UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL

& VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

REVITALISATION PROJECT-
PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGY

CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION I

COURSE CODE: CEC110

YEAR I- SEMESTER I

THEORY/

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 CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION II (CEC110)

COURSE INDEX

WEEK 1. 1.0 Principles Of Scaffolding- - - - - 1

1.1 Scaffolding - - - - - - 1

1.2 Uses of Scaffolding - - - - - 1

1.3 Technical words for parts of scaffold - - - 1

1.4 types of scaffolds - - - - - 2

1.5 advantage and disadvantages of scaffold- - - 5

1.6 regulation and recommendation for scaffolding - 6

1.7 regulation for safe erection of scaffolding - - 6

1.8 inspection and maintenance of scaffolding - - 7

WEEK 2 2.1 Functional requirement of opening building - - 8

2.1.2 Introduction - - - - - - 8

2.2 The treatment of wood (Timber) used for door, - 8

windows and other opening in building.

2.3 Uses of lintel and Arch infenestration- - - 9

2.4 Lintel - - - - - - - 9

2.5 Arch - - - - - - - 13

2.6 Types of door - - - - - - 16

2.7 Main principles to be observed in the construction - 16

of door and framing of joiners work in general

WEEK 3 3.1 Method of constructing the different types of frame and

flush doors - - - - - - 17

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 3.2 Door lining - - - - - - 18

3.3 Door frame and lining - - - - - 18

3.4 Method of fixing door frame and lining to opening- - 19

3.5 Metal doors and common materials used in their

Construction - - - - - - 20

3.6 Flush and panel metal doors - - - - 21

3.7 Ironmongery - - - - - - 24

WEEK 4 4.1 Window - - - - - - 25

4.2 Types of window - - - - - 25

4.3 Component of door and windows - - - 27

WEEK 5 5.1 Finishes - - - - - - 29

5.2 Floor finishes - - - - - - 29

5.3 Types of floor finishes - - - - 31

5.4 Internal wall finishes - - - - - 35

5.4.1 Plastering - - - - - - 35

5.5 Types of finishes (plaster) - - - - 38

WEEK 6 6.1 External rendering - - - - - 40

6.2 Types of rendering - - - - - 40

6.3 Defect in rendered surface - - - - 41

6.4 Paint - - - - - - - 43

6.4.1 Types of paint- - - - - - 44

6.4.2 Paint defect - - - - - - 45

6.5 Painting walls and ceiling - - - - 46

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WEEK 7 7.1 External works - - - - - 47

7.2 Fencing and hedges - - - - - 47

7.3 Types of fence - - - - - 47

7.4 Gate- - - - - - - - 50

WEEK 8 8.1 Road - - - - - - - 51

8.2 Path ways and paved areas - - - - 53

8.3 Parking lots - - - - - - 53

8.4 Landscaping - - - - - - 54

8.5 Sewage plant - - - - - - 55

8.5.1 Septic tank - - - - - - 56

8.5.2 Soakaway- - - - - - - 56

WEEK 9 9.1 Plan and section of septic tank - - - 58

9.1.1 Soakaway in moderately compact soil, pervious - 59

ground, granular soil (gravel and sand)

9.2 Manhole and inspection chamber - - - 59

9.3 Drainage system - - - - - 61

9.3.1 Principles in planning good drainage - - - 61

9.4 Principle of landscaping - - - - 62

WEEK 10 10.1 Preliminaries in the construction of building - - 63

10.2 Rule and duties of various parties on building contract 65

10.3 Contract - - - - - - 72

10.3.1 Types of contract - - - - - 73

10.3.2 Contract document - - - - - 76

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 10.4 Tendering - - - - - - 77

10.4.1 Tendering procedures- - - - - 78

WEEK 11 11.1 Site layout and organization - - - - 81

11.1.1 General consideration - - - - 81

11.2 Site layout consideration - - - - 81

WEEK 12 12.1 Means of escape - - - - - 84

WEEK 13 13.1 Fire in building - - - - - 86

13.1.1 Fire resistance material in building - - - 87

13.1.2 Fire resistance element of construction - - 87

13.2 Primary fire fighting - - - - - 87

13.2.1 Equipment for fire fighting - - - - 88

13.3 Fire detection and alarm - - - - 89

13.3.1 Alarms - - - - - - 89

13.3.2 Automatic detection - - - - - 89

WEEK 14 14.1 Burglar proofing materials in building - - 90

14.2 Method of fixing burglarproof in building - - 90

WEEK 15 15.1 Safety on construction site - - - - 92

15.2 First aid - - - - - - 95

15.3 Health and hygiene - - - - - 96

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WEEK 1

1.1 SCAFFOLDING

Scaffolding is a temporary structure made from poles of wood or metal erected

around the perimeter of a building to provide a safe working place for workers

and materials. When working at a height of 1.5m and above, it is necessary to

provide a scaffold.

The inventor of scaffolding is by name MR. DAVID BROWN DANIEL.

1.2 USES OF SCAFFOLDING

Scaffolding are used in construction or maintenance of walls, roof, suspended

floors and other complex construction.

1.3 TECHNICAL WORDS FOR PARTS OF SCAFFOLDS

Scaffolding uses many technical words such as those in this list to describe its

parts;

• Base boards: timber boards that support the base plate on soft or uneven

ground.

• Base plates: square metal plates that fits, into the bottom of scaffold tubes to

spread the load.

• Brace: poles fixed diagonally to stiffen the scaffold by forming a triangle

• Bridles: short length of tubing that are fitted to each of a window opening and

clamped to the transom. They fix the putlog scaffold to the surface of the

building.

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 • Guard rails: horizontal poles that are fixed above the working platform to

stop workers falling off

• Ledger: the horizontal poles that connect the standards. They are parallel to

the building

• Putlogs: cross pieces that have one end build into the wall of the building.

• Reveal pins: metal pins which tighten struts wedged vertically in window

openings.

1.4 Types of scaffold

There are basically two types of scaffolding;

PUT LOG SCAFFOLD– A putlog scaffold is one supported at one end by the

building under construction. One end of the working platform rests on the

external wall and other ends is supported by vehicle poles.

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Platform

Bridle

Putlog

Ledger
Standard
Base plate

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 Fig. 1.1: Part of a building scaffold.

2. THE INDEPENDENT SCAFFOLD.

The independent scaffold has a horizontal working platform that rests on vertical

poles at both ends joined together with ledgers which in turn support the transforms. The

scaffold is erecter clear of the existing or proposed building but is tied to the building or

structure at suitable intervals.

Guard Rail

Platform Toe Board

Ledgers Diagonal Brace

Transform Standard

Ladder tied to the Standard

Fig. i.2

a. MOBILE SCAFFOLDS

b. PATENT SCAFFOLDS 3
c. CANTILEVER SCAFFOLDS

d. BIRDCAGE SCAFFOLDS etc.

MOBILE SCAFFOLDS:- These scaffold are constructed to the basis principle as

independent scaffolds are used to provide access to restricted or small areas and/or where

mobility is required

PATENT SCAFFOLDING:- These are systems based on an independent. Scaffold

format in which the members are connected together using an integral locking device

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instead of conventional clips and couplers used with traditional tabular scaffolding. They

have the advantaged of being easy to assemble and take down using semiskilled labour

and will automatically comply with the majority of the requirement set out in the

construction regulations 1996.

Although simple in concept patent systems of scaffolding can lack the flexibility

of traditional tabular scaffolds in complex layout situations.

CANTILEVER SCAFFOLD:- These a form of independent tied scaffold erected on

cantilevers beams and used where it is impracticable, undesirable or uneconomic to use a

traditional scaffold raised from ground level.

The assembly of a cantilever scaffold requires special skills and should therefore

always be carried out by trained and experienced personnel.

BIRDCAGE SCAFFOLD:- Birdcage are a form of scaffold normally used for internal

work in large buildings such as public halls and churches to provide access to ceiling and

soffits for light maintenance work like painting and cleanings. The consist of parallel
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rows of standards connected by ledgers in both directions, the whole arrangement being

firmly braced in all directions.

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 Fig. 1.3: Pictures showing various types of scaffolding

1.5 ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF TIMBER SCAFFOLDING

Timber scaffolding has these advantages

1. The timber can be re used when not required for scaffolding.

2. It is easy to cut and fit

3. The scaffold parts can be joint special fitting

4. Trees are available to supply the poles

5. It is usually cheaper to buy timber than metal

DISADVANTAGES
1. Timber scaffold takes longer to erect.

2. Timber putlog scaffold poles leaves holes in the walls to be filled in

3. the timber may have hidden defects

4. The poles joints are made fitting

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 METAL SCAFFOLDS
ADVANTAGES
1. it is durable
2. it is quick and simple to erect
3. It is more adaptable

4. The poles are all the same quality and strength

5. Metal putlog scaffold poles have flattened ends which do not leave holes in walls

DISADVANTAGES
1. the initial cost is higher than for timber

2. The many joint fitting can easily be lost or stolen

3. The poles must be carefully and protected when not in use

1.6 REGULATION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SCAFFOLDING.

Regulations for the scaffolding are very explicit/detailed because of the high risk of death

or injury if scaffolding collapses. Safe working practices are essential.

The regulations for scaffolding materials usually specify that:

1. Metal poles should be free from dust

2. The poles and components must be in a sound condition and suitable for the

purpose.

3. Timber poles must not be split or contain any rot or insect holes

4. Both metal and timber poles must be straight

5. poles should not be repaired or joined in ways that create weakness

6. pole must not be pointed as this may conceal defects

1.7 REGULATION FOR SAFE ERECTION OF SCAFFOLDING

The regulations normally state theses principles:

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 1. Parts of the scaffolding should not be moved unless you check the changes fitting

carefully.

2. Scaffolds should be erect by fully trained people only

3. Independent scaffolding must have diagonal braces between the standards on

alternate boys.

4. Putlog scaffolding must have diagonal braces between the standards for the length

of the scaffold.

5. The span between standards should be less than 2400mm

6. The scaffolding should be tied to the wall of the building under construction at 10

metre intervals across the building face etc.

1.8 INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF SCAFFOLDS.

As par of a good working practices it is important to carryout rigorous inspection and

maintenance procedures .

It is important to check:

1. All parts of scaffolding at least once a week and always after bad weather

2. That no important pieces were removed if the scaffolding has been party

dismantled

3. That the braces are in place and that the scaffolding is tied to the building

4. That the guardrails and the rails are supported and in place

5. That all the upright are vertical by sighting along the line of the standards.

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WEEK 2

2.1 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENT OF OPENING IN BUILDING

2.1.2 INTRODUCTION

Doors and windows are the main opening in brick wall. Functional requirement of

opening in building can be summarized as follows:

• Strength and stability

• Dimensional stability

• Moisture penetration

• Thermal insulation/transmittance

• Sound insulation

• Fire protection

• Durability

• Buildability

• Security

• Appearance

2.2 THE TREATMENT OF WOOD (TIMBER) USED FOR DOORS,

WINDOWS AND OTHER OPENINGS IN BUILDING.

Building Research Establishment Degest 736 describes how window joinery in

newly built houses has sometimes given cause for compliant. Decay is particularly

marked in ground-floor windows, especially in kitchen and bedrooms, and the

lower parts of the windows (sills, bottoms of jambs and mullions, and lower rails

of opening lights) are most vulnerable. Decay is generally of the ‘wet rot’ variety

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 resulting from the use of timber of low natural resistance. Hence it is advisable to

either use well-seasonal heartwood from timber, which is naturally resistant to

decay, or timber treated with preservative, followed in both cases by two coats of

aluminum primer. Surfaces should be design to shed rainwater satisfactory on the

outside and condensation internally. The use of flimsy sections in window joinery,

particularly where weather conditions are severe, should be avoided.

2.3. USE OF LINTEL AND ARCH INFENESTRATION

2.4 LINTELS

Lintels are placed above the windows and doors to carry the weight of the wall above

them. Lintels can be made of steel, precast reinforced concrete beams, or wood. Lintels

rest on top of the last brick course that is level or approximately level with the top of the

window or door frame The bricks above the wall opening on which the lintels rest can be

strengthened by the installation of steel reinforcing bars. The placement of the reinforcing

bars is determined by the wall thickness and the type of window or door that is used

fig 2.1. Diagram showing steal lintel in brick wall

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2.2. Double-Angle Steel. If you are using a double-angle steel lintel, it should be 1/4 in thick.

This makes it possible for the two-angle legs to project up into the brick to fit exactly into the

1/2-inch joint between the face and backing-up ties (Figure 3-32).

Figure 2.2. Double-angle steel lintels

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Fig.2.3. Picture showing lintel in building

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2.5 The Arch

The Structure of the Arch

n arch is a curved construction that spans an opening.The arch is a very

laborate architectural structure. It consists of many important parts such s:

• The places where the arch begins are springers.

• The wedge-shaped stones are voussoirs.

• The central stone that holds all of the other stones in place is the keystone.

• Structures built at the beginning of arch to support arch are imposts.

• A structure that covers the spot where the arch begins is a molding

• Square-shaped columns to support arch and imposts are piers.

Fig. 2.4. structure of an arch

The History of the Arch

The Etruscans were the first civilization to use an arch. The uses of the arch were limited

because the arch did not fit in well with the classical architecture. They used the arch

when building:

• Gates

• Bridges

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 • Drains

A problem was found with the arch. The outer joint of the wedge-shaped stones of the

arch and the horizontal bricks of the wall was too noticeable. To conceal the joint, the

Etruscans constructed moldings called imposts. They called the arch and imposts an

archivolt. The imposts stuck out from the face of the wall so they needed to be supported

also. The piers were constructed so that the imposts sat on them. An example of an

Etruscan arch would be the gate.

The Roman architecture did not fully develop until they established the empire. The

Romans conquered many civilizations. They became students. The Romans used ideas

from other places in their own architecture. After the Romans conquered the Etruscans,

they assimilated the arch to fit into their architectural scheme.The Romans used the arch

when building:

• Bridges
• Aqueducts

• Gates

• Entrances

• A symbol of military victory

The arch could not support itself while being built. To support the arch during

construction, supports called centerings were used. This gave support until the piers were

built. Voussoirs, springers, and imposts were still used with the arch. The Romans added

a buttress to help support the arch. A buttress is a projecting structure, generally of brick

or stone, built against a wall to support or reinforce it. The Romans no longer used the

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molding to conceal the outer joint. They believed that it obstructed the natural beauty of

the structure.

Fig 2.5. pictures showing brick arch

2.6 TYPES OF DOOR

A door is movable barriers that separates internal and external spaces. It is usually

affected to a frame on one side by hinges.

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 There is a wide range of door types available each with their own particular uses

and their own particular uses, and they can be broadly classified as;

• Paneled Door

• Flush Doors

• Matchboard Doors

2.7 MAIN PRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED IN THE CONSTRUCTION

OF DOOR AND FRAMING OF JOINERS WORK IN GENERAL.

1. Timber should be dry and well seasoned with moisture contents within the

limits specified by BS1186 part 1.

2. Timber should be free from serious defect

3. timbers selected should be suitable for a particular job.

4. The joint between timber permit movement due to variation in temperature of

humidity without exposing open joint

5. the width of members should be carefully selected to ensure they maintain

their correct shape

Tenons should be kept narrow and their depth should exceed five times their
thickness

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 WEEK 3

3.1 METHOD OF CONSTRUCTING THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF FRAME

AND FLUSH DOORS

Fig 2.6. Picture showing Frame door

Fig. 2.7. Picture showing Flush door

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3.2 DOOR LININGS

Lining can be broadly classified into three types;

1. plaint: theses are usually prepared from board 38mm thick which are either

single rebated of double satisfactory alternative is to use a 25mm thick lining

with a 12mm stop planted on this, however, economics in timber and can be

adjusted to take up irregularities in the door.

2. skeleton: this type of lining is particularly well suited for wider jambs and

consist of a skeleton timber framework made up of two jambs or

uprights,often 75×32mm, with cross-rail tenoned to them at intervals. A board

10 or 12mm thick is planted on to the framework to form a door stop and to

give appearance of a double rebated lining. The framework is fixed to rough

grounds which are plugged to the brickwork.

3. framed: this is the best form of lining for an opening in a thick wall. It

consists of framed panels to the jambs and soffit similar to a paneled door, and

the moldings should match those on the adjoining door.

Linings can be fixed in a variety of ways and one of the most common is

to use rough grounds, often 50×19mm, plugged at about 900mm intervals in the

height of the opening.

3.3 DOOR FRAME AND LINING

The purpose of a door frame and lining is to ;

a. Define opening

b. Reduce the gap between a door and a wall

c. Provide fixing for the hinges and a recess for the lock or latch

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 d. Provides a finish between the door and the wall

DEFERENCE BETWEEN A DOOR FRAME AND A DOOR LINING

Door frames are usually made from solid timber with a rebate to house the door.

The frame is not related to the thickness of the wall surrounding it.

Door lining are usually fitted to internal doors where the lining is the full

width of the internal wall.

3.4 METHOD OF FIXING DOOR FRAME AND LINING TO OPENINGS

A. Step to a fix frame or lining into place as the wall is built;

1. brace the frame or lining to keep it square

2. paint the back of the frame to prevent the entry of moisture from the mansory

3. screw galvanized metal fastening to the back of the frame to lining which

match the mansory courses

4. stand the structure in position, level and support at with struts

5. build the fastening into the mansory joints to secure the frame or lining in

position permanently.

B. Steps to fix frame or lining into the wall after the wall is buil;

1. leave an opening that is about 3–4mm bigger than the frame when the wall is

built.

2. insert word plugs into some of the mansory joints that face the opening during

construction

3. put the frame in position after the wall and lintel are built.

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 4. level the frame with small timber for pieces

5. drill holes in the frame or lining for screws to go into the plays in the mansory

6. countersink the screws and fill the holes

Fig 2.9. Fixing Door Frame and Lining

3.5 METAL DOORS AND THE COMMON MATERIAL USED IN THEIR

CONSTRUCTION

These are made from mild steel pressed into one of three standard profiles and are

suitable for both internal and external positions. The hinges and striking plates are

welded on during manufacture and the whole frames receive a rust –proof

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 treatment before delivery. The frames are fixed in a similar manner to timber

frames using a tie or tree bracket which fits into the back of the frame profile and

is build into the bed joints of he wall. The advantage of this type of frame is that

they will not shrink or wrap but they are more expensive than their timber

counterparts.

Fig. 2.8. Metal Door

3.6 FLUSH AND PANELLED METAL DOOR

FLUSH DOORS

Flush doors have no projections or recesses on either surface of the door. These

doors are usually made of large sheets of plywood or hardboard. Flush doors may

have glazed panels to allowing some light.

This list describes the part that are specific to a flush door:

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A Core: is the inner part of the door. The external boards or sheets of plywood are

fixed to it the core can be made from:

1. a softwood framework of horizontal and vertical pieces joined together in

recessed joints’

2. a cellular center of paper of cardboard strips glued together in a lattice pattern’

3. a solid center of timber strips glued together. This type of core makes a very

heavy door with good sound insulation that can be used for external doors and

fire doors.

A Flush Panel: is 3 mm plywood or hardboard sheets which are fixed onto the

core material.

A Lining: is a thin wooden strip that protects the edges of a flush door panel

A Lock Block: is a piece fitted into the internal framework of the door to make

the recess for the lock.

Flush door are usually made in factories. This ensure a high-quality,

durable product if the correct type of door is put in the right location. The

plywood facing and the frames for external flush doors should be fixed with

waterproof glue.

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Fig. 2.9 flush doors

PANELLED DOORS

Paneled doors are suitable for internal and external use. They are made from solid

timber frames with solid or glazed panels.

This list describes the main parts of a paneled door not defined in earlier sections:

Intermediate rails are cross pieces that divide the door into panels horizontally.

Muntins are the central vertical pieces

Bottom rail is the bottom horizontal framing pieces

Panels are the filling between the farming pieces.

They can be:

• thin, solid timber;

• 6mm plywood

• Clear or obscure glass.

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Fig. 2.10paint grade flat panel metal door

3.7 IRONMONGERY

Ironmongery is the term used to describe hardware use for doors. Basic

ironmongery consist of hinges, lock and latches.

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 WEEK 4

4.1 WINDOW

Window provides natural light and ventilation to the interior of a building while

excluding rain and insects.

Windows are classified up to two main factors;

1. the method of opening: under this we have the following types of windows.

a. Casement windows, side or stop hang on hinges

b. pivot lung either horizontal or vertically: pivoted bash windows

c. sliding bathes which slides vertically sliding

s sliding sashes which shade horizontally

2. the material from which they are made: under this we have the following

types;

a. Timber (wood)

b. Steal

c. aluminum

d. stainless steal

e. bronze

f. plastic

4.2 TYPES OF WINDOWS

Standard windows can have four different types of opening section;

1. side-hung windows have hinges on one side and the fastening catch and

handle on the other

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2. top-hung windows have hinges at the top and a securing stay at the bottom.

This window opend out

3. bottom-hung windows have hinged at the bottom and a securing catch at the

top. This window opens in and needs a special stay to stop it falling into the

room

4. louvers are individual pieces of glass held in clips and opend by a lower arm,

which locks the louvers in position.

Fig. 2.13

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 Fig. 2.14. sliding window

Fig. 2.15. Pictures showing various type of window

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4.3 COMPONENT OF DOORS AND WINDOWS

TECHNICAL WORDS FOR PART OF A DOOR

CILL: a horizontal member at the base of an external door and separates the

internal and external structure. It should slope so that rainwater flows outside

rather than inside

Frame: a solid timber or metal structure fixed to the door closes and supports the

doors weight.

Head: the horizontal piece at the top of the frame

Jamb: the vertical part of the frame that is fixed to the wall.

Lining: the timber framework inserted into an opening in an internal wall.

Rebate : a recess in the door frame that scale the edges of the door.

Stop: a thin pieces of timber fixed to the head and jambs of the lining to form a

rebate

Threshold: the access point in the doorway where you can enter or exit , the cill

is part of the threshold.

TECHNICAL WORD FOR PART OF A WINDOW AND FRAME

Bottom rail: the bottom member of sash or light

Head: the top pieces of a window, which is fixed to the underside of the masonry

Casement: a side-hung opening window

Cill: the bottom piece of a window, which is fixed to the bottom of the opening

Jamb: the vertical sidepiece fix to the surface of the window opening

Mullion: a fixed vertical piece in the window framework, which separates the

fixed and moving parts.

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Opening light: another word for a sash.

Sash: the whole moving parts of a window including the glass.

Stile: the side member of a sash

Top rail: the top member of a sash.

Transom: the fix horizontal piece that separate the fixed and moving parts of the

window

Ventilator: a small sash, which is often top-hung to provide secure ventilation.

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WEEK 5

5.1 FINISHES

The treatment that is given to internal floors, ceiling, internal, and external walls are

called finishes. Finishes include: plaster, renders paints etc.

Finishes serve decorating and practical functions. They improve the appearance of the

structures underneath nut also prolong building lifespan.

The two most important considerations for selecting finishes for floors, ceiling

and walls are

(1) Appearance (2) Maintenance

Other important functions requirement includes:

Resistance to condensation, acoustic properties (Sourd), provision of smooth and even

surface.

Requiring vary in different parts of the building depending on type and purpose.

5.2 FLOOR FINISHES

Many factors deserve consideration when selecting a floor finish, but not all the factors

are of equal importance. Further more, requirements vary in different parts of the

building. For instance resistance to oil grease and moisture is relevant in a kitchen but not

in a bed room, and appearance could be important in a lounge but is not little

consequence in a store.

Floor finishes for domestic buildings include a wide range of alternatives. The

factors that may influence any given choice depend on the use of the floor space and

limits on cost.

Some cost principle characteristic of floor finishes are:

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1. Economic:- Reasonable initial and maintenance cost having regard to the class of

building and the particulars location with the building.

2. Ease of Cleaning:- surfaces that allows dirt to easily penetrate are harder to keep

clean. If ease of cleaning is a priority, then a lard, smooth fi0nish is better than soft

open texture.

3. Resistance to Water Spills:- the flooring in bathrooms and kitchen needs to

withstand water spills from washing or plumbing leaks.

4. Resistance to Grease and Oil:- The floor should not be damaged up from the

surface. Spill are a particular problem in kitchen and some factories.

5. Warmth Cool:- lard, smooth surface are cool to walk on because the conduct heat

away. Soft, texture finishes like carpet gives a room a warm feel, which ray the stable

for cooler climates. Some finishes are more warmer than others an this may be an

important consideration

6. Resistance to Moisture:- This is a important in domestic kitchens, bathrooms,

entrance passages and walls and in some industrial building

7. Durability:- The material must have a reasonable life to avoid premature

replacement with resistant extra cost and inconveniences.

8. Cost:- the cost vary enormously for the huge range of finishes. The cheapest finish is

a cement screed. The most expensive can be carpet woodblock or special floor tiles

etc.

9. Resilience:-Some flexibility is often describe

10. Sound Absorption:- Some building such as hospitals and libraries need their finishes

with high degree of sound absorption.

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5.3 TYPES OF FLOOR FINISHES

There are numerous kind of finishes, the more common finishes are:

1. Terrazzo Finishes:- Terrazzo floor finishes come from Italy where marble was

abundant and used a general building material. Terrazzo is a decorative form of

concrete and which Portland cement is the basis for the finish , but there is no sand in

1.2 cement and marble mix. Terrazzo may be in site or pre-cast. In site terrazzo can

either be laid wherein the fire aggregate incorporated in the mix or a mix where the

fire aggregate is spread in position and the larger aggregate is then sprinkled on the

surface and beaten and trowelled in. in order to prevent cracking, the following

precaution should be taken.

(a) Water/cement ratio kept as low as possible

(b) No smaller aggregate than 3.. used

(c) Floor divided into panels not exceeding /m2 in area, with sides in ratio of 3.1 and

separated by dividing strips of metal ebonite or plastic

(d) Terrazzo allowed to dry out slowly, and if possible the building should not be

heated for six to eight weeks after the floor finish has been laid.

The thickness of the terrazzo depends on the size of the aggregate. The standard

thickness is about 15mm.

The material must be thoroughly compacted by tamping trowelling and

rolling with further trowelling at intervals to produce a dense smooth surface.

After about four days. Surface is ground by machine and finally polished using a

fine abrasive stone. Terrazzo is attractive in appearance, hard wearing easily

cleaned, but its demerits are:

36
 It is easily, cold and expensive.

2. Granolithic Screen: This is primarily used for factory flooring because of its

hardwearing qualities a typical mix is 1:1:2 or 1:1:3 of Portland sand and granite.

The best finish is obtain by laying a 10 to 25mm granolithic topping within 3 hours

of laying the base to obtain monolithic construction. After compacting, the ground

should be retrowelled to close surface pores and finally trowelled when the surface is

hard. The tendency to produce dust can be reduced by applying sodium silicate or

magnesium or zinc silicofloride or by using a sealer such as polyurethane. A non slip

finish can be obtained by carborundun over the surface and trowelling at in before

the granolithic has set. The screen must be cured for a minimum of at least 7 days.

This is a difficult floor finish to produce, but it is extremely durable if done well,

it provides a cold, unattractive finish, but at a moderate price. The most serious

defect is the loss of contact with the sub floor around the edges of the days. Screen

should be made the maximum thickness to hold it firmly in position.

3. PCV Tiles: These contain a substantial proportion of plasticized PVC resin which

gives added flexibility and resilience. PVC tiles have precise measurements

(300×300×3). They must be laid on a perfectly smooth screen because they are so

thin and fixed with adhesive however, they can be fitted so closely that they do not

have gap in the joints

PVC tiles are the joints

(a) Resistant to grease

(b) Water proof

(c) Durable.

37
 Although they come in a wide range of colours and textures pvc tiles are one of the

cheapest floor finishes you can buy and lay. They are maintained by applying water.

4. Rubber Tiles and Sheets: These are made of natural rubber and various filling

compounds. Tiles are normally 3mm thick for housing work and 4mm in public

buildings, rubber flooring must be fixed with a suitable adhesive and is available in a

variety of colours and patterns. This flooring is quite warm, resilient, non-slip,

resistant to moisture and hardwearing. Oils, fats and grease have a harmful effect on

rubber flooring and it is expensive a variety of adhesive for use with flooring

material are listed in B5 5442.48

5. Quarry Tiles: These are clay tiles with a hard semi-glated finish. They usually

measure about 150×150mm or 100×100mm and are 15 – 20mm thick. Since they are

fired in a kiln they are not shaped as pvc tiles, so the have a 3mm joints between the

tiles.

Quarry tiles are bedded in mortar so as leveling screen is not usually necessary.

They are useful for kitchen and toilets, being hardwearing, easily cleaned and

resistant to water, oils and grease, but they are also cold noisy and relatively

expensive.

6. Thermoplastic Tiles: These are made from asbestos fibres, mineral fillers, pigments

and thermoplastic binder and can be obtained in a variety of colours patterns. The

most common size is 250×250×2.5 or 3mm thick. The tiles becomes flexible when

heated and are fixed with a special adhesive to a cement and sand screed. They are

moderately warm, quite and resistant to water and grease.

38
7. Vinyl Asbestos Tiles: These were a later development of thermoplastic tiles and are

made of pvc resin asbestos fibre, powdered mineral fillers and pigments. They are

particularly resistant to grease and hence well suited for use in kitchens and will

withstand under floor heating at moderate temperature.

8. Rubber Later Cement: This is a mixture of Portland cement or high alumina cement,

aggregate fillers, pigment, gauged on the site with a stabilized aqueous emulsion of

rubber latex. It is usually laid to a thickness of 6mm, rubber later cement is resistant

to damp is nonslip, reasonably hardwearing, quiet and warm and can be laid in a

variety of colours.

9. Concrete Tiles: Concrete tiles are made from coloured cement and hardwearing

aggregate set on a normal concrete backing, varying in size from 150×150mm to

500×500mm in thickness ranging from 15 to 40mm

The have attractive finishes in a wide range of colours are hard durable, dustless,

easily cleaned and resistant to damp.

There major demerits being that they are:

Noisy, Gold and attacked by oils.

Note: In summary, the three mans finishes for concrete sub floor are:

1. Wet cement 2. Cement based 3. Terrazzo.

5.4 INTERNAL WALL FINISHING

5.4.1 PLASTERING

The term plastering means the application of a smooth coat of material to the walls and

ceilings. The purpose of plastering is to provide a jointless hygienic, crack free, easily

39
decorated finish to walls. Plaster covers up the unevenness of tricks, blocks or concrete. It

may be required to improve fire resistance. Provide additional thermal insulation and

sound insulation, to modify sound absorption or mitigate the effects secondary

importance, and the selection is mainly influenced by the surface finish desired.

Plasters is mixed with to water make a plastic mixture, which can be spread

directly on a surface. The surface absorbs the water in the mix by a process called

suction.

The suction process stiffens the plaster rapidly so that it can be level while it

hardens and sets. When the plaster dries it leaves a hard, smooth finish for decoration

FACTOR AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF PLASTER

The choice of any given plaster finish depends upon characteristic such as:

1. Resistance to damage by impact

2. Shrinkage

3. Expansion

4. Surface hardness

PLASTERING MATERIALS

Plaster is a powdered cement, sand and line or gypsum, which is supplied in bags. In

domestic buildings you might plaster:

– Brick wall

– Block work

– Concrete

– Plaster boards

Each of the surface some preparation before plaster finish are applied.

40
Most bricks provides a good surface plastering because they have enough of a natural

keep (A key is a rough surface that plaster with stick to). Before plastering brickwork, it

is important to remove any projections and clean the surface with a stiff brush. When wet

plaster are applied to the wall the water from the mix is absorbed by the brickwork. This

should be checked to ensure that it does not chose the plaster to dry too rapidly so that it

becomes unworkable.

The process of plastering blockwork is similar to plastering brickwork.

The type of concrete that might be plastering would be the soffit of a floor flat.

The concrete may might quite smooth from the formwork unless a chemical was applied

before the concrete was poured. To prepared concrete, it is important to wash off all

traces of all hack the surface to provide enough key for the plaster.

Plaster boards are designed to for a base for plastering the ceiling under timber

floors and roofs. Plastering is a solid core of gypsum plaster with a heavy paper surface

on both sides. The boards are usually 12mm thick for fixing to tribute support at 400mm

centres. Plasterboards should be fixed to the support with small, flat had nails which are

driven in slightly below the surface and filled over. Plasterboards can also serve as dry

lining for walls if batterns are fixed at these centres. Before the plaster is applied, the

joint the board should be reinforced with a 90mm jute fabric bedding in plaster.

APPLYING A PLASTER FINISH

You may apply one, two or three coats of plaster to achieve a smooth finish. Generally,

two-coat work is satisfactory for use with brickwork or block work, provided extreme

variations of suction are avoided. When using plasterboard, only one coat is needed.

Three coats are only used if the surface is extremely un-even. The first coat in a three-

41
coat finish, called screed coat, is applied to level the surface and to ensure that the plaster

is the correct thickness.

5.5 TYPES OF FINISH (PLASTER)

There is a wide range of plasters available some of the man type are as follows.

1. Cement Lime and Sand Mixes:- This mix in a 1:5:3 mixture makes the hardest

finish. If the amount of line is increased and the amount to sand reduced, then the

hardness is reduced. This also reduces the amount of small crakes in the finish. This

is also called A gauged lime plaster.

2. Lime Plaster:- This is a weak, easily indented, slow hardening and shrink in drying

and for this reason is now little used.

3. Gypsum Plaster:- They have a number of advantages over lime plaster, requiring

fewer and thinner coats, which set hard in few hours without shrinking, providing a

law, strong surface which does not cause alkali attack or paintwork. There are four

classes of gypsum plaster.

a. Class A (pop plaster of plant) set so easily/rapidly that it is unsuitable for most work

apart from small repairs.

b. Class B (Retarded hemihydrates) plaster include board finishes and give a hard

surface which is sufficiently resistant to impact for normal purposes, set quickly and

expand during setting.

c. Class C (Anhydrous) plasters give a surface harder than class B plaster and are slower

setting.

42
d. Class D (Keene’s) This provides a very hard, smooth surface, and slow setting

allowing ample time to bring to a fine finish that is particularly suitable for

declaration with high gloss paint

43
WEEK 6

6.1 EXTERNAL RENDERING

External rendering is the process of applying a cement and sand plaster coat to the

outside walls of a building.

External rendering is apply to perform the following:

1. Improve the appearance of concrete block walls.

2. Provide a waterproof finish to porous blocks such as landscrete

3. And sand crete blocks;

4. Provide a base for a colour finish

5. Durability of the finish.

Rendering normally consist of two coat varying from 5mm upwards. Brick joints

should raked out to form a key for the final coat.

Although gypsum is not suitable for external use, line can be added to a cement

and sand to improve its pliability.

Several different finishes and textures are common to external rendering. They

improve the appearance of the cement and sand mix and help to control shrinkage and

cracking which affects the waterproof quality of render.

6.2 TYPES OF RENDERING

1. SMOOTH RENDER:- This is a cement and line mixed with sand in a 1:2:9 mixture.

It is put on as a finishing coat and trowelled to a smooth finish. If an undercoat is

needed then the proportions is reduced to 1:1:5. this is the least satisfactory finish

because the trowelling can bring too much cement to the surface, which caused

cracks.

44
2. ROUGCAST Or WETDASHRENDER:- This is a top cast cement lime and sand in

a 1:2:9 mix over a 1:3 cement and sand backing coat. While the top cast is soft a 6-

13mm cement coated aggregate is thrown into it

3. Pebble Dash or Drydash Render:- This is a five coat in a 1:1:6cement, lime and

sand render with 6-12mm pebbles lightly pressured into it so that the aggregate is

exposed.

4. Scraped Render:- The top is 1:1:6 or 1:2:9 mix in a sew blade just before it hardens

to remove the smooth skin.

Tyrolean Render:- Tyrolean render is produced by a machine that throws a 1:3 cement

and sand mixture onto the wall for a deeply textured finish. The cement can be coloured

to produce a permanent coloured finish. The background can be rendered or the Tyrolean

render can be applied directly to a raw wall and built up in layers.

The three most suitable mixes for external rendering are:

1. I Part Portland Cement: I part lime:5 to 6 part sand by volume

2. I Part Portland Cement: ½ part lime:4 to 41/2 parts sand by volume

3. I Part Portland Cement: 2 part lime:8 to 9 part sand by volume

6.3 DEFECT IN RENDERED SURFACE

The main defect in rendered surfaces are:

1. Cracking

2. Crazing

3. Loss of Adhension.

1. Cracking:- cracks appear in render because

45
 1. The mix is too rich in cement which causes shrinkage cracks when the render

dries.

2. The finishing coat is stronger than the background or render coat.

3. The background wall moves or settles. This can cause cracks or loss of adhesion.

4. The mix dries out too rapidly. This is difficult to avoid in hot sun, so the

application of render should be done on a dull day or late in the day.

2. Crazing:- this is a fine cracking in the top surface of the render. This is caused by

a) The render drying too quickly in the sunlight

b) Too much trowelling, which brings neat cement to the surface

c) Too much suction in the backing coat which draws water out of the top coat

before applying the top coat

3. Lose of Adhension:- this is obvious when you here a hollow sound when you tap

the surface of the render.

Adhension is lost when

a) The key is inadequate

b) Water penetrates the render through cracks

c) The surface is dirty or oily

d) The background is too porous or is not wetted before rendering.

Lost of adhension is difficult problem to fix.

46
6.4 PAINTS

Paints consist essentially a pigment, a binding medium and a thinner to make the mixture

suitable for application, the by brush, roller spray changes which convert it from a fluid

to tough film binds the pigment.

Walls, ceilings, woodwork and metalwork are painted to:

1. Provide a decorative appearance

2. Protect the surface from moisture penetration

3. Protect the surface from rusting

To achieve these objectives the surface preparation and paint application must be

adequate. The preparation of new and previously painted surfaces should ensure that

prior to painting, the surface is smooth, clean, dry and stable.

Composition

The actual composition of any paint can be complex but standard paint consist of the

following components:

1. BINDER:- Combines the pigment and other additives in paint and determines how

well the paint adheres and penetrates.

2. PIGMENT:- This provides the body, colour, durability and corrosion protection

properties of the paint.

The general pigment used in paint is Titanium Dioxide which is not poisonous and

give good abliteration. Of the undercoats. White lead pigments are very durable and

moisture resistant but are poisonous and their use is generally restricted to printing

and undercoating paints. If paint contains lead pigment, the fact must be stated on the

container.

47
3. SOLVENT AND THINNERS:- the thinners is the liquid part of paints, which

enables it to flow freely from the brush onto a surface i.e. material added to paint to

alter its viscosity. The thinner evaporates when paint dries which may take a few

hours or days. The evaporation of the thinner causes the characteristic smell of paint

which gradually disappears. Paint must be thoroughly stirred to mix the thinner and

the solid pigment.

6.5 TYPES OF PAINTS

The main type of paint are:

1. Oil Based Paints (Gloss paints): gloss paints are based resins produced in

laboratories which have improved the quality of gloss paints. Oil based paints are

suitable for most applications if used in conjunction with correct primer and

undercoat.

1. paint thinned with spirit

2. paint thinned with water

2. Undercoats for Gloss Paints: These are modified paints that dry with fiat finishes

this makes it easier to rub them down and improves the adhesion to the gloss coat.

Undercoats also fill in the colour over the primes and consolidate the final colour.

3. Primers: Primers are applied to seal unpainted metal and wood surfaces. Typical

wood primers are

1. Pink primers 2. Aluminum primers 3. Acrylic primers

Metal base primers are:

1) Calcium plumbate which is oil based

2) Zinc chromate is also oil based but for bare metal surfaces.

48
 4. Water Based Paints: Most of these paints are called Emulsion paints. They are

also called water thinned paint and they form the gloss paints but also easier to

apply because they do not seal surface. You can use these paints on new plaster.

Water thinned paints have the primes, undercoat and finish in the same container.

Emulsion paints are easily applied quick drying and can be obtained with a

washable finish and are suitable for most application.

Two types of water thinned paints are:

1. Limensasues 2. Emulsion.

6.5.1 PAINTS DEFECT

Paint defect may be due to poor or incorrect preparation of the surface, poor application

of the paints and/or chemical reactions. The general remedy is to remove all the effected

paint and carryout the necessary or correct preparation of the surface before applying in

the correct manner new coats of paint. Most paint defects are visual and therefore, a

accurate diagnosis of the cause must be established before any remedial treatment is

undertaken.

Typical paint defect are:

1. Bleeding: This is staining and disruption of the paint surface by chemical action by

applying an incorrect paint over another.

2. Saponification: Formation of coat from alkali present in or on surface painted. The

paint is ultimate destroy and a brown liquid appears on the surface. The remedy for

such is to remove the paint film and seal the alkaline surface before repainting.

3. Chalking: This forms a powdering surface due to natural ageing or the use of poor

quality paint. Remedy is to remove paint if necessary prepare surface and repaint.

49
4. Cracking and Crazing: Usually due to unequal elasticity of successive coat of paint

or undercoat has not hardened. Sufficient before finishing is applied.

5. Blooming: Mistiness usually on high gloss or vanished surfaces due to the presence

of moisture during application. It can be avoided by not painting under these

conditions. Remedy is to remove affected paint and repaint.

6. Flaking and Peeling: Due to poor adhesion, presence of moisture, painting over

unclean areas or poor preparation.

7. Blistering: This is usually by poor presentation allowing moisture to the entrapped,

the subsequent expansion causing the defect. Remedy is to remove all the coats of

paint and ensure that the surface is dry before repainting

6.6 HOW TO PAINT PLASTERED WALLS AND CEILINGS

The steps bellows gives an easy and convenient method for painting wall and ceiling:

Step 1. Remove all plaster splashes with a scraper

Step 2. Fill in and rub down any boles, scratches or grooves.

“ 3 Remove dust with a soft brush

“ 4 Dilute the emulsion with 10 percent additional water and paint it on

as a printing coat

“ 5 Leave it about an hour and apply the full strength emulsion

“ 6 Leave it for 2 to 3 hours then paint on the final coat of emulsion

50
 Fig. 6.1. diagram showing how to paint ceiling

Fig 6.2 diagram showing painting of walls and cielings

51
WEEK 7

7.1 EXTERNAL WORKS

External works are provided around a building to enhance the proper use of the building

and make the area a esthetic and appealing. The external works provide many functions

in building works such as provision of access to the building, beautification, absorb

sound, reduction of glare and discharge of waste materials from the building. The

various external works provided in connection with building basically landscape work,

fending & gates.

7.2 FENCING AND HEDGES

Fences and hedges are often used to demarcate boundaries between land of different

occupiers. There are different types of fences the choice of material depends on a

number of factors such as appearance, durability, effectiveness and maintenance cost.

Hedges are normally row of small bushes or trees growing closely together.

The main requirement for a hedge are:

1. It must be long-lived

2. It must be healthy and not susceptible to pest disease

3. it must be capable of withstanding cutting

4. it should be close branching and twiggy

5. it should be to produce.

7.3 TYPE OF FENCES

There are three different types of fences according to the material used in making them

a. Wood post and Rau

52
Theses are erected using hardwood posts and softwood rails. The posts are often

75×150mm possibly with pointed bottom for driving into the ground. The rails are often

rectangular with size 38×87mm. It is considerable durable and attractive and of

moderate cost, but does not form a good barriers as people, animals and objects can pass

through it.

All timber must be treated with preservatives

38 +87mm rail

75 +150mm post

Fig 7.1. Post and rail fence

b. Wooden Wood Fences: These are reasonably attractive and fairly expensive. Post

many be of concrete or timber. The max length of panels is 1.8m and height vary from

0.60m to 1.8m. the panels consist of horizontal and vertical slats woven together within a

frame of double vertical centres stiffenes. A minimum size of bettens end slats are

19×38mm and 75×75mm respectively. A weathered capping about 19×50mm is usually

to the top of each panel. Wooden post are usually 75×75mm with a weathered cap, and

concrete posts are generally

100×85mm with a weathered top

19+38 weathered
cap

53
 50 ×20 capping

75×75 post

Slates

Center
stiffener

Fig. 7.2. Woven Wood Fence

c. Close Board Fence: They are alternative and effective, but their initial cost is very

high. The posts may be of concrete or timber. Timber posts should have weathered tops.

Horizontal gravel board about 32 or 25×200mm is often fived below the poles to prevent

their bottom from being in contact with the ground to prevent it from decay

Fig. 7.3. Close-boarded fence

d. Chain Link Fence: They consist of a diamond shaped mesh with an average mesh

size of 50mm and average 3mm diameter finished with a galvanized or plastic costing

using aluminum wire. Posts may be reinforced concrete, steel or wood. The line wires are

54
pulled tightly with straining fittings at straining posts and intermediate posts are

prevented at not in use than 3 room interval

galvanised
25+5 mild steel line wire
flat

50mesh
galvanize
chain

R.C Strut

Ground level
Fig. 7.4. Chain Link Fencing

7.4 GATES

Front entrance gates are normally provided by building. They could be wooden or metal

types. The standard wooden gates have width of 0.8 and 1.0m. While pairs of gates may

have overall width of 2.2, 2.3 and 2.6m. For metal gates are 0.9, 1.0 1nd1.1m for small

gates and2.3, 2.4 and 2.7m for pair single gates. Metal gates may be constructed of mild

steel or wrought iron and should always have a continuous frame work and be truly

square and welded at junction.

55
WEEK 8

8.1 ROADS

Road is a specially prepared hard surface way for cars, bicycles, buses etc to travel on. It

may not be lawfully usable by the public at large. Roads are provided to make

accessibility easy to the normal housing estate road has a width of about 4.90m, although

it is sometimes increase to 5.5m where a large volume of traffic is to be carried.

For large housing estates, widths of 6.1 or 6.7m would be more appropriate

– Roads should be constructed in such a way that the longitutional gradients must

be kept within reasonable limit such as 1.20 to 1 in 250. This should be so

because if the road is too flat surface water will be difficult to remove or drain,

and if it is to sleep, it will become difficult to negotiate during rainy season when

the tendency in slip may be very high.

– Adequate width of the formation to cater for carriage way berms and side drains

– Camber or single cross fall should be provided for natural drainage to the surface

water

– Adequate road bend width or the right of way.

– Adequate sight distance to ensure that the vehicle is brought to rest before

collision with any obstruction

– Adequate carriage way to provide for the required no of lene which is base on the

frequency and the intensity of the traffic

There are two broad group of road construction

a. Flexible tube

b. Rigid type

56
Flexible Road

This type of road is made up of a strong base surface with tar or bitumen coated stone.

Flexible road often contain a sub-base of gravel, shale etc. ranging from 100-250mm

thick. The sub base functions are to reduce stress in the sub grade, protects the sub grade

against frost and constructional traffic, and prevent mud entering the road structure. The

base may be formed of various stone pitching. A roller weighing 8-10 tonne may be used

to comp the base as surfacing. This provide, smooth, non skid, abrasion resisted and joint

less surface. It also has good cleansing and surface. It also has good cleansing and surface

water run off properties.

Surfacing Bitumen 56–100mm thick

Base Limestone slag, stone pitching

Sub base 100 –250mm shale etc.

Formation Natural formation
Sub grade

RIGID ROAD

These are roads constructed of concrete road slab. They are often supported on a 75-100

mm thick base of granular materials, 100-200mm thick lean concrete, 100-150 thick

cement bound granular base. For light traffic the concrete slab is normally 150mm thick

with a mix of 1:2:4 and mix w/c ratio of 0.55 it could be reinforced with layer of fabric

reinforcement weighing not less than 2.5 kg/m2 or unreinforced. They are generally laid

in continuous construction broken at interval by transverse expansion joints. These

expansion joints allow concrete to expand with rises in temperature.

57
 Surface

Slab Concrete

Base 75 –100mm material

Formation
Sub grade

RIGID ROAD CONSTRUCTION

8.2 PATHWAYS AND PAVED AREAS

Pathways are provided as tracks for pedestrians to walk along over an area of ground

pathways are provided as a way for foot passengers in order not to obstruct the traffic by

the pedestrian or foot passenger. Pathway width varies from about 1.35 to 1.8m on

housing estates and may increase to about 6,0. in shopping centres. They are normally

laid to a cross fall of 1 in 30 towards the kerb and there may be grass verge between the

path and the kerb. Pathways can be constructed of vaiety of materials and the choice

depends on factors such as what maintenece cost, appearance and wearing quality and

non skid properties.

8.3 PARKING LOT

The layout of parking lots should provides for convenient movements of cars entering

and leaving the spaced and for convenient alignment and boarding by passengers and

drivers.

The normal planning approach to the provision of packing space is related to the

parking need the associated land use and its particulars trip generation capabilities. When

setting out parking lots as lays, it is important to consider the

58
Clearance from intersections. Parking should not be permitted within 6m of any intersect

Angle parking is more convenient and accommodate more parked vehicles than parallel

parking, but is less safe. All vehicles should be assumed to be at least 4.7m long and

parking bays for parallel kerb side should be at least 6.7, long and

2.3m wide. For angle parking bays need only be 5.4m in length.

ANGLE PACKING PARALLEL PACKING

8.4 LANDSCAPING

This is the beautification of the building area by greasing and planting of trees, shrubs

and flowering plants to enhance the general aesthetics of the building,

Greasing areas and roadside verges improve.

Precast Concrete Paving Slabs

These are used extensively in build up areas of towns and to a lessees extent on

residential estates. Standard sized are 600×600, 600×750 and 600×900mm in both 50 and

63mm thickness. The slab are usually laid on a 12 to 25mm bed of sand, lime or gauged

mortar. If vehicular Traffic is anticipated they should be laid on concrete. After laying

they should be concreted with cement on lime. Although expensive, precast concrete

paving slab are attractive, durable and easily reinstated.

In Site Concrete

59
This is suitable for large paved areas and paths to houses. The usual 19mm graded

aggregate and the concrete is often 75mm thick. It is relatively cheap, but unlike the

precast concrete slab, cannot be reinstated to gain access to underground services.

Appearance, absorb sand and reduce glare. They are relatively cheap to establish and

maintain when laid the finished surface should project about 20mm about adjoining

surfaces such as kerbs, paving and manhole covers

It is common practice to provide a 225mm wide strip of gravel treated with weed

killer, between greased areas and walls.

Tree and Shrubs

Trees and shrubs improve the appearance of a building. Trees have great valve in form as

well as colours and they should be chosen to blend to the architecture and landscape a

building.

Trees also serves as barriers to noise and glare. It also give shade and shelter from

wind. Selection of the type of tree should be based on soil and climate conditions,

ultimate size and location of underground service services and buildings.

8.5 SEWAGE PLANTS

The code for small sewage treatment works prescribe a minimum distance of 15m from

habitable building for works serving up to 10 persons, increasing up to 90m for works

serving up to 100 persons or more. The sewage plants include septic tanks, soak away

pits, manholes and inspection chambers.

8.5.1 SEPTIC TANK

60
A water tight single storeyed tank in which sewage is return sufficiently long to permit

sedimentation. Sewage is held in a septic tank for a prescribed period during which time,

the suspended solid settled down. The settled sludge and the layer of liquid above the

settled solid undergoes anaerobic digestion.

The septic tank may be rectangular is common rectangular or circular, but

rectangular is common. The tank should have a minimum width of 759mm minimum

depth of 1m below water level and a minimum capacity of 2.7m2. For rectangular tank,

the length is two to four times the width. For circular tanks, the min diameter and depth

are 1.3m and 1.0m respectively. Precast concrete slabs, set slightly apart for ventilation

purpose and fitted with lifting rugs, provide suitable covers. T junction dip pipes form

suitable inlet. For tanks up to 1.2m wide.

8.5.2 SOAKAWAYS

A soak away is a ditch either lined or unlined into which the water is discharged or from

which the water seeps or soaks away water to the surrounding pervious subsoil.

In firm pervious ground, it is generally sufficient to dig a pit into which is drained

directly and the pit is covered with a concrete slab. In moderately firm soil such as clay

the pit may be filled with hard core or clean broken stone to maintain the side of the pit.

In granular soils such as gravel and sand, the soakaways pit has to be lined with brick

stone as concrete to maintain the sides of the pit and the lining brick stone or concrete

must be porous or perforated to encourage the water to soakaways into the surrounding

soils.

61
 The soakaways should be at least 3.0m away from the building so that the soakaway

water does not affect the building for relations, and should also be on slop down from

buildings rather than towards building to avoid overflowing and flooding.

62
WEEK 9

225mm
Block work
Removable
Concrete slab
100mm Inlet

1200max
100mm
Outlet

Lifting ring

PLANE OF SEPTIC TANK

Lifted ring one edge of slab only removable

concrete slab

Inlet 150mm Top H20 level 100mm

outlet
100m dip
pipe
Settled sludge
225mm
block work
or cunk
X – SECTION

Concrete slab

Drain outlet Pit filled with

hardcore

Soakaway In moderately Compact Soil e.g. Clay

63
 Soakaway In Firm Pervious Ground

Concrete slab

Drain inlet

Side of pit
lined with
dry stones
or hollow block

Soakaway In Granular Soil Such as Gravel & Sand

9.2 MANHOLE AND INSPECTION CHAMBER

They have the same function. The object of constructing a manhole and inspection

chamber is to provide access to a sewer or drain. Manholes are built where there are

junctions between sewers change of gradient charge of pipes provides access at such

intervals that the length between manholes can be rodded easily.

Manholes are deeper and have adequate headroom for repaire. Ideally safely in for

exceeds 900mm in depth, while inspection chambers are often lees than 900mm deep.

Rectangular with a cover and frame which ease the size of the chamber is not a

accessible, it can only be inspected from cover level i.e. workmen operate from above

ground when rodding a manhole where men operate below the ground.

Cast iron cover and frame

Adequate width of the floor

64
Step iron
build into Cross fall and bearing
the wall

TYPICAL MANHOLE

Brick walls

Water base

INSPECTION CHAMBER

According to building regulation requirements manholes are inspection are to sustain

imposed loads, exclude ground H20 and be water tight. Their inspection, cleaning and

rodding, have a removable suitable and durable non ventilating cover.

Manholes and inspection chambers can be constructed in brick work, insitu and

precast concrete sections. Bricksfor manhole are normally built of 225mm block in

cement and mother finished, fair faced internally, on internal rendering may fall and

result in blockages.

While brick walls. Chamber are normally rooted with a precast or insitu reinforced

concrete cover slab, 125mm or 150mm thick. The concrete bags is normally 150mm

thick.

65
9.3 DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Drainage is a system whereby waste products from baths, washbasin, water closet, sinks

and rain are collected and discharged into sewage plants. The drainage system must be

discharged to provide an efficient and economical method of carrying away waterborne

waste, in such a way as to avoid pipe blockage and escape of effluent into the ground. A

drainage system normally consists of a network of pipes bid from a building to fell to a

sewer.

9.3.1 UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES IN PLANNING A GOOD DRAINAGE

1) Materials used should be of the best quality

2) The layout should be as simple and dissect as possible

3) Drains should be provided with sound foundation laid with uniform graduate [the

availability of flexible pipe may marked is provision unnecessary]

4) Drains should be of sufficient strength and be constructed of sufficiently durable

materials.

5) Adequate means of inspection and cleaning should be provided by the construction of

inspection chamber positions.

6) Drains on completion must be airtight and a clear bore throughout and be self

cleansing

7) No drain should pass under a building unless if be ones unavailable in which case, the

drain should be adequate supported throughout it length by encasing in concrete nut

less than 150mm thick

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8) Rain water, posutes laboratory, basin and bath waste must discharged outside the

building

9.4 PRINCIPLE OF LAND SCAPPING

Fig 9.1. applying principles of landscaping to a given site layout

inculcating all items of external works

67
WEEK 10

10.1 PRELIMINARIES INVOLVED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING

Before any building operation is carried out. There must be an organization, local

authority or an individual wishing to built a structure for the purpose of accommodation ,

offices, hospitals, schools, etc. the individual or organisation in this respect is known as

the building owner or the client, the client at most times may have little or no idea about

the design, panning and construction of the structure. In the other to bring his dreams to

reality he has to work for qualified personnel in the building trade to assist him carry out

the project. The client usually will be responsibility for provision of the financial

resources to fulfill hi objectives.

The usual procedure is for the client to present a proposal brief to an architect, containing

comprehensive terms, the size, capacity, style of construction and building function that

is required, the architect will consider the feasibility and prepare an initial design for the

client approval. When the final design is complete, professional consultants (engineers)

are then engaged for structural analysis and specialist installations such as structural steel

works, services, etc. they are involved in the detailed design which is fanally sent to the

local planning and building authorities for consideration and approval.

A quantity surveyor (often working in partnership with an architect) uses the drawings to

compile a bill of quantities. This is a complete list of all materials measurement, and

accompanies the design drawings when sent to several drawing contractors to price

competitive estimating between builders (contractors) is known as tendering, and usually

68
the lowest estimate secures the contract. And in some cases reputation supersedes low

estimated tender.

Specification for local authorities and quantity surveyors: the architect is also responsible

for selecting building contractors by providing them with details and bill of quantities to

price, the (architect) then select the most suitable by checking their tenders. During

construction, the architect is responsible for the supervision of the project to completion.

He issue necessary instructions and inform the client of progress. He provides internal

certificate of completion and certificate of final completion for payment to be made to the

contractor (a small percentage of contract price called retention is hold to cover defects

and repairs occurring within a short period after completion)

QUANTITY SURVEYORS – When the architect has completed his working during

details and schedules, they are passed to quantity surveyors so that he may prepare a bill

of quantity. A bill of quantities is a process of describing, measuring and listing of all

contracts stage, the QS advise the architect on the cost and financial viability of the

project, and prepares approximate costs from the architect’s initial design, brief and

skeletal. He also checks the builder’s priced bill of quantities and advices the architect on

errors and accuracy of estimate. During and after construction, the QS prepare stage or

period valuation order with the builders and architect, prepares the final account and

advise the architect on additional cost.

CONSULTANT ENGINEERS (structural and services) – in a building industry, the

civil engineer responsibility is to ascertain and analyze the structural component parts of

69
the structure against any systems of loading and forces, and to incorporate such materials

as to give increase stability to the structure. He also determine the soil characteristics and

loading behavior due to the exerting weight of the structure so as to avoid settlement

problem or collapse of the building. He will then prepare detailed structural drawings

within the architect’s design, design calculations and materials specifications using the

code of practice. During construction, he checks the quality of workmanship and correct

use of materials.

CLERK WORK – This is the architect’s representative on the site. He is to ensure that

the contractor or builder works according to the architect’s drawings, specifications and

constructions by checking and inspecting all aspects of the instruction. The check of

works can advise and comment on the work to the contractor and assist in interpreting the

architect’s design. He reports the details and progress of the contractor to the architect’s

office.

FORMAN –This is the builder’s senior representative on site he is responsible for the

running of the job. He may have a site clerk or store-man to assist him to take delivery of

all materials and see that they tally with the orders and invoices and are up to the

specified standards.

10.2 SUMMARY OF RULES AND RESPONSIBILITIES AND DUTIES OF

THE VARIOUS PARTIES TO A BUILDING CONTRACT

1. CLIENT

70
⇒ Present the architect with a detailed account of his requirements with regards to use,

spce, cost limit and date of completion

→ Arrange finance

→ Liaise with architect during preparation or preliminary design and feasibility

study.

→ During construction, he honors completion of interim valuation by stage payment

to the contractor.

→ On completion, settle all agreed financial commitments with architect and builder.

2. ARCHITECT

→ Initially advice the client on the feasible of proposals approximate cost

→ Investigate the site advice on the location of possible sites

→ Prepare sketches and models to illustration his ideas.

→ Provide a term of specialists to advice on specialists installation ,heating ,air

conditioning,etc

→ Obtain agreement between then client,consultants and himself on the size ,shape,

layhoujt and content.

→ Produce detailed drawings and material specifications for local authority and

quantitiy surveyor.

→ Select suitable building characters ,provide them with details and bill of quantities

to price (tendering)

→ Check tenders and select the most suitable .

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→ Issue necessary instructions during construction to the build er and inform the

client of progress.

→ Provide interim certificate of completion for the builder to receive payment as the

contract proceeds .

→ Certificate completion for full payment from the client to the builder ,less a

retention fee (to ensure defects are rectified within an agreed period).

3. CONSULTANTS ENGINEER (GENERALLY STRUCTURAL LAND

SERVICE)

→ Advice the architect (designer) of the most sufficient, economical and practical

method of providing their specialist service

→ Prepare detailed structural drawing within the archived resign.

→ Prepare design calculations and material specifications

→ During construction work, check quality of workmanship and correct ues of

material

4. QUANTITY SURVEYOR

→ At pre-contract stage, advice architect or costs and financial viability of certain

construction techniques and materials

→ Prepare approximate costs form archived initial design brief and sketches

→ Prepare the bill of quantities by measuring and listing the quantities of all material

used in the building in accordance with the current standard method measurement

→ Check builders priced bill of quantities and advice architect of errors and accuracy

of estimates

72
→ During construction, prepare stage or period valuations.

→ Agree on the cost of amendments and valuation orders with the builder and

architect.

→ Prepare final account

→ Advice the architect on additional costs.

5. CLARK OF WORK

→ He is the architect representative on site

→ Ensure the compliance with the architect’s drawing specifications and instructions

by checking and inspecting the construction.

→ Inspecting all aspects of the construction.

→ Reports directly to the architect, because he has no authority over the contractor

→ But he can advice an comment on the work to the contractor and assist with

difficulties in interpreting the architect’s design.

6. BUILDER/CONTRACTOR

→ Ascertain whether he has sufficient resources (labour, plant and equipment) and

time carry out the contract.

→ Visit the site to ascertain difficulties not revealed on the drawing or in the bill of

quantities.

→ Obtain and coordinate subcontractors and suppliers (plant and materials) prices

and produce an estimate based on these, the drawings, the bill of quantities and

the outcome of site investigations.

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→ Submits estimate to the architect, and if accepted, meet with the client, architect

and quantity surveyor to agree on alternations and amendments.

→ Hold preconstruction meeting to consider allocation of staff and develop contract

programme, and also co-ordinate the programme with the architect,

subcontractors and suppliers.

→ During construction, the contractor’s roles and responsibilities includes;

management of direct staff, subcontractors, plants and materials during the

contracted period of construction with regards to cods of quality, safety and

legislation. To fulfill these obligations the builder will appont a manager, general

known as agent or general foreman, who will posses the experience to coordinate

the different agencies on site.

→ Provide the quality surveyor with date at interim stage, and at contract completion

so as to complete the valuation and accounts.

→ After completion, he undertake remedial work with the constructed period.

7. LOCAL AUTHORITY

→ Receives application for construction proposals, which are considered by the

appropriate departments.

→ Ensure that the proposal is suited to the site and does not breach any government

development restrictions and/or any underground features.

→ Ensure the design and material are aesthetically acceptable, and that the proposal

will not impose excessively or local qualities like roads, draws shops school etc.

74
→ Also at specific stages of construction, they conduct check with respect to

suitability and strength of material, and ensure that the proposal complies with the

building regulation.

8. SUBCONTRACTORS

→ Provides specialized or supplementary service, where the construction requires

specialized installations and techniques not undertaken by the main contractor

such as electricity, plumbing, air-conditioning, lifts fire penetration, etc. normally

employed by the architect.

→ Labour – only subordinators are another possibility, generally employed by the

main contractor to supplement his workforce.

9. SUPPLIERS

→ Builders’ merchants, timber merchants, manufacturers and plant hire, suppliers,

general building materials, equipment, specialized materials of good quality and

specification by employed architect.

10. ESTATE AGENTS

→ Market properties for a percentage fee charged the seller, usually about2% and his

negotiable.

11. FOREMAN

→ Builder’s senior representative on site, responsible for the running of the job

75
May have site clerk or store-man to assist him in taking delivery of all material and

see that they tally the orders and invoices and up to the specified standard.

10.3 CONTRACT

A contract is formed when an offer (eg tender) by one party is unconditionally accepted

by the person to whom it is made, the second party. The key word is “unconditionally”.

Implying that full and complete agreement has been established between the parties. An

acceptable accompanied by “ifs’ or “but ‘s” or “provided that” does not form a contract

but constitutes a counter-offer which in its turn requires unconditional acceptance by the

first party.

10.3.1 TYPES OF CONTRACTS

There are different types of contract and any type depends upon the method at which it is

arrived at, at the nature of work and any other specific condition etc.

1. Lump Sun Contracts

In lump sum contract, the contractor undertakes to execute the whole works as described

in the bell of quantities for a fixed sum of money. The most important thing in a lump

sum contract is that consultant must be quately define the scope of works. To minimize

areas of problems, detailed drawing are used to clarify all the items of works. Variations

are usually not permitted except where these are specifically stated in the conditions. To

realize the full benefits of the lump sum contract, the client must choose an experienced

contractor knowledgeable in the types of works on land. In this kind of contract, the

engineer supervising the project must be vigilant in order to reduce the temptation of the

contractor trying to cut corners to sure cost.

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2. Cost Reimbursement Contracts.

In cost reimbursement contract, the employer (client) pays the contractors the actual cost

of the work plus a management fee which include the contractor overview charges,

supervising cost and profit. The management fee may be calculated in one of the three

different ways.

(a) Cost + Fixed Fee

(b) Cost + Percentage fee (in charge project)

(c) Cost + Fluctuating fee

Generally in this type contractual arrangement there is no risk to the contractor

and little incentive to ensure that the work is carried out in an efficient manner and at

economically ground price.

3. All-in or Turnkey Contracts.

In this type of contract, the contractor finances the project and he may also be the

designer. The client does not fully finance the project but starts repayment upon

completion. Or as it is often said the key are handed over to him. The client is required to

provide equity contribution in form of indent properly especially the plot on which the

project is to be erected.

4. Measurement Contracts

Under the measurement contract category, two subclasses are easily identified. Bill of

quantities contract and schedule of rates contracts.

Bill of Quantity Contract

The bill of quantity contract is the most popular contract method adopted. Its

attractiveness stems from the check and balances explicit in its use. The consultant design

77
and prepares a detailed bill of quantities which are computed from the drawing. Other

advantages of (BOQ) contracts are:

– During tender analysis it is easy to compare the quotation of tenderers since they

are all on the same basis.

– Specification and description of items of works enables the tenderer to be

definite. Ambiguities are reduced to the nearest minimum.

– From the onset, the engineer and tenderer are not in doubt about the scope of

works. In the way they are fairly accurate about the contract sum and generally,

the final account at completion does not derived much from the contract sum in

the agreement.

– In drawing up the quantities, it is easier for the engineer to bring out his cost

estimates.

– The client can increase or decrease the scope of works depending on his

resources

– Whether the project is abandoned or complete there is no argument in

measurement and payment to the contractor.

The qualities are well spelt out with their rates.

The units of measurement and quantities are stated by the consultant while the rates and

amount are inserted by individual contractors. Suring the execution of the work actual

measurement are adopted and used in valuation.

SCHEDULE OF RATE CONTRACT

This is a variant of the bill of quantity contract and is usually adopted for a defined

geographical area and in a stated time for example, area A from January 2005 to June

78
2005. The typical case gives a comprehensive list of all items of works covering the work

which the client is interested in. the quantities are not defined as the bill of quantity

contract. The contractors are invited to state their rated to the items. In some cases, the

contractors are given rates by the consultant and they are asked to confirm their

acceptance. This method is not popular for public works because of its inherent in

accountability.

5. Design and Build (Package Deal) Contract

A design and build contract is a contract arrangement whereby the contractor offer it

design and build the construction project for a sum inclusive of both the design and

construction costs

The major advantage of this method is that both a firm price and reliable completion date

be guaranteed since the contractor has complete responsibility and contract over the job.

A major set back of this method is that variations to an accepted design is often

very difficult and costly

6. Serial Contract

This is useful when the client has a continuing building programme. contractors are

invited to tender in completion for one particular project but bearing in mind that a

successful tender will lead to further negotiation for a number of project of the same

character. In this type of contract, a safeguard clause for the client is usually incorporated

in terms of the contract, stipulating that if the work is not up to standard, subsequent

contracts will be withdrawn.

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10.3.2 CONTRACT DOCUMENT

A contractor cannot give an estimate or ender for any job unless he is told the

requirement of the client, the right and obligations of the client and the contractor to the

contact. This is normally prepared by the architect or the engineer on behalf of the

employer and give to the contractor for careful study. The information is complied in sect

of document called standard form of building or contract document.

The contractual relationship between client and builder is simplified by issuing a copy of

the contract document with the drawings, bill of quantities, material specification and

tender form, when the builder invited the tender. The contract document clarifies terms of

contract more precisely leading to a reduction from both dissatisfied customers and

builders.

The following are normally included in the contract document for civil engineering

works; date and duration, names and addresses of all parties involved; address and

location of site, bill of quantities (contract sum); form of tenders; contract drawing with

Ref. No. and titles; material specification and general condition of contract.

10.4 TENDERING

After the explanation of the drawing as both of them are sent to the local authority for

approval. And subsequently a contract document is produced. After the completion of the

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contract document, the next is to write contractor(s) to tender for the work, this s done in

number of days;

i. By advertising for competive tenders (open tendering):

The architect or engineer acting on behalf of the employer put up adverts for the

proposed contract inviting tenders from contractors. This ensures maximum

competition and tenders may be received from firms who have neither the necessary

financial resources nor adequate technical knowledge and experience of the class of

work involved. The engineer carefully check all tenders before making final decision.

ii. By negotiating the contract with selection contractor (negotiation);

With this method, the engineer negotiate the contract with a single contracting firm.

This is useful where the contractor might already be engaged on a current job

for the clienton the same site, or when the contractor in question has an exceptional

experience of the type of work convered by the particular architect.

10.4.1 TENDERING PROCEDURE

DEFINITION OF TENDERING:- Tendering is a commercial function based upon the

estimate, it is the administrative procedure of sending out bills of quantities to contractors

for them to state the price of carrying out the work described therein.

OBJECTIVES:- The objectives of tendering is to select a competent contractor.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PROCEDURE

1. Open Tendering; In this method the prospective employer advertise in the national

and or technical press giving brief details of the proposed work and invited interested

81
 contractors to apply for job either to him or his Architect for the necessary

documents.

To prevent unserious tenders, the advertisement usually calls for a fixed deposit

from any contractor wishing to tender for the job. This deposit may be returned nut only

on the receipt of the bonafide tender.

This method often result in undue waste of time, effort and also in sorting and

checking the submitted documents during selection. Its more than not results in poor

quality workmanship as work may be awarded to contractors which are financially,

technically and managerially all equipped for the execution of work.

A major advantage of this method of tendering in that 4 creates room for new

contractor to come into the scene.

2. Negotiation Tendering:- Under this system, a builder considered capable of carrying

out the work is chosen by the client or his professional adviser who than negotiates

the terms of the contracts.

The contractor is selected at early stage in the design process but the early

selection need to exclude competition for there maybe s preliminary competition on the

basis of a tender document in which the contractor indicates the level of cost required for

labour rates site establishment charges over leads and profit. Under a contract of this

nature, there is usually little time to waste for drawing and bills of quantities to be

prepared.

There is always the danger that the price obtaining in this way may be higher than

one obtained by competition. This method is however usually adopted if

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1. the work to be carried out is of an unknown nature resulting in difficulties of

detailing, billing and costing.

2. there is time restricted that is no room for normal tendering procedure in the

preparation and early competition is unimportant in the preparation and dispatch of

documents and selection of a builder with this method, the services of a contractor

which have been satisfactory in the past may be retained.

Selective Tendering; This is a method based on competent. A short list of contractors

are considered based upon merit or reputation and the employer is advised on who should

be awarded the job normally it is employed when the wok is high magnitude and

complex in nature.

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WEEK 11

11.1 SITE LAYOUT AND ORGANISATION PRE-CONTRACT PLANNING

SERVICES ON SITE.

11.1.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS: Before any consideration and decision can be

made regarding site layout, a general appreciation should be obtained by

conducting a thorough site investigation at the pre-tender stage and examining in

detail the drawings, specification and bill of quantities to formulate proposals of

how the contract will be carried out if the tender is successful. This will involve a

preliminary assessment of plant materials and manpower requirements.

11.2 SITE LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS

1. ACCESS CONSIDERATIONS: This must be considered for both on and off site

access. Routes to and from the site must be checked as to the suitable for transporting

all the requirement for the proposed works. Access on site for deliveries and general

circulation must also be carefully considered.

2. FENCING AND HOARDING CONSIDERATIONS: What is mandatory and what

id desirable? Types of fence and/or hoarding required, possibility of using fencing

which is part of the contract by erecting this at an early stage in the contract. This

goes a long way in providing. Security to the building as a whole.

3. STORAGE CONSIDERATION: Amount and type of material requirements;

allocation of adequate areas for storing material and allocating adequate space around

storage areas as required, sitting of storage areas to reduce double landing to a

minimum without impeding the general site circulation and/or works in progress.

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4. ACCOMMODATION CONSIDERATION: Number and type of site staff

anticipated, calculate size and select unit of accommodation and check to ensure

compliance with the minimum requirement of the construction (health, safety and

welfare) regulations 1996.

5. SITE SECURITY: The primary objectives of a site security are:

a. Security against theft

b. security from vandals

c. protection from innocent trespasses.

The need for and type of security required will vary from site to site according to

the neibourhood, local; vandalism record and the value of goods stored on site.

Perimeter fencing, internal site protection and night security may all be necessary.

6. SITE LIGHTING: this can be used effectively to enable work to continue during

periods of inadequate daylight.

It can be also be used as a deterrent to would be trespasses. Site lighting can be

employed externally to illuminate the storage and circulation areas and internally for

general movement and for specific work tasks.

7. PLANT CONSIDERATIONS: What plant, when and where is it required? Static or

mobile? If static, select the most appropriate position and provide any necessary hard

standing., If mobile check on circulation routes for optimum efficiency and

suitability, provision of space and hard standing for on site plant maintenance if

required.

Others include two other basic considerations such as;

a. Temporary service b. safety and heat consideration

85
86
WEEK 12

12.1 MEANS OF ESCAPE

The requirement for the structure of building to have a specific fire-resistance is to allow

time for a fire to be detected, the alarm sounded and for people to escape from the

building. It also allows time for the fire brigade personnel to enter and fight the fire. For

people to evaluate the building during out break of fire takes a length of time and this

depends on the size of the building and the number of people occupying the building.

There are certain basic rules to be observe when planning or designing for the means

of escape for occupant.

1. Fire exit should be clearly indicate

2. Doors forming part of the enclosure to a protected zone should be fire- resistant and

self-closing

3. Escape routes should lead to the open air not into the building

4. Doors on escape routes should never be locked

5. People should be no more than thirty meters from a safe area

6. A protected zone should be enclosed by a fire resisting construction

7. There should always be an alternative escape route etc

To calculate the number and the width of exit doors and escape routes, the population

of the building on each floor has to be know or assessed. The number of a people likely

to be accommodation or anyone floor of a building can be obtained from typical design

figure use for such purchases.

The design of an escape routes depends on the rate at which people can move in

single file through a single width doorway. This is assure in 21/2 minutes. Such a

87
doorway should be the width of 900mm, while the corridor for a single door should be at

least 12oomm wide. This also represent the minimum staircase width allow by the code.

FIG. 12.1. ESCAPE ROUT THROUGH WINDOW

FIG. 12.1. ESCAPE ROUT THROUGH DOOR

88
WEEK 13

13.1 FIRE IN BUILDING

Fire outbreak in buildings is a result/or caused by accident. However, some are as a result

of carelessness.

The essential ingredients for the propagation and continuation of fire are:

a. Air, that is oxygen

b. fuel, that is something that will burn

c. heat that may/or sufficient to start combustion.

If any one of the above listed is absent, a fire cannot start and if anyone is removed in

situation of a outbreak, the fire-prevention and fire fighting.

Most burning process produce a flame. Combustion continues when the heated fuel

gives off gases which themselves ignite, heating more fuel to ignition point.

Material differs in their readiness to burn. Volatile material like petrol have a light

fire and explosion risk while timber (solid timber) is slow to ignite. However, a thin sheet

of timber are much easier to ignite.

Fire spreads by the condition, convention and radiation of heat. Heat travels through

metal by conduction and can cause timber with which it is in contact to ignite.

Superheated air rises by convection and can cause fire to spread uplet shafts and

staircases to remote points. Radiation from a fire can rise the temperature of inflammable

material s near the fire and cause them to ignite.

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13.1.1 FIRE RESISTANCE MATERIALS IN BUILDING
In the event of an outbreak of fire, it is expected that materials used in the construction of

building should have the ability to resist fire for a considerable time. Some of these

element of construction have their respective specification as covered by BS 476.

13.1.2 FIRE RESISTANCE ELEMENT OF CONSTRUCTION

This is to test walls, floors, columns, beams, doors etc. for:

1. STABILITY: Resistance to cracking and allowing fire to pass e.g. floors, wall and

doors.

2. STABILITY: Maintenance of strength and resistance to collapse, example, floors,

columns and beams.

3. INSULATION: Resistance to transmission of heat by conduction. Through the walls.

The main component forming the structure of a building are usually incombustible

but as the building is occupied and used for many purpose, the content are often highly

inflammable. In addition, many of the materials used for finishes, insulation and acoustic

control, and for carpets, curtains and upholstery are often inflammable.

The flammable materials influence the severity of a fire and the total colorific value

is turned the fire load of the building.

13.2 PRIMARY FIRE FIGHTING

Primary fire fighting is the first line of attack in the event of five and includes the use of

portable equipment by a person soon after the fire starts, prompt action can limit a fire

and reduce the danger pose by the fire.

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13.2.1 EQUIPMENT FOR FIRE FIGHTING

The equipment for fire fighting includes the following:

1. Hose Reels 2. Asbestos Blankets 3. Fire Extinguishers.

1. HOSE REEL: These are hoses about 23 meter long coiled on metal reels, they are

housed n a recess and hinged. In the event of fire, it is used to spray.

2. ASBESTOS BLANKET: These are useful to smoother fat and oil fires in kitchens

by cutting off the air supply in the event of fire.

3. FIRE EXTINGUISHER: These offer a hardy means of fire fighting. They do not

weight more than 15kg. fire extinguishers come with different contents which are

suitable for various types of fire, the common types are:

a) WATER: A spray of water is forced out by:

i. carbon dioxide produces by mixing an acid and an alkali

(soda/acid type).

ii. Carbon dioxide produce by mixing in a separate container

b) FORM: In this process, water and a foaming agent are mixed and forced out by

carbon dioxide. The foam cuts off the air supply to the fire

c) DRY POWDER: The dry powder contains no water. carbon dioxide under

pressure expels bicarbonate of soda powder to smoother flammable liquid fibres.

d) CARBON DIOXIDE: Liquid carbon dioxide is store in the extinguisher. On

release, the liquid form freezing solid particles. In the proximity of the fire, they

produced large quantity of carbon dioxide gas, cutting off the oxygen supply.

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13.3 FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM.

The detection of a fire outbreak normally proceeds the alarm being raised. Detection

visual observation followed by individuals raising the alarm is often the method relied on.

The other method rely on the automatic detection and sounding of an alarm without

persons being involved.

13.3.1 ALARMS.
The simplest method of given so sending warning on a fire out break is by shouting

followed by whistlers and hard bells. It could also possible to have and electronic system

whereby push buttons linked to bells are located at various position in the building to

avoid accidental or frivolous use, the bottoms are located behind glass panels which must

be broken in case of an outbreak of fire.

13.3.2 AUTOMATIC DETECTION

Automatic detectors are place at high vintage of a building. Basically, there are three

major types namely;

1. Smoke entering the detector reflects a light beam on to a photo-electric cell which

sound the alarm.

2. An electric current passes between electrodes in a corisation chamber. Smoke

entering the chamber interrupts the current and operates a rely which sounds the

alarm.

3. A bi-metallic strip bends in the heat from the fire and entire computer or breaks the

alarm circuit.

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WEEK 14

14.1 BURGLARPROOFING MATERIAL IN BUILDING

There are different type of burglarproofing material such as steals, metals, rods,

broken bottles, cables an pipes. Which is for durability and strength. The steel metal

rod are pf different size as stated below 8mm to20mm etc to suit the various types of

burglarproofing construction.

The rough rod are used in burglary frame mainly because of the strength to hold firm

to the wall. The smooth rods are used foe netting of the window burglarproof because

of the virtue of which it can be rolled into the form of the burglarproof.

Pipes are of different type and shapes. Example are:

Square pipes, rectangular pipes, round pipes etc. and even flat bars.

Wood are materials that has a long history as a structural components in the

construction of burglarproofing.

However, with the development of modern engineering metals, burglarproofs are

generally emerging for maximum strength and durability.

Broken bottles in the fence are another types of burglary proofs material normally

placed collectively on top of the fence round the building. Some tine shape rods like

nails are used mainly for security purpose and concrete are used mainly for security

purpose and concrete are often used to hold the proofing materials on the top of the

fence in order to firmly attach to it without shaking.

14.2 METHOD OF FIXING BURGLARY PROOF IN BUILDING

The method of fixing burglarproofs are as follows;

i. Brace the fence or lining to keep it square

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 ii. Screw galvanize metal fastening to the back of the frame or lining which match

the masonry course.

iii. Stand the structure in position, level and support it with struts

iv. Build the fastening into the masonry source or frame to secure the frame in good

position permanently.

v. Insert wood page into some of the masonry joints that face the opening during

construction.

vi. Put the frame in position after the wall are on the wall to allow escape having

been opened from the hooked end, and may not to have a pad lock.

THE DIAGRAM OF FIX BURGLAR PROOF OF WINDOW

FIG. 14.1: FIXED BURGLARPROOFING IN BUILDING

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FIG. 14.2

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 WEEK 15

15.1 SAFETY ON CONSTRUCTION SITES

A building site can be a dangerous environment powerful machinery, hazardous

materials, scaffolding and trenches etc. creates risk for the building workers and other

people in the construction area. A look at some of the safe working practice that can

prevent accident happening from carelessness or inexperience on building site because

very necessary.

Accident will happen on building site, but the number can be reduced by

developing the skills that is needed to work safely. Safety record can be improved by the

use of the correct tools and equipment properly.

The following safety methods are inherent in construction sites and safety is

dependant upon the type or nature of work at land:

1. Wearing Protecting Clothing: Working cloths should be kept in a safe place on site

so that changes in and out can be made each day. A locker is useful so that personal

effects can be stored securely while working

The best cloths are overalls and strong boots. If working. In wet weather, a rubber

boot will be important also and a hard hat to protect the head in case anything is dropped

from above or for protection generally.

2. Working In Excavations: A site may have many excavation or holes. If shallow

excavation are not protected, then they should be surrounded by excavated materials.

Deep excavation must be surrounded by barriers.

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 During work in deep excavation one may not be seen by other people working at

ground level. To work safely, one should always.

a. Wear a hardhat to protect the head in case some thing is accidentally thrown

or dropped into the hole

b. put support against the sides of the excavation so that the soil cannot fall

inwards.

Depending on the weather and the types of soil, excavations can be wet or dusty.

If it is wet, then one dusty conditions. A mask to cover mouth and nose should be

worn. Excavations should be inspected daily before anyone is allowed to work in it.

3. Working on Scaffolding: Working on scaffolding is one of the most dangerous

building activities. Building workers can accidentally fall off a platform or parts of

the scaffolding workers instinctively move around the platform and ladders without

looking down, then they could fall if the position of the scaffolding is changed.

Workers on scaffolding must always stay alert and check that factor and hands can be

placed solely to prevent accident, expert must erect scaffolding to the highest safety

standards, platforms and carriers are provided in the correct locations.

4. Working with Cement: Cement is a safety risk for a number of reasons. It can:

a. burn bare hands while it is drying out

b. be dangerous if it is inhaled as dust

c. cause skin disease such as dermatitis.

Gloves should be worn when cement is harden and if cement dust is present, then

a breathing mask should be worn.

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5. Working with Dangerous Materials: A building site may have many dangerous

materials such as;

a. Explosive and detonators

b. Petrol

c. Paraffin

d. Caustic cleaner etc.

Careless use of these material can cause considerable harm to the building workers,

some simple precautions can prevent accident of theft.

Explosives and detonators must be cleared from a site when they are not in use.

When they are kept on site, they must be locked in a safe place and the site should have a

record book which lists

1. The amount of explosive received

2. The amount of explosive used

3. The amount of explosive remains.

Petrol that fuels the machinery must be kept in and locked in a safe place. Diesel is a

better choice than petrol because it does not catch fire so easily, but should also be kept

away.

Caustic cleaners and paraffin should be stored in locked areas so that their use can

be controlled.

6. Working with Electricity: You can power machinery and temporary lighting with

electricity. Because building site are often wet places, electric shocks are possible.

The wiring to the equipment and lighting may get rough treatment. For this

reason, it is extremely important to inspect and check the condition of the wiring at

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 regular intervals. Ideally, the electricity to power tools and light should be 110 volts

and connected to transformers instead of 240 volt supplies. The reduce voltage means

that an electric shock is leas likely to be fetal.

Note: If a person suffers an electric shock on site, then follow these steps:

– Turn off the electric current

– Make the person comfortable with as little movement as possible

– Cover the person with extra clothing or blanket for warmth

– Check the strength of the person pulse

– Contact an ambulance

15.2 FIST AID

A building site should have a first aid box with the following minimum contents;

a. Plaster b. Bandages c. ointment d. disinfectant

some one on site should be in charge of the box and should be versatile in first aid

treatment.

15.3 HEALTH AND HYGIENE

Health and hygiene are as important as safety on building sites. This means that, the

workers should have access to an area for cooking and the facilities for basis hygiene as

well as a schedule that allows rest breaks and meals, healthy workers needs

a. Shade for rest breaks

b. Dry areas to prepare food and drinks on rainy days

c. Areas to hang up wet cloths

d. A room to change in and out of working cloths

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 notice about wearing hardhat, avoiding accidental fires or other careless activities

can promote sale working practices. The site could have a notice working practices.

The site could have a notice board to remind every one how many days or months it

has been free from accident.

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