Fibre to Fabrics- Fibres are produced either as staples or filaments; these are

then made into yarns to convert various yarns to convert into various fabrics by
different processes. Fabrics are being manufactured from yarns in a various ways.
It may be weaving, knitting and lace making or from fibre by felting. They are
used as a vamp lining because of strength, stability and flexibility required for shoe
materials.
Two yarns interlaced with each other at right angles make a woven fabric. Two
elements of yarns are known as warp (running length ways of thread) and weft
(running across the piece at right angle to the warp).The edges of fabrics are
required to be strong enough to withstand the strain during the weaving process. To
make the edge more strong, special strong threads (two, three or more) are placed
at each side of the warp which are known as selvedge.
The warp threads are passed through a liquid mixture of starch and oils. This
coating on the threads makes it smoother and stronger to withstand the tension and
friction during the weaving process. This treatment helps the warp threads to
increase their strength and flexibility.

Basic Woven Designs: Weaving is done by simply interfacing two yarns at

right angles. These are methods of interlacing warp and weft threads like PLAIN,
TWILL, DRILL and SATIN. These basic forms ultimately create the textile design.
By the combination of above methods an infinite variety of figures can be created.

Plain Weave: Threads are interlaced in this method in 1:1 ratio, which makes a
maximum number of interlacing. This provides an ideal construction for the shoe
lining because yarns are crimped sufficiently here. This crimp takes the first strain
of lasting.

Twill weave: Here we can found that how only by changing the ratio of
interlacing the threads, a new design can be achieved. Threads are interlaced here
as 2:2 ratio. One warp thread crosses over two weft threads and also under two
weft threads. The next warp thread behaves in the same way but one weft thread
higher up. This creates a diagonal line on the cloth design. Sometimes the threads
are arranged in such a way that a large number of weft threads are interlacing with
a smaller number of courser warp threads. The end produced in this way is
unsuitable for using as a shoe lining. Due to a low warp stretch and a very high
weft stretch.
Drill Weave: There are basically two types of drill weaves available as per the
ratio of interlacing threads. The threads interlacing in the ratio 2:1 are known as
Florentine drill. The jean has a warp crossing over two weft threads and less than
one. Florentine has a warp crossing over three weft threads and under one weft
thread. A diagonal line is produced as it was developed in case of a twill weave but
it is broader in character.

Satin weave: In a SATIN weave the design developed here varies from Twilled
drill as the ratio of interlacing thread differs. In a simplest SATIN weave the thread
interlaced in the ratio 4:1, but this may also be arranged in the ratio of 8:1 or more.
As it is progress in the case of drill and twill. Interlaced is spaced out leaving at
least one interval. The effect is to produce two diagonal lines opposing each other
and leading to cancel effect of each other. The appearance of satin weave is very
smooth.

The horizontal rows of loops are known as COURSES while the vertical rows of
loops are called WALES.

Knitted fabrics: There are two main types of fabrics.

(a) Weft knitted : Loops are made across the fabric either one by one in the
case of a hand knitted or in a row (course) at a time in machine knitting.
Each new row has a preceding rows hanging from it. These types of fabrics
are liable to ladder if a loop gets broken. In hand knitting operation, usually
a single needle is used to form loops and subsequently transfer them to
another to hold the transferred loop. However, weft knitting machines use
rows containing large number of needles to achieve high production rate.
The size and type of needle is mainly dependent on the yarn which is
required to be knitted.

(b) Warp knitted: Chains of stitches (WALES) are formed in the warp
directions. Each Wales has its own needle and thread supply. A guide bar
above each needle reciprocates laterally after each loop to interlock the loop
sideways.

In shoe industry, warp knitted fabrics are preferred than weft knitted fabrics.
The warp knit structure again is categorized in three groups:
 (a) TRICOT

(b) LOCKNIT

(c) SATIN

THREADS- The thread, needle and of course the type of machine plays the most
important role in the ultimate appearance and durability of the seam.

The thread is made by combing and twisting together several yarns. In the
strict sense of the word, yarns are the product of spinning together originally loose
fibres. Twisting of threads is carried out either in the twisting direction of the yarns
or opposite to it. Left twist is known as Z twists and the right twist is known as S
twist.

Types of threads: Threads may be broadly defined into two main groups,
Natural and Synthetic. These may again subdivide.

Cotton threads are inferior to linen threads and the linen threads are inferior to
nylon threads in quality and durability. Synthetic threads are better than linen
threads. Vital factors for selecting the threads for types of machine, machine speed,
thickness of material, use of lubricants.

Characteristics of threads
1. Cotton thread

 Soft cotton threads are made from yarn by spinning with minimum
sizing material.

 Glace cotton threads are made from yarn by spinning with sufficient
quantity of sizing material.

 Mercerized cotton threads are made from yarn by spinning and

causticised it in solution under tension.

2. Silk thread- Silk threads are made from cotton by treatment with artificial
silk. These are also made from natural products that are silk worm.

3. Linen thread- They are made from the fiber of plant.

4. Reyon, Nylon, Lycra, Vyrere , perlon, Terilene threads are all originated
from chemically prepared threads. On the above range of chemical threads,
 lycra, Vylere and perlon are based on polyurethane. Nylon is based upon
polyamide and terilene is based upon polyester.

Strength of thread
 Linen threads are weaker than nylon threads

 Silk and mercerized threads are nearer to linen threads.

 Cotton threads are weaker than linen threads.

Numbering of yarn and threads- The number of thread indicate first the
size of the yarn and then number of yarn twisted to compose the thread. This
means a cotton thread 60/3 cord consist of 3 yarn of size 60. There are two basic
systems of size numbering.

i) Length numbering (Fixed weight system)

ii) Weight numbering (Fixed length system)

For length numbering the weight is assumed to be constant while the

length of yarn is variable. The size designation is found by the formula.

Length number = length/weight

Therefore the smaller number the length the coarser the yarn. There are various
methods of length numbering. The metric length number ( Nm) is used for all yarn
except silk and rayon. The metric number (Nm) indicates how meter kilometers of
yarn weight 1 Kilogram.

For example- a piece of yarn 1 km long weighing 1 kg has 1 Nm

a piece of yarn 60 km long weighing 60 kg has 60 Nm

For weight numbering the length of yarn is assumed to be constant, the weight
varies. The size designation is found by the formula.

Weight number = weight/ length

Therefore the smaller the weight numbers the finer the yarn. The size of natural
silk fibers, rayon and synthetic fibers has so far been determined by the denier
system. Denier (Den) indicated the weight of yarn 9000 m long.

For example- a piece of yarn 1 gm being 9000 m long is 1 den

a piece of yarn 40 gm being 9000 m long is 40 den

Metric weight number (tx) has been introduced after denier system. It indicates
weight of grams of 1 km in yarn.

For example- a piece of yarn 1 gm and being1 km long has 1 tx

a piece of yarn 15 gm being 1km long is 15 tx

Tension and heat resistance of thread- Improper tension with any thread may cause
weal, unsightly and irregular stitching. Tension of thread must be adjusted properly
for proper stitching.

Quality of good thread- The ideal thread will

 Of good twist (should not be more twist per inch).

 Free from imperfection (faculty spinning and twisting).

 Of good lubricative properties that are easy going through needles at high
speed of stitching machine.

 Not create any smoke or smell at the time of operation in the sewing
machine.

 Not break at the time of operation in the sewing machine.

Poromeric upper- Since 1930, men were trying to discover some sort of
synthetic material which can replace the natural leather. A USA based firm
invented the synthetic material which has property of moisture absorption and
permeability to air similar to natural leather. The word poromeric represents for a
micro porous, permeable, coiaceous sheet material having polymethane reinforced
with polyester. The common features of poromeric are fabric based with porous
structure. The main difference between poromeric and leather is that leather fibres
need no binder or glue to fold them but poromeric have there fibre layer glued
together. Due to it’s inter fibrilary structure more space is there in between fibres of
a leather which provides leather as good permeability and absorbency. Thus
poromeric material is defined as a man made material nearly similar in nature and
appearance to leather with comparable permeability to water vapours.

Poromerics are classified into following types of layer.

i) One layer type

ii) Two layer type

iii) Three layer type

Layers are common to all types of poromeric it can be subdivided into

following parts.

i) Finished layer- This is very thin film (0.001mm) which may be PU or

acrylic based

ii) Skin layer- It is also very thin (0.005mm) and made with solid PU. It
is directly coated by heat fusing the surface of micro porous later and
also added as separate coat.

iii) Micro porous layer- It is comparatively thicker layer of PU (0.32-

0.5mm) which has been made permeable by coagulation process used
in PU coated fabric production. It is thicker and firmer and is often
colored.

iv) Backing layer- This layer is provided in two layer and three layer
poromeric. It may be either knitted or woven fabrics but usually non
woven fabrics are being used. This is made from nylon, polyester,
cotton or rayon fabric generally a thickness about 0.5- 1.0mm.
Sometime a blend of fabric is used so that wear absorption property
can be controls. The fibres are bonded with flexible resins.

v) Inter layer- It consist of thin layer (0.2mm) of woven polyester fabric.

It I placed in between the top layer and backing layer. It serves to
restrict the stretched of non woven backing and help to reduce the
orange peel effect unfortunately as it has a poor bonding strength. It
affects its structure and caused delaminating in wear. However due to
the improvement achieved in preparing backing layer have practically
made this inter layer absolute now.