.3
in a closed traverse is equal to 360°,
20≤ 20≤. The included angle is equal to 180° – de-
A 81° 32¢ 40≤ 98° 27¢ 20≤

B 65° 54¢ 20≤ 114° 05¢ 40≤
C 72° 14¢ 30≤ 107° 45¢ 30≤
D 68° 25¢ 50≤ 111° 34¢ 10≤
E 71° 52¢ 40≤ 108° 07¢ 20≤
a check, sum of the included angles = 540° 00 00
Example 6.5 A traverse was conducted and the exterior angles were measured. Find the
Station A B C D
Exterior angle 254° 56¢ 05≤ 253° 51¢ 20≤ 278° 47¢ 00≤
Solution The sum of the exterior angles of a closed traverse = (2n + 4) right angles. This
condition can be used to evaluate the unknown exterior angle.
(2n + 4) right angles = (2 ¥ 4 + 4) ¥ 90 = 12 ¥ 90° = 1080°
Sum of given angles = 787° 34¢ 25≤
Exterior angle at D = 1080° 00¢ 00≤ – 787° 34¢ 25≤ = 292° 25¢ 35≤
A: 74° 56¢ 05≤, B: 73° 51¢ 20≤, C: 98° 47¢ 00≤, D: 112° 25¢ 35≤
Example 6.6

P 62° 44¢ 20≤

Q 48° 22¢ 00≤
R 57° 36¢ 40≤
S 71° 15¢ 20≤
T 120° 01¢ 40≤
Solution The solution is shown in Table 6.11.
Station Line Bearing

° ¢ ≤ ° ¢ ≤
P 62 44 20 PQ 54 25 30
Q 48 22 00 QR 102 47 30
R 57 36 40 RS 160 24 10
S 71 15 20 ST 231 39 30
T 120 01 40 TP 351 41 10
6.8 Locating Landscape Details with the Theodolite

We have discussed so far methods to survey the main frame or the skeleton of the
survey. In most surveys, it is necessary to locate details such as buildings, railway
lines, canals, and other landmarks along with the survey. A transit with a steel tape
is used to locate details, and many methods are available, as the transit is an angle-
measuring instrument. The following methods can be used.
Angle and distance from a single station
A point can be located with an angle to the station along with the distance from that
station as shown in Fig. 6.28(a). The angle is preferably measured from the same
reference line to avoid confusion. A sketch with the line and the distance and angle
measured will help in plotting later. A road can be located as shown in Fig. 6.28(b).
Angles to a number of points are measured and with each angle two distances are
measured to locate the road.
Angle from one station and distance from another
If for any reason, it is not possible to measure the angle and distance to an object
from the same point, it may be possible to locate the point by measuring angles
from one station and distances from the other. The recorded data should clearly
indicate the stations from which the angle and distance are measured. Figure 6.28(c)
shows this method of measuring. The angle is measured from station A to point
P. When the instrument is shifted to B, the distance to point P is measured from B
with a steel tape.
Angles from two stations
If for some reason, it is not possible to measure distances, then angles from two
stations are enough to locate a point. As shown in Fig. 6.28(d), the point P is located
by measuring angles to point P from stations A and B.

The following are the fundamental lines.

1. The vertical axis
2. The horizontal or trunnion axis
3. The line of collimation or line of sight
4. Axis of altitude level
5. Axis of plate level
The meaning of these terms has been discussed earlier. The axes are shown in Fig.
6.29. When the instrument is properly adjusted, the relationships between these axes
are the following.
(a) The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
(b) The axis of the plate level must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
(c) The line of collimation must be at right angles to the horizontal axis.
(d) The axis of the altitude level (and telescope level) must be parallel to the line
of collimation.
(e) The vertical circle vernier must read zero when the line of sight is horizon-
tal.
Each one of these relations gives conditions for accurate measurement.
(a) When the horizontal axis is perpendicular to the vertical axis, the line of sight
generates a vertical plane when transited.
(b) When the axis of the plate level is perpendicular to the vertical axis, the vertical
axis will be truly vertical when the bubble traverses.
(c) When the line of collimation is at right angles to the horizontal axis, the tele-
scope when rotated about the horizontal axis will move in a vertical plane.
(d) When the line of collimation and the axis of altitude level are parallel, the
vertical angles will be measured without any index error.
(e) The index error due to the displacement of the vernier is eliminated when the
vernier reads zero with the line of collimation truly horizontal.
Cross hairs Vertical axis
Trunnion axis
Eyepiece
Optical centre
Vertical circle Line of sight
Objective
Axis of bubble
Plate bubble
Horizontal plate
Bubble axis
Altitude level


Fig. 6.29 Fundamental lines of a theodolite

2marks Unit I Introduction and Chain Surveying

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2marks Unit I Introduction and Chain Surveying

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2marks Unit I Introduction and Chain Surveying

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.

CE6304 SURVEYING I YEAR:II/SEM:III CIVIL

1. Define Surveying. What are the fundamental principles of surveying?

2. What is the object or purpose of surveying?

3. Name the different ways of classification of surveys.

4. Differentiate between plane and geodetic surveying.

Sl.No. Plane surveying Geodetic surveying.

1. The curvature of the earth is The curvature of the earth is taken.

5. Classify surveying based on the equipments.

T.SHARMILA 2015-2016 Page 3 of 84

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

CE6304 SURVEYING I YEAR:II/SEM:III CIVIL

6. Explain the constructions of a diagonal scale.

7. Define chain surveying. What is the fundamental principle of chain surveying?

The main principle of chain surveying or chain triangulation is to provide a

8. What is a well-conditioned triangle? What is its specific advantage?

The main principle of chain surveying is chain triangulation. It consists of

9. What are the operations involved in chain survey?

10. What are the instruments required for a chain survey?

T.SHARMILA 2015-2016 Page 4 of 84

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

CE6304 SURVEYING I YEAR:II/SEM:III CIVIL

11. Write the different types of Chain.

Sl.No. Gunter’s chain or Surveyor’s chain Engineer’s chain

Define: (a).Main stations.

Distinguish between a check line and a tie line.

Sl.No Check line Tie line

STAFF NAME: T SHARMILA 2015-2016

T.SHARMILA 2015-2016 Page 5 of 84

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

CE6304 SURVEYING I YEAR:II/SEM:III CIVIL

16. What are offsets? Classify them.

Perpendicular offset Oblique offset

17. What is the use of a line Ranger?

19. What are the different tape corrections?

20. What are the errors in chaining?

21. What are the different sources of errors in chain surveying?

T.SHARMILA 2015-2016 Page 6 of 84

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

CE6304 SURVEYING I YEAR:II/SEM:III CIVIL

(ii). Personal error: Bad ranging (Cumulative Errors).

COMPASS SURVEYING AND PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

1. Define: Compass surveying. What are the objects of compass surveying?

2. Write the names of the instruments used in chain surveying.

3. Define: (a). True meridian and bearing.

(b). Magnetic meridian and Bearing.

T.SHARMILA 2015-2016 Page 7 of 84

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

CE6304 SURVEYING I YEAR:II/SEM:III CIVIL

properly balanced and unaffected magnetic needle at that point.

Whole circle bearing Reduced bearing

1760 S (1800 – 1760)E = S 40 E

2100 S (2100 – 1800)W = S 300 W

2320 S (2320 – 1800)W = S 520 W

1500 S (1800 – 1500) E = S 300 E

3100 N (3600 – 3100) W = N 50 0 W

2420 S (2420 – 1800)W = S 620 W

6.Differentiate between Prismatic compass and Surveyor’s compass with