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Data Communication &
Computer Networking

Lecture Note
By
ENGR. YEKINI N. A. [NCE, BSc, MSc, NCS, IACSIT, IEEE, IAENG, COREN,]

LECTURER FROM SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL &

MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING, COMPUTER
ENGINEERING DEPT. YABA COLLEGE OF
TECHNOLOGY, LAGOS NIGERIA.
1
 Recommended Textbooks

 OLUDIPE O., YEKINI N.A., & ADELOKUN P.A.

(2012), DATA COMMUNICATION & NETWORK.
PUBLISHED IN NIGERIA HAS-FEM (NIG)
ENTERPRISES ISBN: 978-978-919-249-6

 YEKINI N.A., ADEBARI F.A., & BELLO O. (2015)

DATA COMMUNICATION & NETWORKING
PUBLISHED IN NIGERIA HAS-FEM (NIG)
ENTERPRISES ISBN: 978-978-948-901-5

2
 WHAT IS Data Communication?
Movement of encoded information from one
point to another by means of electronic
transmission system.
the exchange of data between two devices
via some form of transmission medium which
can be wired or wireless.
transferring of digital information (usually in
binary form) between two or more points
(terminals).
3
 Components of Data Communication
Source:It is the transmitter of data.
Examples are: Terminal, Computer,
Mainframe etc.
Medium:The communications stream through
which the data is being transmitted.
Examples are: Cabling, Microwave, Fiber
optics, Radio Frequencies (RF), Infrared
Wireless etc.
Receiver:The receiver of the data
transmitted. Examples are: Printer,
Terminal, Mainframe, and Computer. 4
Block Diagram of a Data Communication
System

5
Data Communication Criteria
The effectiveness of data communications system
depends on four fundamental characteristics:

• Delivery: The system must deliver data to the

correct destination.
• Accuracy: The system must deliver the data
accurately.
• Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a
timely manner.
• Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the
packet arrival time. 6
Data Communication And Terminal Equipment
Data communication equipment (DCE)
The hardware devices that can be used to
establish, maintain and terminate
communication between a data source and its
destination.
mostly used to perform signal exchange,
coding and line clocking tasks as part of
intermediate equipment or DTE. Example is
modem.
7
Data terminal equipment's (DTE)
This are the interface equipment's which is
source or destination in communication.

The terminal equipment is capable of

converting information to signals and also
reconverting received signals.

8
Data communication and terminal
equipment

9
 COMPUTER NETWORKING
What is Computer Network?
Computer network is interconnectivity of two
or more computer system for purpose of
sharing data.
It consists of two or more autonomous
computers connected to each other so that
they can share resources.
Networking arose from the need to share
resources in a timely fashion.
10
 Why computer networking?
 Sharing of peripherals.
 Sharing of software's.
 Better response time can be achieved through
networking.
 Organization benefit.

Often overlooked in an evaluation of networking is its organization

benefit. Departments, companies, corporations, and institutions
are all organizations, which imply interaction and team work.
Networking is a communications mechanism that ties the isolated
computer systems into the organization.

11
 Networking Protocol and Standards
What is Protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules that govern
data communications. It defines:
what is communicated,
how it is communicated,
and when it is communicated.
12
 Components of Protocol
• Syntax. The term syntax refers to the
structure or format of the data, meaning
the order in which they are presented.
• Semantics. The word semantics refers to
the meaning of each section of bits.
• Timing. The term timing refers to two
characteristics: when data should be sent
and how fast they can be sent.
13
 What is Standards?
Standards are essential in creating and
maintaining an open and competitive
market for equipment manufacturers and
in guaranteeing national and international
interoperability of data and
telecommunications technology and
processes.

14
 CATEGORIES OF STANDARDS
• De facto.
Standards that have not been approved by
an organized body but have been adopted as
standards through widespread use are de
facto standards.
De jure.
• Those standards that have been legislated
by an officially recognized body are de
jure standards
15
 Standards Organizations
Standards are developed through the cooperation of
standards creation committees, forums, and government
regulatory agencies.
 International Organization for Standardization
(ISO).
 International Telecommunication Union-
Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T).
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE).
 Electronic Industries Association (EIA).
16
 Types of Network
• Personal Area Network : A personal area
network (PAN) is the interconnection of
information technology devices within the
range of an individual person, typically within a
range of 10 meters.
• Local Area Network: A local area network
(LAN) is usually privately owned and links the
devices in a single office, building, or campus.

17
Metropolitan Area Network: A metropolitan area
network (MAN) is a network with a size between a
LAN and a WAN. It normally covers the area inside
a town or a city.

Wide Area Network: A wide area network video

information over large geographic areas that may
comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole
world. A WAN can be as complex as the backbones
that connect the Internet or as simple as a dial-up
line that connects a home computer to the internet.
18
 Network Topologies
Bus Topology
The Bus topology consists of a single cable that runs to every work-
station.

Terminator
Terminator

Backbone

19
 Advantages

It is easy to set-up and extend bus

network.
Cable length required for this
topology is the least compared to
other networks.
Bus topology very cheap.
Linear Bus network is mostly used in
small networks.
20
 Disadvantages Bus Topology
limit central cable length and number of
nodes that can be connected.
Dependency on central cable
Proper termination is required to dump
signals.
difficult to detect and troubleshoot
fault
21
Maintenance costs can get higher with
time.
Efficiency of Bus network reduces, as the
number of devices connected to it
increases.
not suitable for networks with heavy
traffic.
Security is very low because all the
computers receive the sent signal from the
source. 22
 Ring Topology
The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of
cable. There are no terminated ends. A ring topology
connects one host to the next and the last host to the first.

23
 Advantages of Ring Topology
 It is very organized. Each node gets to send the data when it
receives an empty token. This helps to reduces chances of
collision.
 the traffic flows in only one direction at very high speed.
 Even when the load on the network increases, its performance
is better than that of Bus topology.
 There is no need for network server to control the
connectivity between workstations.
 Additional components do not affect the performance of
network.
 Each computer has equal access to resources.

24
 Disadvantages of Ring Topology
• Each packet of data must pass through all the computers
between source and destination. This makes it slower
than Star topology.
• If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network
gets affected.
• Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects
different components.
• MAU’s and network cards are expensive as compared to
Ethernet cards and hubs.

25
 Star Topology
In the star topology, computers are connected by cable
segments to centralized component, called a hub or switch.
Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through
the hub or switch to all computers on the network.

26
 Advantages of Star Topology
Performance of the network is dependent on
the capacity of central hub.
Easy to connect new nodes or devices.
Centralized management. It helps in
monitoring the network.
Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect
the rest of network.

27
 Disadvantages of Star Topology
Too much dependency on central device has
its own drawbacks. If it fails whole network
goes down.
The use of hub, a router or a switch as
central device increases the overall cost of
the network.
Performance and as well number of nodes
which can be added in such topology is
depended on capacity of central device.
28
 Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-
point link to every other device. The term dedicated means
that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it
connects.

29
 Advantages of Mesh topology
Data can be transmitted from different
devices simultaneously. This topology can
withstand high traffic.
Even if one of the components fails there is
always an alternative present. So data transfer
doesn’t get affected.
Expansion and modification in topology can be
done without disrupting other nodes.
30
 Disadvantages of Mesh topology
• There are high chances of redundancy in
many of the network connections.
• Overall cost of this network is way too
high as compared to other network
topologies.
• Set-up and maintenance of this topology is
very difficult. Even administration of the
network is tough.
31
 Hybrid Topology
In this type of topology we integrate two or more different
topologies to form a resultant topology which has good points
of all the constituent basic topologies rather than having
characteristics of one specific topology. This combination of
topologies is done according to the requirements of the
organization.

Backbone

32
Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology

• Reliable: Unlike other networks, fault detection

and troubleshooting is easy in this type of
topology.
• Scalable: It’s easy to increase the size of
network by adding new components, without
disturbing existing architecture.
• Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed
according to the requirements of the organization
and by optimizing the available resources.
33
 Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
• Complexity of Design: It is not easy to design this type of
architecture and it’s a tough job for designers. Configuration
and installation process needs to be very efficient.
• Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks,
are very expensive. These hubs are different from usual hubs
as they need to be intelligent enough to work with different
architectures and should be function even if a part of
network is down.
• Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually
larger in scale, they require a lot of cables; cooling systems,
sophisticate network devices, etc.
34
 COMPUTER NETWORK MODELS
"network model" and "network layer" used often.
Network models define a set of network layers and
how they interact.
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI) is
a conceptual model that characterizes and
standardizes the internal functions of a
communication system by partitioning it into
abstraction layers.

35
 Network Model Layers
The Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model has
seven layers. The layers are stacked as follows:
 Application
 Presentation
 Session
 Transport
 Network
 Data Link
 Physical

36
 PHYSICAL LAYER

The lowest layer of the OSI model, concerned with

the transmission and reception of the unstructured
raw bit stream over a physical medium. It provides it
service by:
 Data encoding
 Physical medium attachment, accommodating various
possibilities in the medium
 Transmission technique
 Physical medium transmission
37
 DATA LINK LAYER
The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data
frames from one node to another over the physical layer,
allowing layers above it to assume virtually error-free
transmission over the link.
 Link establishment and termination
 Frame traffic control
 Frame sequencing
 Frame acknowledgment
 Frame delimiting
 Frame error checking
 Media access management
38
 NETWORK LAYER
The network layer controls the operation of the
subnet, deciding which physical path the data should
take based on network conditions, priority of service,
and other factors.

 Routing
 Subnet traffic control
 Frame fragmentation
 Logical-physical address mapping
 Subnet usage accounting

39
 TRANSPORT LAYER
The transport layer ensures that messages are
delivered error-free, in sequence, and with no losses
or duplications. It relieves the higher layer protocols
from any concern with the transfer of data between
them and their peers.

Message segmentation
Message acknowledgment
Message traffic control
Session multiplexing

40
 SESSION LAYER
The session layer allows session establishment
between processes running on different stations.
 Session establishment, maintenance and termination:
allows two application processes on different machines
to establish, use and terminate a connection, called a
session.
 Session support: performs the functions that allow
these processes to communicate over the network,
performing security, name recognition, logging, and so
on.

41
 PRESENTATION LAYER
The presentation layer formats the data to be presented
to the application layer. It can be viewed as the
translator for the network.
 Character code translation: for example, ASCII to
EBCDIC.
 Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-
floating point, and so on.
 Data compression: reduces the number of bits that
need to be transmitted on the network.
 Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes.
For example, password encryption.

42
 APPLICATION LAYER
The application layer serves as the window for
users and application processes to access network
services.

 Resource sharing and device redirection

 Remote file access
 Remote printer access
 Inter-process communication
 Network management
 Directory services
 Electronic messaging (such as mail)
 Network virtual terminals
43
 DATA COMMUNICATION SOFTWARE AND PROTOCOL
Data communication Software is basically a computer program
that.
 It is a computer program required on DTE (PC) to bridge the
gap and interpret the bits/bytes that are transmitted via the
communication media through the interface.
 The Core of Data Communication is Communication Software
without software, Data communication is incomplete.
 Communication Software is responsible for controlling data
formatting, data transmission, and total communication
control.
 It May completely resides on central PC or part of it may be
located on the front end communication PC, a concentrator,
remote concentrator or in intelligent terminals.
44
Significance of Data Communication Software
Major significance of data Communication software
are:
• Defines the communication parameters like
communication speed, error rate, bandwidth,
protocols, etc.
• Controls the user accessibility to information. It
means how a user can access the information and
how information shall be presented to user.
• It controls the optimal configuration of
communication hardware and makes the effective
utilization of network resources.
45
 Categories of Communication Software
Data communication software can be categories into two:
• Application Software: These are the software that enables
end users to perform one task or the other on data
communication and network system.
• System Software: Software that allows you to connect with
other computers or mobile devices via text, video or audio
formats in either a synchronous or asynchronous manner.
They are set of software that enable data communication
system to function and meet the require objective of
resources sharing and other functionability.

46
 Communication Protocol

Description of Communication Protocol

A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
It represents an agreement between the communicating
devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected
but not communicating, just as a person speaking Igbo cannot
be understood by a person who speaks only Yoruba.

47
 Transmission Control Protocol
TCP takes care of the communication
between application software (i.e. your
browser) and network software.
TCP is responsible for breaking data down
into IP packets before they are sent, and
for assembling the packets when they
arrive.

48
 Internet Protocol

Internet Protocol is Connection-Less i.e, it does not

occupy the communication line between two
computers. The Network Layer protocol for TCP/IP is
the Internet Protocol (IP). It uses IP addresses and
the subnet mask to determine whether the datagram
is on the local or a remote network.

49
 Special Purpose Protocol
The special purpose protocols are the set of protocols design to perform a single task
on communication network system. Some of these protocols are:

 HTTP - Hyper Text Transfer Protocol:

 SSL - Secure Sockets Layer:
 MIME - Multi-purpose Internet Mail Extensions:
 IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol:
 FTP - File Transfer Protocol:
 NTP - Network Time Protocol:
 DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:
 SNMP - Simple Network Management Protocol:
 LDAP - Lightweight Directory Access Protocol:
 ICMP - Internet Control Message Protocol:
 ARP - Address Resolution Protocol:
 RARP - Reverse Address Resolution Protocol:

50
 TRANSMISSION MODES
A transmission may be simplex, half duplex, or
full duplex. In simplex transmission, signals are
transmitted in only one direction; one station is
transmitter and the other is receiver. In half-
duplex operation, both stations may transmit,
but only one at a time. In full-duplex operation,
both stations may transmit simultaneously.

51
 Simplex Transmission
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a
one-way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can
transmit; the other can only receive. Keyboards and
traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices.

52
 Half Duplex Transmission
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and
receive, but not at the same time. When one device is
sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.

53
 Full Duplex Transmission
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and
receive simultaneously. The full-duplex mode is like a
two way street with traffic flowing in both directions
at the same time.

54
 Digital Data Transmission Methods
The transmission of binary data across a link can be
accomplished in either parallel or serial mode.

55
 Parallel Transmission
Binary data, consisting of 1s and 0s, will be organized into
groups of n bits each. Computers produce and consume data in
groups of bits. By grouping, we can send data n bits at a time
instead of 1. This is called parallel transmission.

56
 Serial Transmission
In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we
need only one communication channel rather than n to
transmit data between two communicating devices.

57
 Synchronous Transmission
In synchronous transmission, we send bits one after another
without start or stop bits or gaps. It is the responsibility of
the receiver to group the bits.

58
 Isochronous Transmission

A sequence of events is isochronous if

the events occur regularly, or at equal
time intervals. The isochronous
transmission guarantees that the data
arrive at a fixed rate.

59
 Asynchronous Transmission
In asynchronous transmission, we send 1 start bit (0)
at the beginning and 1 or more stop bits (1) at the end
of each byte. There may be a gap between each byte.

60
 DATA TRANSMISSION AND NETWORK
CONNECTION MEDIA
Transmission media is a pathway that carries the
information from sender to receiver. We use
different types of cables or waves to transmit data.

61
 Transmission Channel Parameters
Bandwidth: The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is
its bandwidth.
Bit Rate: Bit rate is used to describe digital signals. The bit rate is the
number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits per second (bps).
Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages
per minute. What is the required bit rate of the channel?
• Solution:
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line. If we
assume that one character requires
• 8 bits, the bit rate is
• 100 x 24 x 80 x 8 =1,636,000 bps =1.636 Mbps
• A digital signal can have more than two levels. If a signal has L levels,
each level needs log2 L bits. A digital signal with eight levels will need
3bits per level. i.e. Log28 =3

62
 Bit Length
Bit Length: The bit length is the distance one bit
occupies on the transmission medium.
Bit length=propagation speed x bit duration

Data Rate Limits: one of the most important

consideration in data communications is how fast we
can send data, in bits per second over a channel. Data
rate depends on three factors:
a.The bandwidth available
b.The level of the signals we use
c.The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
63
 Calculation of data rate
Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate: one by Nyquist
for a noiseless channel, another by Shannon for a noisy channel.

Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate. For a noiseless channel, the

Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate.
BitRate = 2 x bandwidth x log2L. In this formula, bandwidth is the
bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of signal levels used to
represent data, and Bit Rate is the bit rate in bits per second.

Example: Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 6000 Hz

transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The maximum bit rate can be
calculated as: BitRate =2 x 6000 x log22 =12000 bps

Noisy Channel: In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the

channel is always noisy. In 1944, Claude Shannon introduced a formula,
called the Shannon capacity, to determine the theoretical highest data
rate for a noisy channel:
Capacity =bandwidth X log2 (1 +SNR) 64
 Types of Transmission Media
Guided Transmission Media: Wired or Guided Media or
Bound Transmission Media: Bound transmission media are
the cables that are tangible or have physical existence
and are limited by the physical geography. Popular bound
transmission media in use are twisted pair cable, co-axial
cable and fiber optical cable.
Unguided Transmission Media: In unguided Transmission
Media data signals flows through the air. Wireless or
Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media: Unbound
transmission media are the ways of transmitting data
without using any cables. These media are not bounded by
physical geography. This type of transmission is called
Wireless communication. 65
Open Wire
Open Wire is traditionally used to describe the electrical
wire strung along power poles. There is a single wire strung
between poles. No shielding or protection from noise
interference is used.

66
 Twisted Pair
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper),
each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together, as
shown in below figure. One of the wires is used to carry
signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground
reference.

67
 Coaxial Cable
Coaxial Cable consists of 2 conductors. The inner
conductor is held inside an insulator with the other
conductor woven around it providing a shield. An
insulating protective coating called a jacket covers
the outer conductor.
The outer shield protects the inner conductor from
outside electrical signals. The distance between the
outer conductor (shield) and inner conductor plus the
type of material used for insulating the inner
conductor determine the cable properties or
impedance.
68
69
 Optical Fiber
Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports
signals in the form of light. Optical fiber consists of thin
glass fiber that can carry information at frequencies in
the visible light spectrum.

70
 Advantages Optical Fiber
Small size and light weight
Easy availability and low cost
No electrical or electromagnetic
interference
Large Bandwidth
No cross talk

71
 Disadvantages of Optical Fiber

Physical vibration will show up as signal

noise.
Limited physical arc of cable. Bend it
too much & it will break.
Difficult to splice

72
 Optical Transmission Modes
Step Index Mode

73
 Optical Transmission Modes
Step Index Mode Grade Index Mode

74
Single Mode

75
 Wireless Signal Propagation
Ground-wave propagation: Ground Wave Propagation
follows the curvature of the Earth. Ground Waves have
carrier frequencies up to 2MHz. AM radio is an example
of Ground Wave Propagation.

76
 Sky-wave propagation
Ionospheric Propagation bounces off of the Earths
Ionospheric Layer in the upper atmosphere. It is
sometimes called Double Hop Propagation.

77
 Line-of-sight propagation
Line of Sight Propagation transmits exactly in the line of
sight. The receive station must be in the view of the
transmit station. It is sometimes called Space Waves or
Tropospheric Propagation.

78
 Types of Wireless Signal
Radio waves
Electromagnetic wave ranging in frequencies between 3
KHz and 1GHz are normally called radio waves. Radio
waves are omni-directional when an antenna transmits
radio waves they are propagated in all directions. This
means that sending and receiving antenna do not have to
be aligned.
Microwave
Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The
Transmit station must be in visible contact with the
receive station. This sets a limit on the distance between
stations depending on the local geography.

79
 Advantages microwave
They require no right of way acquisition
between towers.
They can carry high quantities of
information due to their high operating
frequencies.
Low cost land purchase: each tower
occupies small area.
High frequency/short wavelength signals
require small antenna.

80
 Disadvantages of microwaves
Attenuation by solid objects: birds,
rain, snow and fog.
Reflected from flat surfaces like
water and metal.
Diffracted (split) around solid objects
Refracted by atmosphere, thus
causing beam to be projected away
from receiver.

81
 Infrared
Infrared signals with frequencies ranges
from 300 GHz to 400 GHz can be used for
short range communication. Infrared
signals, having high frequencies, cannot
penetrate walls. This helps to prevent
interference between one system and
another.

82
 Transmission Media Problems and
Impairment
Attenuation Distortion: Attenuation results in loss of
energy.

83
 Crosstalk
Crosstalk is when one line induces a signal into
another line. In voice communications, we often hear
this as another conversation going on in the
background.

84
 Echo or Signal Return
All media have a preferred termination
condition for perfect transfer of signal
power. The signal arriving at the end of a
transmission line should be fully absorbed
otherwise it will be reflected back down the
line to the sender and appear as an Echo.
Echo Suppressors are often fitted to
transmission lines to reduce this effect.

85
 Noise
Noise is any unwanted signal that is mixed or
combined with the original signal during
transmission. Due to noise the original signal is
altered and signal received is not same as the one
sent. Noise is sharp quick spikes on the signal
caused from electromagnetic interference,
lightning, sudden power switching,
electromechanical switching, etc.

86
 COMPUTER NETWORK SECURITY
Network security is the:
protection of data from unauthorized access,
protecting of data from damage,
development, implementing policies and
procedures for recovery from breaches and
data losses.

87
Network Security Requirements
Computer and network security address four requirements:
• Confidentiality: Requires that data only be accessible by
authorized parties. This type of access includes printing,
displaying, and other forms of disclosure, including simply
revealing the existence of an object.
• Integrity: Requires that only authorized parties can modify
data. Modification includes writing, changing, changing
status, deleting, and creating.
• Availability: Requires that data are available to authorized
parties.
• Authenticity: Requires that a host or service be able to
verify the identity of a user.

88
 Network Security Threats
Attacks against IP: An attack against IP
includes:
• IP Spoofing: This is where one host claims to
have the IP address of another.
• IP Session Hijacking: IP Session Hijacking is
an attack whereby a user's session is taken
over, being in the control of the attacker.

89
 Denial-of-Service
The premise of a DoS attack is simple: send more requests to
the machine than it can handle.
The attacker's program simply makes a connection on some
service port, perhaps forging the packet's header
information that says where the packet came from, and then
dropping the connection.
If the host is able to answer 20 requests per second, and the
attacker is sending 50 per second, obviously the host will be
unable to service all of the attacker's requests, much less any
legitimate requests.

90
 How to avoid DoS
• Not running your visible-to-the-world servers at a
level too close to capacity
• Using packet filtering to prevent obviously forged
packets from entering into your network address
space. Obviously forged packets would include those
that claim to come from your own hosts, addresses
reserved for private networks as defined in RFC
1918 and the loopback network (127.0.0.0).
• Keeping up-to-date on security-related patches for
your hosts' operating systems.
91
 Unauthorized Access

Unauthorized access is a very high-level term

that can refer to a number of different sorts
of attacks. The goal of these attacks is to
access some resource that your machine should
not provide the attacker.

92
 Data Diddling & Data Destruction

Data Diddling: Editing and manipulating data illegally.

Data Destruction: Some of those perpetrate attacks
are simply twisted jerks who like to delete things. In
these cases, the impact on your computing capability -
- and consequently your business -- can be nothing
less than if a fire or other disaster caused your
computing equipment to be completely destroyed.

93
Network Security Threats Prevention
Encryption Method: The universal technique for
providing confidentiality for transmitted data is
symmetric encryption. A symmetric encryption
scheme has five components.
• Plaintext
• Encryption algorithm
• Secret key
• Ciphertext
• Decryption algorithm

94
 Cryptographic Algorithms
There are several ways of classifying
cryptographic algorithms. Here I will categorized
them based on the number of keys that are
employed for encryption and decryption, and
further defined by their application and use.
• Secret Key Cryptography (SKC): Uses a single key
for both encryption and decryption
• Public Key Cryptography (PKC): Uses one key for
encryption and another for decryption
• Hash Functions: Uses a mathematical
transformation to irreversibly "encrypt"
information
95
 Firewall
A firewall is simply a group of components that
collectively form a barrier between two networks. A
firewall is a hardware or software system that prevents
unauthorized access to or from a network.
They can be implemented in both hardware and software,
or a combination of both. Firewalls are frequently used to
prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing
private networks connected to the Internet.
All data entering or leaving the Intranet pass through the
firewall, which examines each packet and blocks those
that do not meet the specified security criteria.

96
 Types of Firewall
The most commonly used firewalls are:
• Application firewalls: Application layer firewalls
defined, are hosts running proxy servers, which
permit no traffic directly between networks, and
they perform elaborate logging and examination of
traffic passing through them.
• Network layer firewalls: Network layer firewalls
generally make their decisions based on the source
address, destination address and ports in individual
IP packets.
• Proxy firewall: Proxy firewalls offer more security
than other types of firewalls, but this is at the
expense of speed and functionality, as they can limit
which applications your network can support.
97
 why are there so many different types of
cryptographic schemes?
The answer is that each scheme is optimized for some specific
application(s).
• Hash functions, well-suited for ensuring data integrity because any
change made to the contents of a message will result in the receiver
calculating a different hash value than the one placed in the
transmission by the sender. Since it is highly unlikely that two
different messages will yield the same hash value, data integrity is
ensured to a high degree of confidence.
• Secret key cryptography, on the other hand, is ideally suited to
encrypting messages, thus providing privacy and confidentiality. The
sender can generate a session key on a per-message basis to encrypt
the message; the receiver, of course, needs the same session key to
decrypt the message.
• Public-key cryptography asymmetric schemes can also be used for non-
repudiation and user authentication; if the receiver can obtain the
session key encrypted with the sender's private key, then only this
sender could have sent the message. 98
 hybrid cryptographic scheme
hybrid cryptographic scheme combines all functions in three scheme
earlier discussed to form a secure transmission comprising digital
signature and digital envelope. In this example, the sender of the
message is Yekini and the receiver is Bello.
A digital envelope comprises an encrypted message and
Yekini an encrypted session key. Yekini uses secret key
Private Key Digital
Signature cryptography to encrypt his message using the session
key, which he generates at random with each session.
Yekini
Messages
Digital Yekini then encrypts the session key using Bello's public
Envelope
Message
key. The encrypted message and encrypted session key
Encrypted
sent to together form the digital envelope. Upon receipt, Bello
Bello
Random
Session Key
message recovers the session secret key using his private key and
then decrypts the encrypted message.
Encrypted
Session
Bello’s key
Private Key

99
The digital signature
The digital signature is formed in two steps. First, Yekini computes the hash value of her
message; next, he encrypts the hash value with his private key. Upon receipt of the digital
signature, Bello recovers the hash value calculated by Yekini by decrypting the digital
signature with Yekini's public key. Bello can then apply the hash function to Yekini's original
message, which he has already decrypted. If the resultant hash value is not the same as the
value supplied by Yekini, then Bello knows that the message has been altered; if the hash
values are the same, Bello should believe that the message he received is identical to the
one that Yekini sent.
This scheme also provides nonrepudiation since it proves that Yekini sent the message; if
the hash value recovered by Bello using Yekini's public key proves that the message has not
been altered, then only Yekini could have created the digital signature. Bello also has proof
that he is the intended receiver; if he can correctly decrypt the message, then he must
have correctly decrypted the session key meaning that his is the correct private key.

100
ANALOG VS DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over
a period of time. As the wave moves from value A to value
B, it passes through and includes an infinite number of
values along its path.
A digital signal, on the other hand, can have only a limited
number of defined values. Each value can be any number,
it is often as simple as 1 and O.

101
 Periodic Analog Signals
Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or
composite.
 A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be
decomposed into simpler signals.
 A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple
sine waves.
A sine wave can be represented by three
parameters: the peak amplitude, the frequency,
and the phase.

In data communications, we frequently use periodic analog signals (because they need less bandwidth), and nonperiodic digital
signals (because they can represent variation in data).
Two signals with the same phase and
frequency, but different amplitudes

103
 Period and Frequency
Period refers to the amount of time, in
seconds; a signal needs to complete 1cycle.
Frequency refers to the number of periods in
Is.
F = 1/T
T=1/f.
Period is expressed in seconds. Frequency is expressed in
Hertz (Hz), which is cycle per second.

104
Signals with the same phase and
amplitude, but different frequencies

105
 Phase
The term phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time
O. Phase is measured in degrees or radians [360° is 2pie rad; 1° is
2pie/360 rad, and 1 rad is 360/(2pie)].

sine waves with the

same amplitude and
frequency, but
different phases

106
From the diagram in page 106:

 A sine wave with a phase of 0° starts at time 0

with a zero amplitude. The amplitude is
increasing.
 A sine wave with a phase of 90° starts at time 0
with a peak amplitude. The amplitude is
decreasing.
 A sine wave with a phase of 180° starts at time
0 with a zero amplitude. The amplitude is
decreasing.

107
Phase is in terms of shift or offset
Phase is in terms of shift or offset. We can say that
 A sine wave with a phase of 0° is not shifted.
 A sine wave with a phase of 90° is shifted to the left
by 1/4 cycle. However, note that the signal does not
really exist before time O.
 A sine wave with a phase of 180° is shifted to the left
by 1/2 cycle. However, note that the signal does not
really exist before time O.

108
Examples
A sine wave is offset 1/4 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its
phase in degrees and radians?
Solution
1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/4 cycle is
1/4 x 360 = 90° =90 x 2pie
360rad = (2pie/4)rad = 1.57rad

109
 Wavelength
Wavelength is another characteristic of a signal traveling
through a transmission medium. Wavelength binds the
period or the frequency of a simple sine wave to the
propagation speed of the medium. if we represent
wavelength by ʎ, propagation speed by c (speed of light),
and frequency by f, we get: ʎ = c/f

110
Examples
A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz,
with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20
V. The two extreme frequencies have amplitude of 0. Draw
the frequency domain of the signal.
Solution
Let f1 = lowest frequency, and f2 = highest frequency.
Therefore
(f1 - f2)= 200 kHz ---- eqn1
(f1 + f2) = 140 kHz ---- eqn2
Solve for f1 and f2 from eqn1 and eqn2. Then the lowest
frequency is 40 kHz and the highest is 240 kHz. Figure 42
shows the frequency domain and the bandwidth.
111
DIGITAL DATA TO DIGITAL SIGNAL CONVERSION

Here we see how we can represent

digital data by using digital signals. The
conversion involves three techniques:
line coding
block coding
scrambling

112
 Line Coding
Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal. At
the sender, digital data are encoded into a digital signal; at
the receiver, the digital data are recreated by decoding the
digital signal.

113
Types of Line Coding

114
 Block Coding
In general, block coding changes a block of m bits into a block
of n bits, where n is larger than m. Block coding is referred to
as an mB/nB encoding technique.
We need redundancy to ensure synchronization and to provide
some kind of inherent error detecting. Block coding can give
us this redundancy and improve the performance of line
coding.

115
 Scrambling
Why scrambling?
Biphase schemes that are suitable for dedicated links between
stations in a LAN are not suitable for long-distance communication
because of their wide bandwidth requirement.
The combination of block coding and NRZ line coding is not
suitable for long-distance encoding either, because of the DC
component.
Bipolar AMI encoding, on the other hand, has a narrow bandwidth
and does not create a DC component. However, a long sequence of
Os upsets the synchronization. If we can find a way to avoid a long
sequence of Os in the original stream; we can use bipolar AMI for
long distances.

116
We are looking for a technique that does
not increase the number of bits and does
provide synchronization.
We are looking for a solution that
substitutes long zero-level pulses with a
combination of other levels to provide
synchronization. One solution is called
scrambling.

117
 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION USING
MODULATION TECHNIQUES
Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of
the characteristics of an analog signal based on the
information in digital data. Figure below shows the
relationship between the digital information, the digital-to-
analog modulating process, and the resultant analog signal.

118
 Modulation Techniques
A sine wave is defined by three characteristics: amplitude, frequency,
and phase. When we vary anyone of these characteristics, we create a
different version of that wave. The techniques of varying the
characteristics are known as modulation techniques.

119
 Amplitude Shift Keying
In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal
is varied to create signal elements. Both frequency and phase
remain constant while the amplitude changes.

120
 Frequency Shift Keying
In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal
is varied to represent data. The frequency of the modulated
signal is constant for the duration of one signal element, but
changes for the next signal element if the data element
changes. Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for
all signal elements.

121
 Phase Shift Keying
In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is varied to
represent two or more different signal elements. Both peak
amplitude and frequency remain constant as the phase
changes.

122
 Quadrature PSK (QPSK)
The simplicity of BPSK enticed designers to use 2
bits at a time in each signal element, thereby
decreasing the baud rate and eventually the
required bandwidth. The scheme is called
quadrature PSK or QPSK because it uses two
separate BPSK modulations; one is in-phase, the
other quadrature (out-of-phase). The incoming bits
are first passed through a serial-to-parallel
conversion that sends one bit to one modulator and
the next bit to the other modulator.

123
 MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows
the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals
across a single data link.
In a multiplexed system, n lines share the
bandwidth of one link.

124
 Types of Multiplexing Techniques
There are three basic multiplexing techniques: frequency-
division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, and
time-division multiplexing.

The first two are techniques designed for analog signals, the
third, for digital signals

125
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique
where each communications channel is assigned a carrier
frequency. To separate the channels, a guard-band would be
used. This is to ensure that the channels do not interfere
with each other.

126
Example
If we have 3 terminals each requiring a bandwidth of 3 kHz
and a 300 Hz guard-band, what will be the total bandwidth
required for the transmission and drawbacks?
Solution
Terminal 1 would be assigned the lowest frequency channel 0-3
kHz, Terminal 2 would be assigned the next frequency channel
3.3kHz-6.3kHz
Terminal 3 would be assigned the final frequency channel
6.6kHz-9.6 kHz.
The total bandwidth is 9.6kHz

The drawbacks: overall line bandwidth increases, sutable for

analog transmission, and It is prone to noise

127
 Time Division Multiplexing
Time Division Multiplexing is a technique where a short
time sample of each channel is inserted into the
multiplexed data stream. Each channel is sampled in turn
and then the sequence is repeated. TDM is more
efficient, easier to operate, less complex and less
expensive compare to FDM.TDM which is better suited
for digital data.

128
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing
This technique is used in optical fiber. It is useful to
increase the information carried by single optical fiber.
WDM can be view as an optical domain version of FDM in
which multiple information signal modulate optical signals at
different optical wavelength (colors). The resulting signals
are combine and transmitted simultaneously over the same
optical fiber.
1
1 Optical Mulx Optical Demux

11 22 mm 2
2

Optical Fiber

m
m
129
NETWORK IMPLEMENTATION DEVICES
The equipment’s and tools use to connect two or more
system together is refers to as network implementation
devices.
 Network Interface Card and Driver
 Hubs and switch
 Bridges
 Router
 Repeaters

130
Network Interface Card and Driver

A network interface card (NIC) is a circuit board

or card that is installed in a computer so that it
can be connected to a network. It provides the
computer with a dedicated, full-time connection to
a network.

The Network Card device driver is a device driver

loaded in config.sys. The Network Card consists of
Firmware and Hardware.

131
 Types of Network Card Drivers
 NDIS stands for Network Driver Interface Specification.
NDIS drivers are used by Microsoft based Network
Operating Systems such as Microsoft LAN Manager,
Windows NT, Windows for WorkGroups and IBM's OS/2.
 ODI stands for Open Datalink Interface. ODI drivers are
used by Novell's Network Operating System and Apple.
 Packet drivers use software interrupts to interface to the
network card. Many non-commercial programs (shareware
and freeware) use packet driver interfaces.

132
 Repeaters
Repeaters are physical hardware devices that
have a primary function to regenerate the
electrical signal by:

Reshaping the waveform

amplifying the waveform
Retiming the signal

133
 Hubs

Hubs are also called Multiport Repeaters or

Concentrators. They are physical hardware
devices. Some Hubs are basic hubs with
minimum intelligence no microprocessors.
Intelligent Hubs can perform basic
diagnostics and test the nodes to see if they
are operating correctly.

134
 Switching Hubs
It is a computer networking device that connects devices
together on a computer network, by using packet
switching to receive, process and forward data to the
destination device. Unlike less advanced network hubs, a
network switch forwards data only to one or multiple
devices that need to receive it, rather than broadcasting
the same data out of each of its ports

135
 Bridges

Bridges are both hardware and software devices.

They can be standalone devices - separate boxes
specifically designed for bridging applications, or they
can be dedicated PCs with 2 NICs and bridging
software. Most servers’ software will automatically
act as a bridge when a second NIC card is installed.
The purposes of a Bridge are: Isolates networks by
MAC addresses, Manages network traffic by filtering
packets, Translate from one protocol to another.
136
 Why using Bridge?
There 4 four basic reasons to use a bridge:

 Security: Stops networks from forwarding sensitive

data
 Bandwidth: Reduce traffic by segmentation
 Reliability: If 1 segment goes down, it does not take
down the complete LAN
 Translation: Translate different Data Link protocols
such as Token Ring to Ethernet
137
 Router
Routers are hardware and software devices. They can
be cards that plug into a collapsed backbone, stand-
alone devices (rack mount or desktop) or software
that would run on a file server with 2 NICs.
The purpose of a router is to connect nodes across an
internetwork regardless of the Physical Layer and
Data Link Layer protocol used. Routers are hardware
and topology independent.

138
 RJ45 Cabling and Network Setup
Materials required
 Ethernet Cable - bulk Category (Cat) 5, 5e, 6, 6a or higher
ethernet cable
 Wire Cutters - to cut and strip the Ethernet cable if
necessary.

 For Patch Cables: 8P8C Modular Connector Plugs ("RJ45") and

Modular Connector Crimper ("RJ45")

 For Fixed Wiring: 8P8C Modular Connector Jacks ("RJ45")

and 110 Punch Down Tool

 Recommended: Wire Stripper and Cable Tester

139
 Ethernet Cable Structure
BBOG APPROANCH IN ASCENDING ORDER. I.E
i. BLUE (BLUE/WHITE)
ii. BROWN (BROWN/WHITE
iii. GREEN (GREEN/WHITE)
iv. ORANGE (ORANGE/WHITE)

Quiz: why is the twist important?

140
 Modular Connector Plugs and Jacks
The 8P8C modular connectors for Ethernet are often called
RJ45 due to their physical resemblance. The plug is an 8-
position modular connector that looks like a large phone plug.

141
TTIA/EIA 568-A & TIA/EIA 568-B

The TIA/EIA 568-A standard which was ratified in

1995, was replaced by the TIA/EIA 568-B standard
in 2002 and has been updated since. Both standards
define the T-568A and T-568B pin-outs for using
Unshielded Twisted Pair cable and RJ-45 connectors
for Ethernet connectivity. The standards and pin-out
specification appear to be related and
interchangeable, but are not the same and should not
be used interchangeably.

142
 Ethernet Cable Pin Outs

A straight through Ethernet cable, which is used to

connect to a hub or switch
Crossover Ethernet cable used to operate in a peer-
to-peer fashion without a hub/switch. Generally all
fixed wiring should be run as straight through.
Note: Some Ethernet interfaces can cross and un-
cross a cable automatically as needed, a handy
feature.

143
T-568A Straight-Through

144
T-568B Straight-Through Ethernet Cable

145
 RJ-45 Crossover Ethernet Cable

Best way of remembering how to wire a Crossover Ethernet cable is to wire one end using the T-568A standard and the other end using the
T-568B standard. Another way of remembering the color coding is to simply switch the Green set of wires in place with the Orange set of
wires. Specifically, switch the solid Green (G) with the solid Orange, and switch the green/white with the orange/white.
 CAT-5 Wiring Crossover Cable
STEP 1
Using an cat5 cutter and crimping tool, strip about 1/3"of the
out jacket of the cat-5 cable. Be sure not to strip or damage
any of the pairs of inner cables.

147
STEP 2
Assemble the pairs of wires in the following order for
network cables (EAI standard / TIA-568B).

148
STEP 3
Insert the wires into the RJ45 jack as seen below. Be
sure to keep the wires in the correct order.

149
STEP 4
Insert the RJ45 connector into the crimping tool (again
carefully make sure the wires stay inserted in the correct
order). Crimp down firmly on the crimping tool to permanently
attach the RJ45 to the CAT5 cable.

150
 Using Cable Tester
A cable tester is an electronic device used to
verify the electrical connections in a cable or other
wired assembly. Generally a cable tester consists
of:

 A source of electric current,

 A volt meter,
 A switching matrix used to connect the current
source and the voltmeter to all of the contact
points in a cable.
151
How does a LAN Cable Tester work?
Step 1: Get your newly - made RJ - 45 network cable and
connect both ends of the cable in both RJ - 45 ports of the
tester as shown in the figure below.

152
Step 2: You should see that the LED indicators at the same
pin number lights up at the same time, or according to
the correct sequence according to the cable you've
made. Otherwise, your cable does not work.

153
 LED indication sequence
Expected LED indication sequence when using your LAN
Cable Tester:

154
 155
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