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Physical: Metallurgy

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PHYSICAL

METALLURGY
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

[Second Edition]

V. RAGHAVAN
Formerly Professor
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi

PHI Learning Pofcfe MiM


Delhi-110092
2014
Contents
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Preface IX

Preface to the First Edition XI

Physical Constants xui

Conversion Factors XV

1. STRUCTURE OF METALS AND ALLOYS 1-28

1.1 Nature of Metallic Bonding 1

1.2 Crystal Structures of Metals 2

1.3 Structure of Alloys 10

1.4 Imperfections in Crystals 14


1.5 Experimental Study of Structure 22

References 27

Questions 27

2. PHASE DIAGRAMS 29-64

2.1 The Phase Rule 29


2.2 Binary Phase Diagrams 30

2.3 Free Energy Composition Curves for Binary Systems 37

2.4 Microstructural Changes during Cooling 40


2.5 The Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram 42

2.6 Effect of Alloying Elements on the Fe-C Diagram 46

2.7 The Copper-Zinc Phase


Diagram 57

2.8 Ternary Phase Diagrams 52

2.9 Quaternary Phase Diagrams 57

2.10 Experimental Determination of Phase Diagrams 58

References 63

Questions 64

3. PHASE CHANGES 65-99

3.1 Types of Phase Changes 65

3.2 Diffusion in Solids 66


3.3 Nucleation and Growth Kinetics 67

3.4 Solidification 71
3.5 Pearlitic Transformations 79

v
vi Contents

3.6 Bainitic Transformations 83


3.7 Martensitic Transformations 84
3.8 Precipitation and Age Hardening 92

3.9 Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth 96


References 99

Questions 99

4. HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS 100-126

4.1 The T-T-T Diagrams 100


4.2 The C-C-T Diagrams 104
4.3 Function of Alloying Elements 106
4.4 Formation of Austenite 107

4.5 Typical Heat Treatment Processes 709


4.6 Hardenability 112
4.7 Quench Cracks 119

4.8 Case Hardening 122


References 125

Questions 126

5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 127-160

5.1 The Tensile Test 127


5.2 Plastic Deformation Mechanisms 134
5.3 Methods of Strengthening Metals against Yield 137
5.4 Creep Resistance 143

5.5 Fracture 147


5.6 Fatigue Failures 153

References 159

Questions 159

6. CORROSION AND ITS PREVENTION 161-184

6.1 The Galvanic Cell 161


6.2 The Electrode Potentials 164
6.3 Polarization 167
6.4 Passivation 169

6.5 General Methods of Corrosion Prevention 172


6.6 Cathodic Protection 173

6.7 Coatings 175


6.8 Corrosion Prevention by Alloying 777

6.9 Stress Corrosion Cracking 779


References 183

Questions 183
Contents vii

7. ENGINEERING ALLOYS 185-225

7.1 Steel Specifications 185

7.2 Low Carbon Steels 188


7.3 Mild Steels 191

7.4 Medium Carbon Steels 195


7.5 High Strength Structural Steels 197
7.6 Tool Materials 799

7.7 Stainless Steels 203


7.8 High Temperature Alloys 205

7.9 Cast Irons 207


7.10 The Light Alloys 213
7.11 Copper and Its Alloys 218

7.12 Bearing Alloys 223


References 224

Questions 225

INDEX 227-232

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