Coexist

736 Wildlife-Human Interactions:
From Conflict to Coexistence

in Sustainable Landscapes
Final report from a joint Indo-Norwegian project 2007-2011
Jørn Thomassen
John Linnell
Ketil Skogen
NINA Publications
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Wildlife-Human Interactions:
From Conflict to Coexistence
in Sustaainable Landscapes
Final report from a joint Indo-Norwegian project 2007-2011
Jørn Thomassen
John Linnell
Ketil Skogen
Norwegian Institute for Nature Research

NINA Report 736
Thomassen, J., Linnell, J. & Skogen, K. 2011. Wildlife-Human Inte-

ractions: From Conflict to Coexistence in Sustainable Landscapes.
Final report from a joint Indo-Norwegian project 2007-2011. - NINA
Report 736. 83 pp.
Trondheim, July 2011
ISSN: 1504-3312
ISBN: 978-82-426-2325-6
COPYRIGHT
© Norwegian Institute for Nature Research
The publication may be freely cited where the source is acknowl-
edged
AVAILABILITY
Open
PUBLICATION TYPE
Digital document (pdf)
QUALITY CONTROLLED BY
Odd Terje Sandlund
SIGNATURE OF RESPONSIBLE PERSON
Research director Inga E. Bruteig (sign.)
CLIENT(S)
Royal Norwegian Embassy, Delhi
CLIENTS’ CONTACT PERSON(S)
Ole Reidar Bergum
COVER PICTURE
Indian and Norwegian conflict species, photos: Ashok Captain,
Kartik Shanker, Nature Conservation Foundation, John Linnell,
Jørn Thomassen, Espen Lie Dahl, Raman Sukumar
KEY WORDS
India, Norway, elephant, leopard, blackbuck, turtles, carnivores,
herbivores, joint research collaboration, conflicts, coexistence,
HWC
NØKKELORD
India, Norge, elefant, leopard, blackbuck, havskilpadder, rovdyr,
planteetere, forskningssamarbeid, konflikter, sameksistens, men-
neske-dyr-konflikter
CONTACT DETAILS
NINA head office NINA Oslo NINA Tromsø NINA Lillehammer

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Norway Norway Norway Norway
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Fax: +47 73 80 14 01 Fax: +47 22 60 04 24 Fax: +47 77 75 04 01 Fax: +47 61 22 22 15
www.nina.no
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NINA Report 736
Abstract
Thomassen, J., Linnell, J. & Skogen, K. 2011. Wildlife-Human In teractions: From Co nflict to
Coexistence in Sustainable La ndscapes. Final report from a j oint Indo -Norwegian p roject 200 7-
2011. - NINA Report 736. 83 pp.
The last three decades of the 20 th century were witness to a dr amatic turn arou nd in policy to-
wards th e e nvironment and co nservation of biodiversity a nd many i nternational con ventions
were ratified by most of the worl d countries. Recent paradigm s have attempted to make con-
nections between biodiversity conservation and human well-being. However, not all biodiversity
is associated with huma n well-being and many species can create direct and seve re conflicts
with human interests. As a consequence, wildlife-human conflicts are currently recognized as a
serious impediment to the implem entation of conservatio n plans for species recover y and the
establishment or man agement of protected areas in many de veloping countries such as India
and even in parts of Norway.
This background w as important in 2007 w hen t he Norwegian Institute for Nature Research
(NINA) and the Centr e for Ecological Science (CES) of the Ind ian Institut e of Science (IISc),
together wit h the Royal Norwe gian Embassy (New Delhi) in itiated a collabor ative re search
project on Human – Wildlife conflicts. Several other institutions in India and Norw ay were sub-
contracted as collaborators.
The overall goal of the project has been to understand the dynamics of wildlife human in terac-
tions in Indi a an d N orway (i n a sam ple of multiu se landscap es) and de velop mecha nisms o f
coexistence suitable to the countries. From the out set it was recognized as being important to
include both natural science and social science perspectives into the project. The main focus in
the pro ject was put on a few species such as elepha nt, blackbuck and other her bivores, leo-
pard, wolf, turtles – all species that regularl y come into conflict with human s, but which reflect
the diversity of forms t hese conflicts can take. A large p art of India was covered i n the various
studies on these species and in the social science research component of the project. The var-
ious project activities included:
All India survey of Human Wildlife Conflicts: questionnaire survey delivered to all Forestry
Department Divisions in India (chapter 3.2.1).
Elephants in Orissa: state wide mapping of spatial distribution of elephants in conflicts (chap-
ter 3.2.2).
Elephants in west Bengal: identification of c onflict around migration corridors between frag-
mented forest patches (chapter 3.2.3).
Nilgiri hills: a broad study of human -wildlife conflicts in one of the la rgest and most intact fo-
rested areas in India (chapter 3.2.4).
Leopards in Akole: a study of leop ards living i n croplands a nd their inte ractions with local
people (chapter 3.2.5).
Wolves, dogs and rabies in Nannaj: a survey o f the extent of r abies infection in wild canids
and level of transmission to humans (chapter 3.2.6).
Blackbuck in Nannaj: a study of the patterns of crop damage around the Great Indian Bustard
Wildlife Sanctuary (chapter 3.2.7).
Crop-raiding around Tadoba-Andhari tiger reserve: an exploration of how differe nt herbi-
vores raid crops with increasing distance from the protected area border (chapter 3.2.8).
Sea turtles on the Lakshadweep Islands and Orissa coast: a stud y of conflicts betwee n
local fishers and turtles concerning resource access (chapter 3.2.9 and 3.2.10).
Human Wildlife conflicts across different landscapes: a framework for examinin g social,
political and economic issues and a preliminary comparison between sites (chapter 3.2.11)
Monkeys in Terhi Garhwal: study of crop raiding by monkeys (chapter 3.2.12).
Todas and sacred buffalos: a study of conflicts associated with tiger predation on sacred buf-
falos and transformation of culturally valued grassland habitats to forest (chapter 3.2.13).
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NINA Report 736
Human - large carnivore interactions in Akole, north-western Maharashtra: how people

and wildlife, specifically large carnivores, coexist in a hum an-dominated rural lands cape in
western India, which is outside the protected area network (chapter 3.2.14)
Human-Wildlife Conflict in the Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary: unde r-
standing and mitigating conflicts in the Context of the Forest Rights Act (chapter 3.2.15)
International biodiversity conventions: Interpreting pro ject r esults in the context of imple-
menting international biodiversity conventions (chapter 15).
This report does not intend to go into depths in t he individual pr ojects’ technical results, r ather
it is intended as a summary of t he project’s overall activities and an evaluation of the main out-
comes. Technical reports from each of the acti vities have been produced, see annex 1 for an
overview.
This project’s cooperation has provided many mutual insights. The Indian partners were able to
benefit from the N orwegians’ exp erience at cond ucting interd isciplinary conflict research in
human-dominated landscapes, while the Nor wegians were able to gain critical insights in to the
unique levels of toleranc e often displayed by the rural Indians. Moreover, while the Norwegian
researchers contributed some degr ee of technical knowledge in all fields, especially social sci-
ence methods, GPS-telemetry and genetic analysis of non-invasively collected biologi cal sam-
ples (scats), the Indian p artners with whom they i nteracted were able to re ciprocate with their
own experiences and skills such that both partners learnt a great deal fro m each other. As well
as the technical cooperat ion, exposure to t he radically different wildlife management systems
and philosophies in the two cou ntries has p rovided a much n eeded pe rspective on th eir ow n
domestic situations
The project has produced articles in peer review scientific journals (and m ore will come), writ-
ten seve ral research r eports, pro duced conf lict managem ent gui delines that ha ve be en
adopted by Indian a uthorities, written numero us popular a rticles in newspapers and journals,
given seve ral intervie ws on r adio and TV, given public and scientific pr esentations and eve n
produced a nd pe rformed a the atre p roduction o n leopard – hu man conf licts! The medi a has
covered a lot of the issues t hat we ha ve been studying and many journalists have inte rviewed
project scien tists or base d their repo rts on projec t results. Several of the project’s scientists
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NINA Report 736
have been very active i n writing their own popular science articles and in itiating the production
of a wide r ange of communication packages r anging fr om TV documentaries to trainin g
courses and handbooks to popular books and, as mentioned, theatre productions – in all cases
trying to use the most appropriate media to reach the desired stakeholder group. Top-up fund-
ing for communication activity was o btained from the Research Council of Norw ay and its ac-
tivities will peak during t he coming months. T he various dissemination ac tivities are summa-
rized in chapter 9.
Much engag ement has occurred thro ugh the infor mal contacts that em erge when cond ucting
ecological re search in ru ral ar eas or interv iewing peopl e du ring social science studies. All
these intera ctions involved a two wa y transfer of knowledg e and e xperience. In addition, to
these informal eng agements, most p rojects have had extensive c ontact w ith the forestry d e-
partment and local village councils. Chapter 12 lists the wide range of stakeholder engagement
which has occurred in most of the activities.
Important outcomes from the project are numerous recommendations and policy implications,
and the future challenge for stakeholders and decis ion makers will be to assess and implement
actions to a chieve a b etter coexistence between humans and wildlif e. Policy implicatio ns and
recommendations are listed in chapter 13 and 14, respectively.
The goal of this project has been to e xchange experience and jointly conduct research on hu-
man-wildlife conflicts to such a level that we have equivalent data on ecological, economic, so-
cial and political aspects of the conflicts from bot h India and Norway. Interdisciplinary research
that collects scientific and local know ledge is cruc ial to turn conservation c onflicts into oppor-
tunities for coexistence which again strikes to the core of the Convention of Biological Diversity
(CBD) and its guiding principles (the Malawi- and the Addis Ab aba principles). Overall, we be-
lieve that the project has been very successful at conducting cooperative research and improv-
ing the know ledge base which is necessary to reach these go als. However, we should not un-
derestimate the magnitude of the task required to reach these goals in practice.
Jørn Thomassen & John Linnell, Nor wegian Inst itute for Natu re Resea rch (NINA), NO-748 5
Trondheim, Norway jorn.thomassen@nina.no
Ketil Skogen, NINA, Gaustadalléen 21, NO-0349 Oslo, Norway
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NINA Report 736
Sammendrag
Thomassen, J., Linnell, J. & Skogen, K. 2011. Menneske-dyr interaksjoner: Fra konflikt til sam-
eksistens. Sluttrapport fra et felles indisk-norsk samarbeidsprosjekt 2007-2011. - NINA Rapport
736. 83 s.
På slutten av forrige århundre ble m ye fokus rettet mot miljø og be varing av biol ogisk mang-
fold, og man ge inter nasjonale ko nvensjoner bl e r atifisert av d e fleste land i ver den. Det ble
dessuten gjort forsøk på å koble biodiversitet med folks levekår og velvære. Bevaring av en del
arter fører i midlertid til konflikter med menneske r. Dette kan igjen vær e e n trussel mot beva-
ringen a v de samme arte ne og mot forvaltnin gen av ver neområder i mang e u-land og for så
vidt også i deler av Norge.
Dette var ba kgrunnen for at den norske ambassa den i India (Delhi) i 2007 initierte et samar-
beidsprosjekt på men neske-dyr-konflikter mellom Norsk institu tt for nat urforskning (NIN A) og
Centre for Ecological Science (CES), Indian Institute of Science (IISc). Flere andre institusjoner
i India og Norge har også deltatt I prosjektet.
Hovedmålet i prosjektet har vært å forstå dynam ikken me llom mennesker og dyr i India og
Norge og utvikle mekanismer for en bedre same ksistens i landene. Både naturvitenskapelig og
samfunnsvitenskapelig forskning har vært nødve ndig i pros jektet. Hovedfokus ble lagt til noen
få arter som elefant, blackbuck og an dre gressetere, samt leopard, ul v og havskilpadder – alle
arter som stadig kommer i konflikt me d menneskets interesser, men som og så reflekterer vari-
asjonen i konfliktene. Prosjektområdene dekket en stor del av India og inkluderte:
- Kartlegging av menneske-dyr-konflikter over hele India: Spørreundersøkelse sendt til

alle lokalavdelinger i Skogdepartementet i India (kap. 3.2.1).
- Elefanter i Orissa: Kartlegging av konfliktelefanter i staten Orissa (kap. 3.2.2).
- Elefanter i Vest-Bengal: Identifisering av elefantkonflikter i forbindelse med trekkveier
mellom fragmenterte skogområder (kap. 3.2.3).
- Nilgiri-fjellene: En bred studie av menneske-dyr-konflikter i et av de største uberørte
skogområdene i India (kap. 3.2.4).
- Leoparder i Akole: En studie av leoparder og sameksistensen med mennesker i kultur-
landskap (kap. 3.2.5).
- Ulver, hunder og rabies i Nannaj: Kartlegging av omfanget av rabiesinfeksjoner hos ville
hundedyr og graden av overføring til mennesker (kap. 3.2.6).
- Blackbuck i Nannaj: En studie av beiteskademønsteret omkring Great Indian Bustard
Wildlife-reservatet (kap. 3.2.7).
- Ødelagte avlinger rundt Tadoba-Andhari tigerreservat: En undersøkelse av hvordan
ulike gressetere ødelegger avlinger ved økende avstand fra grensene til reservatet (kap.
3.2.8).
- Havskilpadder på Lakshadweep-øyene og lengst Orissa-kysten: En studie av konflikter
omkring ressurstilgang mellom lokale fiskere og havskilpadder (kap. 3.2.9 og 3.2.10).
- Menneske-dyr-konflikter i flere landskapstyper: Et rammeverk for å undersøke politiske
og økonomiske forhold, og en foreløpig sammenlikning mellom områder (kap. 3.2.11).
- Apekatter i Terhi Garhwal: En studie av apekatters plyndring av avlinger (kap. 3.2.12).
- Toda og hellige bøfler: En studie av konflikter som følge av tiger-predasjon på hellige bøf-
ler, og omgjøring av kulturelt verdsatt beiteområder til skog (kap. 3.2.13).
- Interaksjoner mellom mennesker og store rovdyr i Akole, nordvest i Maharashtra:
Hvordan sameksistensen mellom mennesker og vilt, spesielt store rovdyr, er i et mennes-
kedominert jordbrukslandskap utenfor mange verneområder (kap. 3.2.14).
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NINA Report 736
- Menneske-dyr-konflikter i Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife-reservatet: Forstå og

avbøte konflikter i sammenheng med Forest Rights Act (kap. 3.2.15).
- Internasjonale biodiversitetskonvensjoner: Tolke prosjektresultatene i lys av internasjo-
nale biodiversitetskonvensjoner (kap. 15).
Denne rapporten har ikke som mål å gå faglig i dybden på de enkelte prosjektene, men der-
imot gi en oversikt over prosje ktet og en vurdering av resultate ne. Det er ut arbeidet egne rap-
porter fra hvert delprosjekt, se vedlegg 1 for en oversikt.
Indiske og norske samarbeidspartn erne har dratt god n ytte av hve randres erfaring. Indiske
partnere h ar hatt nytte av norsk tverrfaglig forskningserfaring i konfliktfylte menneske -
dominerte landskaper, mens norske partner e har fått verdifullt innblikk i et unikt toleransenivå
som finnes på den indiske landsbygda. Videre har norske forskere bidratt med viktig kunnskap
innenfor samfunnsforskningsmetoder, GPS-telemetri og g enetiske analyser av biologisk mate-
riale samlet i felt (ekskremente r), mens samarbeidend e indiske forskere har ove rført sin erfa-
ring og kunnskap til felles gjensidig læring. Samarbeidet og i nnsynet i landenes totalt forskj elli-
ge forvaltningssystemer og -filosofier har bidratt til nye perspektiver i landene.
Prosjektet har publisert artikler i vitenskapelige fagfellevurderte tidsskrifter (og flere vil komme),
skrevet man ge forskning srapporter, b idratt til forvaltningsveile dere omkrin g konflikter, skrevet
en rekke populærvitenskapelige artikler i magasiner og aviser, blitt intervjuet i radio og TV, pre-
sentert prosjektresultatene til andre fo rskere og til publikum for øvrig, og til o g med satt opp e n
egen teaterf orestilling med tema menneske-leopard-k onflikter (se kap. 9 fo r en liste over for-
midlinger). Forskningsformidlingen har vært målrettet for å nå rette publikum. Toppfinansiering
spesielt rettet mot formidling har vært bevilget av Norges Forskningsrådet.
Det er også viktig å trekke fram verdi en av all uformell kontakt som har skjedd, båd e ved det
samfunnsvitenskapelige forskningsarbeidet og det økologiske. All denne kontakten har medført
viktig toveis utveksling av kunn skap og erfari ng. I tillegg til ufor melle kontakter har pr osjektet
hatt utstrakt kontakt mot Skogdepartementet i India og med lo kale landsbyråd. I kapittel 12 er
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NINA Report 736
det satt opp en oversikt over det breie kontaktnettet som har vært en del av de fleste aktivitete-
ne i prosjektet.
Prosjektet har også kommet opp med viktige anb efalinger, mulige implikasjone r for po litikere
og andre beslutningstakere og hvilke utfordringer som må vurderes og implementeres for å få
til en bedre sameksistens mellom mennesker og dyr (se kap. 13 og 14).
Et viktig mål i prosjektet har vært å u tveksle erfaring og gjennomføre forskning omkring men-
neske-dyr-konflikter slik at vi kan få go de data på økologiske, økonomiske, sosiale og politiske
forhold både fra India og Norge. Tverrfaglig forskning, som samler b åde vitenskapelig og lokal
kunnskap, er viktig for å kunne snu forvaltningskonflikter til muligheter for en bedre sameksis-
tens. Dette er også en del av kj erneintensjonene i biomangfoldkonv ensjonen og de styrende
prinsippene som er utarbeidet (Malawi- og Addis Abeba-prinsippene).
Samlet sett mener vi dette prosjektet har vært vellykket. Vi har gjenn omført et samarbei dende
forskningsprosjekt mellom India og Norg e, og i vesentlig gr ad økt kunnskapsbasen som er
nødvendig f or å n å målene nevnt over. Vi skal likevel ikke under vurdere de store op pgavene
og utfordringene som fortsatt finnes.
Jørn Thomassen & Joh n Linnell, N orsk inst itutt for naturfor skning (NINA), 7485 Tr ondheim
jorn.thomassen@nina.no.
Ketil Skogen, NINA, Gaustadalléen 21, 0349 Oslo
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NINA Report 736
Acknowledgements
These research projects would not have been possible without the suppo rt provided by people
at several in stitutes in India an d Norway, especially the C entre for Ecolog ical Sciences at the
Indian Institute of Science and t heir main collaborators in India: Ashoka Tr ust for Rese arch in
Ecology an d the Enviro nment, Asian Nature Conservation Fou ndation, I ndian Institute of Sci-
ence Educat ion a nd Research, Nature Co nservation Fo undation a nd Kal pavriksh, and from
Norway the Norwegian University of Life Sciences and Hedmark University College in a ddition
to several p eople at the Norwe gian Institute for Nature R esearch. Co-fun ding has be en pro-
vided by several bo dies, including the Research Council of Nor way, the Pa nthera Foundation
and the Rufford Small Grants. We also wish to express our great thanks to all stakeholders in-
volved in formal and informal contacts during the project period.
It has also been a pleasure to coop erate with ou r main fundin g agency, the Ro yal Norwegian
Embassy in Delhi. Without their support and understanding of the complex nature of the project
it would have been impossible to accomplish the project. The individuals who have contributed
to this project are too many to list, but we are grateful to you all.
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NINA Report 736
Contents
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Sammendrag ............................................................................................................................. 6
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... 9
Contents .................................................................................................................................. 10
Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................... 12
English and scientific names of species in the report .............................................................. 13
Foreword ................................................................................................................................. 14
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 15
2 Objectives and Scope of the Cooperation Project .............................................................. 18

2.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 18
2.2 Cooperating institutions ...............................................................................................18
2.2.1 Norwegian Partners ..........................................................................................18
2.2.2 Indian Partners ................................................................................................. 19
3 Outputs ............................................................................................................................... 20
3.1 Activities taken up and completed ...............................................................................20
3.2 Results ........................................................................................................................ 22
3.2.1 All India Forest Division level questionnaire survey of Human -
Wildlife conflict (activity 2) ................................................................................ 22
3.2.2 Elephant - Human Interactions in Eastern India- Orissa (activity 4.1a-1) ......... 24
3.2.3 Elephant - Human Interactions in West Bengal - Eastern India
(activ ity 4.1a-2) .................................................................................................25
3.2.4 Wildlife - Human Interactions: Nilgiri Eastern Ghats Landscape
(activ ity 4.1b) .................................................................................................... 27
3.2.5 Understanding Human - Leopard interactions in the western
state of Maharashtra, India (activity 4.2) ........................................................... 29
3.2.6 The role of Canine rabies in Human- Wolf conflict: Preliminary
investigations in rural Maharashtra, India (activity 4.3) .....................................30
3.2.7 Crop damage by a wild Indian Ungulate: Investigating ecological
causes and developing mitigation measures (activity 4.4) ................................ 32
3.2.8 Crop raiding by wild Ungulates in Tadoba–Andhari Tiger Reserve, Maha-
rashtra: A study of ecological patterns and remedial measures (activity 4.5) ... 34
3.2.9 The Trouble with Turtles: Fishers, green turtles, and seagrass
meadow dynamics in the Lakshadweep Islands (activity 4.6a) ........................ 36
3.2.10 The Nature of Conflict - understanding Knowledge and Perceptions
of and Attitudes towards Sea Turtle Conservation in Orissa (activity 4.6b) ...... 38
3.2.11 Comparing Human - Wildlife conflict across different landscapes:
a framework for examining social, political and economic issues
and a preliminary comparison between sites (activity 4.7) ............................... 39
3.2.12 Crop Damage by Wildlife in a Garhwal Himalayan village (activity 4.10) .......... 41
3.2.13 What does large carnivore predation of buffalo mean to the Toda?
Understanding cultural, politico-legal and ecological contexts and
consequences of Toda conflicts with tigers and leopards on the Nilgiri
pastures, Southern India (activity 8.1) .............................................................. 42
3.2.14 Human - large carnivore interactions in Akole, north-western
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Maharashtra (activity 8.2) ................................................................................. 44

3.2.15 Understanding and Mitigating Human-Wildlife Conflict in the
Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary in the Context
of the Forest Rights Act 2006 (activity 8.3) .......................................................46
4 Degree of achievement of the goals and objectives of the project ......................................48
5 Sustainability of the co-operation between the participating institutions ............................. 51
6 Arrangement for institutionalisation of benefits ................................................................... 52
7 Mutuality of benefits derived by individual institutions .........................................................53
8 Assessment of technology/knowledge transfer exchanged between institutions ................54
9 Strategy for dissemination .................................................................................................. 55
10 Assessment of any commercial spin-offs or prospects for commercial benefits as a off

shoot of the project ............................................................................................................. 62
11 Decentralisation and engagement with civil society ............................................................63
12 Stakeholder meetings .........................................................................................................64
13 Policy implications .............................................................................................................. 70
14 Recommendations ..............................................................................................................74
15 Contribution to implementation of CBD and impact on domestic wildlife management

policy................................................................................................................................... 80
16 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 82
Annex 1. Overview of Technical reports .................................................................................. 83
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Abbreviations
AERCC Asian Elephant Research and Conservation Centre
ANCF Asian Nature Conservation Foundation
ATREE Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CCET Centre for Conservation Education and Technology
CCF Chief Conservator of Forests
CDM Clean Development Mechanisms
CES Centre for Ecological Sciences
CESD Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development
CF Con servator of Forests
CTBC Centre for Tropical Biodiversity Conservation
DFO Divisional Forest Officer
EPT Elephant Proof Trench
EU Europ ean Union
FD Fore st Department
FPC Forest Protection Committee
FRA Forest Rights Act
GPS Global Positioning System
HiHM Hedmark University College
HP FD Himachal Pradesh Forest Department
HWC Human Wildlife Conflict
IFS Indian Forest Service
IGNFA Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy
IPBES Intergovernm ental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
IISc Indian Institute of Science
IISER Indian Institute of Science Education and Research
MPA Marine Protected Area
NCF Nature Conservation Foundation
NGO Non Governmental Organisation
NINA Norwegian Institute for Nature Research
NOK Norwe gian krone (
NREG National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
NRK Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation
NTCA National Tiger Conservation Authority
NTCA National Tiger Conservation Authority
OMRCC Orissa Marine Resources Conservation Consortium
OMRCC Orissa Marine Resources Conservation Consortium
OTFWU Orissa Traditional Fishworkers Union
PA Protec ted Area
PCCF Principal Chief Conservator of Forests
STR 'Some' Tiger Reserve
TATR Tadoba Andhari Tiger Resrve
TEEB The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
UMB Norwegian University of Life Sciences
VSS Vana Samrakshana Samiti
WL Wild Life
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English and scientific names of species in the report

English name Scientific name
Asiatic lion Panthera leo persica
Black bear (asian) Ursus thibetanus
Blackbuck antelope Antilope cervicapra
Brown bear Ursus arctos
Elephant (asian) Elephas maximus
Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx
Gaur Bos gaurus
Green turtle Chelonia mydas
Langur Genus Semnopithecus
Leopard Panthera pardus
Lion Panthera leo persika
Moose Alces alces
Nilgai antelope Boselaphus tragocamelus
Olive Ridley turtle Lepidochelys olivacea
Otter Lutra lutra
Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta
Rhino Rhinoceros unicornis
Sloth bear Melursus ursinus
Tiger Panthera tigris
Wild boar Sus scrofa
Wolf Canis lupus
Wolverine Gulo gulo
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NINA Report 736
Foreword
The Royal N orwegian E mbassy (New Delhi), tog ether with the Norw egian Institute for Nature
Research ( NINA) and t he Ce ntre f or Ecologica l Science (CES) of t he Indian Institute of
Science (IISc) initiated in 2007 a collaborative research project on Human – Wildlife conflicts.
The background for this initiative was the increasing focus on the environment and biodiversity
over the l ast three deca des, resulting in a number of inte rnational treatie s and a greements.
The Convention of Biologi cal Diversity (CBD) st ands out as the first global agreeme nt on con-
servation and sustainable use of biological diversity. Wildlife conservation will, however, in
many instances generate conflicts with humans, which also is the instance in India as well as in
Norway.
The overall goal of the project has been to understand the dynamics of wildlife human in terac-
tions in Indi a an d N orway (i n a sam ple of multiu se landscap es) and de velop mecha nisms o f
coexistence suitable to the countries. From the out set it was recognized as being important to
include both natural science and social science perspectives into the project.
This report is a summary of the vario us project activities conducted in the project period 2007-
2011, as also reporte d to the main funding a gency, the Roya l Norwe gian Embassy in Delhi.
This report does not intend to go into depths in t he individual pr ojects’ technical results, r ather
it is intended as a summary of t he project’s overall activities and an evaluation of the main out-
comes. An overview of the Technical reports from each activity are provided in annex 1.
This report summarizes the main outputs from th e various activities and list up the project dis-
semination spanning from scientific publications, popular science, technical reports and media
coverage. Stakeholde r meetings, policy implicatio ns and recomm endations are also listed in
the report. This has been a complex and dive rse project with numerous stakeholder meetings,
important to understand the core of human-wildl ife conflicts. All sort of knowledge must be
taken into consideration when assessing outco mes on poli cy implicatio ns and gi ving recom-
mendations for a better coexistence in the future.
We hope the project results will be imp ortant input in the future efforts to help solving conflicts,
find strategies for further solutions and help d ecision makers to understand what sort of knowl-
edge is needed.
Trondheim/Oslo, July 2011
Jørn Thomassen
John Linnell
Ketil Skogen
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NINA Report 736
1 Introduction
The last three decades of the 20 th century were witness to a dr amatic turn arou nd in policy to-
wards the e nvironment and biodi versity. A wide range of national and int ernational legislation
has been passed which has committ ed most countries to cons erving the environment and its
associated biodiversity. This rapid process culminated in the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD) (Ri o Con vention) in 1992 – which has underlined th e principle commitment of >190
countries to the cause of biodiversity conservation. The CBD outlines concrete approaches on
how to achie ve conservation, primarily through its “ Ecosystem Approach” and its guiding “ Ma-
lawi principles”. These principles w ere furthe r d eveloped in the “ Millennium Ecosystem As-
sessment” and the recen t “ Addis Ababa principles and guidelines for the sustainable use of
biodiversity”. Despite a focus on linking biodiversity conservation to human well being, many
countries are struggling to implement these conventions. While the reasons for this are diverse,
at least one aspect that is often igno red is the fac t that not all biodi versity is associated with
human well being. In fact, many species can creat e direct an d severe conflicts with human in-
terests.
As a result wildlife-huma n conf licts a re tod ay recognized as a serious im pediment to the im -

plementation of conserva tion plans for species recover y and establishment or mana gement of
protected areas in many developi ng countries su ch as India or even parts of the developed
world such a s Norway. Conflict occurs in a vari ety of contexts, when wildlife species raid agri-
cultural crops, damage property, kill people or livestock or spre ad diseases. Such wildlife spe-
cies in clude mammals such as elephant, wild pi g, porcupine, deer, antelo pe, tiger, leopard,
lion, wolf and monkeys, many bi rds and reptiles. For the purposes of this project we confin e
ourselves to the larger mammalian species.
The elephant is perhaps the most potent agent of crop damage among wildlife species in India.
Damage runs into millions of dollars each y ear, though com pensation paid by the s tate to
farmers is only a fraction of the losses. In addition, an average of 200 people is killed each year
by ele phants, with the majority of incidents o ccurring in the co ntext of crop raiding when ele-
phants enter agricultural fields and settlements at night. Wild pigs are anot her common agent
of crop losses, and though the damag e inflicted may not be as spectacular, it is nevertheless a
much more widespre ad phenomenon. In recent y ears, two antelopes that were o nce consid-
ered endangered, the nilgai and the blackbuck, have increased enormously in numbers thanks
to effective protection, and have become serious pests of agriculture in many parts of the coun-
try, including Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.
About 75 people are presently killed by tigers each year in India. Photo: Espen Lie Dahl.
Conflict between th e lar ger carni vores and p eople is even m ore conte ntious. Much h as bee n
written about man-eating by tigers. Presently about 75 pe ople are killed e ach year by tigers in
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NINA Report 736
India, a figure that is much lo wer than the 1000+ people killed each year a century ago. Never-
theless, even this level of hum an predation is not acceptable in a modern society and solutions
have to be f ound to red uce this further. Predat ion on huma ns, usually children, by leopard
seems to h ave risen, o n the other hand. The problem is most acu te is states such as
Uttaranchal, Himachal and Maharashtra. Although precise statistics are ha rd to come by, it is
clear that the probl em of human killing by leopards is more widespread and much more fre-
quent than b y tigers in the count ry. Predation of children b y w olf has been sporadic but can
strike terror locally for months or ye ars; in recent years this problem h as surfaced in Utta r
Pradesh and Karnataka. Finally, the Asiatic lion that is confined to the Gir National Park in Gu-
jarat has been in conflict with the maldharis or buffalo keepers. The present emphasis on con-
flict mitigation an d r eduction includes pa yment of compensation for livestock death o r cro p
damage, capture and relocation of of fending animals, and the use of ba rriers such as electric
fences and ditches. These measures have had only limited success in co nflict reduction. Th e
recommendations to India’s Planning Commissio n of the wor king group o n wildlife conserva -
tion of the Ministry of Environme nt and Forests, explicitly recognizes the resolution of wildlife-
human conflicts as a thrust area for the 11th Plan Period (2007-12).
In Nor way, t he most important conflict is between recovering populations of large carn ivores
(brown b ears, Eurasian lynx, w olverines and wolves) an d livestock (main ly sheep a nd semi-
domestic reindeer). The conflict is far larger tha n any similar conflict (about 50% of the depr e-
dation on livestock in Europe occurs in Nor way which has <5% of the carnivores) because the
form of husbandry was developed in years when these species were absent.
The wolf is one of four large carnivores causing conflict with livestock in Norway. Photo: John Lin-
nell.
Some conflicts also occur betw een wild he rbivores and fo restry, betwee n otters and fish-
farming, and betwe en se als and fish eries. Conf licts involving geese (a griculture) a nd cormo-
rants (fish fa rming and a ngling) are emerging. Furthermore, the process of conserving conflict
species can unleash a range of soci al conflicts between different sections of society that have
different valu es towards wildlife, and the wildlif e conflicts can come to represent potent sym-
bols for a wi de range of other underlying conflicts. The prese nt emphasis on conflict reduction
16
NINA Report 736
focuses heavily on lethal control of carnivores and payment of large amounts of compensation,
neither of which is desirable as a long term “solution”.
The moose creates conflicts with forestry and is involved in collisions with vehicles. Photo: Erling
Solberg.
Wildlife-human conflict is one aspect, perhaps one of the m ost important, in the overall conflict
between “people and p arks” or between human in terests and conservation in general. Histori-
cally, there was a certain level of co existence between local communities and wildlife, but this
was possible in a different socio-economic mili eu than what we are experiencing today. The
rapid economic growth i n countries s uch as India, accompanied by changes in val ue systems,
means that attitudes to wildlife are a lso changing quickly in th e direction of antagonism – not
only between people and wildlife, but also between “traditional” and “m odern” views of natur e.
Also in Norw ay these con flicts are pol arizing the existing separation between urban and rural
communities and hindering the attainment of conservation goals. It is thus imperative that prac-
tical solutions are fou nd to minimise or eliminat e such conflicts if cons ervation is to succeed in
the long term.
In Norwa y, considerable effort has b een expen ded in studying these c onflicts from both the
point of vi ew of ecolog y and from social scienc e. We ar e therefore in a situation w here knowl-
edge a bout the nature a nd form of conflict is not the limiting fact or in see king coexistence.
Rather, we l ack knowledge about how to fi nance and achieve the nece ssary changes to agri-
culture within the existing political landscape, and about how best to reduce the social conflicts,
potentially through various forms of d elegated management or power sh aring. At a more phi-
losophical level there is also a lack of a vision for how conflicts (both material and social) an d
conflict causing species should be int egrated into the pr esent day ph ysical and political land-
scapes.
In India, there is relative ly good ecological knowledge a bout conflicts associated with larg e
carnivores a nd ele phants associated with protec ted are as. There is relativel y less knowledge
about these conflicts in multiuse lan dscapes outside protected ar eas (e. g. man-e ating leop -
ards) and on the conflicts associ ated with wild pigs and antelopes. Furthermore, relatively little
social science research h as been focused on this topic. India can potent ially gain much from
Norway’s experience at working with social science and local peoples in the investigat ion of
conflict issues. However, India seems to have a fa r greater cult ural acceptance of conflict and
the presence of conflict-causing species in the landscape.
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NINA Report 736
2 Objectives and Scope of the Cooperation Project
2.1 Objectives
A main objective of this project has been to bring the level of human-wildlife conflict research in
India to such a level that we have equivalent data on ecological, economic, social and political
aspects from both India and Norway.
The broad goal of the project has been to under stand the wild life human interactions in India
and No rway (in a sample of multiuse land scapes) and devel op mechani sms of coexistence
suitable to the countries. To achieve the broad goal the project identified several subgoals:
a) Map the spatial and temporal distribution of material conflicts between people and wild-
life.
b) Conduct targeted ecolo gical research where n ecessary to better und erstand the
mechanisms of conflict for selected species.
c) Evaluate the utility of a range of mitigation measures (both those that are already in use
and those which could be introduced) designed to promote coexistence.
d) Promotion of mutual e xperience sharing among equal partners concerning the integra-
tion of wildlife into human-dominated landscapes.
e) Explore attitudes to human-wildlife relationships, and analyze [HWC] in the light of rele-
vant social structures and culture patterns.
f) Explore th e challenges a nd op portunities of resolving wildlife-h uman conflicts throug h
several me ans including establishing socia lly equitable a nd e nvironmentally respo nsi-
ble, income-generating activity for villagers.
2.2 Cooperating institutions

2.2.1 Norwegian Partners
Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA) is Norwa y’s leading institution for applie d
ecological re search. NINA is responsible fo r long- term strategic research and commissioned
applied research to facilitate t he implementation of internationa l conventions, decision-support
systems and management tools, as well as to enhance public awareness and promote conflict
resolution. NINA is organized as non-profit foundation and is placed among the Norwegian En-
vironmental Institutes which receive some b asic state-funding but mainly o perate on competi-
tive contracts.
Norwegian University of Life Sciences (UMB) comprises 8 depa rtments. High prof essional
quality, a hig h deg ree of teac her-student interaction and a pl easant social and ph ysical envi-
ronment characterize education at UMB. UMB collaborates with independent institutions estab-
lished at Aas, as well as through national and international alliances with other institutions.
Hedmark University College (HiHM) is located in th e sou th-eastern part of N orway. With
more than 5000 students it is one of the largest university colleges in Norway. The college pro-
vides hig h s tandards an d mode rn research-based teaching. HiHM’s Campus Evensta d be -
came involved in the p roject as a consequence of one of the key co-operators from UMB mov-
ing to HiHM towards the end of the project’s life.
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NINA Report 736
2.2.2 Indian Partners
Centre for Ecological Sciences (CES) at the Indian Institute of Science offers exciting oppor-
tunities for r esearch in a va riety of ar eas in ecology. T hese include animal behavi our, evolu -
tionary biology and socio-biology, community and habitat ecology, molecular genetics and con-
servation biology, lar ge mammal an d forest ecol ogy, a nd cli mate chang e. Research is being
carried out on a number of taxa, ranging from ants to elephants, and including wasps, crickets,
spiders, herpetofauna, birds and mammals. The projects range from theoretical to laboratory to
field-based research with the different approaches being used in a complementary manner.
Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE) is a not for profit or-
ganization with a mission to promote socially just envir onmental conservation and sustainable
development by gener ating rigor ous interdiscipli nary knowle dge that eng ages actively with
academia, policy makers, practitioners, activi sts, students and wider public audiences. ATREE
envisions a society committed to environmental c onservation and sustainable and socially just
development, in which ATREE plays the role of a model knowledge-generating organization for
catalyzing the transition to such a society.
Asian Nature Conservation Foundation (ANCF) is a non-profit public charitable trust, was
set up in Novemb er 19 97 at Banga lore, Indi a, to meet the need for a n informed d ecision-
making framework to stem the rapidl y declining natural landscape an d biol ogical divers ity of
India and ot her countries in tropical Asia. ANCF undertakes all conservatio n efforts through its
many specialist divisions such as:
Asian Elephant Research and Conservation Centre (AERCC)
Centre for Tropical Biodiversity Conservation (CTBC)
Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development (CESD)
Centre for Conservation Education and Technology (CCET)
Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Pune is a pr emier in stitute
dedicated to research a nd teaching in the bas ic sciences. Established in 2006, the in stitute
falls under the pur view of the Ministry of Hu man Resource Development (vi de communication
F.No. 22-8/2006-TS.1). As a unique initiative in science education in India, IISER aims to be a
Science University of the highest calibre devoted to both teaching an d research in a to tally in-
tegrated manner, with state-of-the- art research an d high q uality education, thus nurturing both
curiosity and creativity.
Nature Conservation Foundation (NCF)

The Nature Conservation Foundation is a non-governmental wildlife conservation and research
organization based in Mysore, India. They promote the use of science for wildlife conservation
in India. The organization was founde d in 1996. Their mission is to carry out "science- based
and socially responsible conservation".
Kalpavriksh is a non-p rofit organiza tion working on environmental and social issues. The
group beg an in 1979 with a campaign led by students to save D elhi's Ridge For est. Kal -
pavriksh beli eves that a country can develop meaningfully only when ecol ogical sustainability
and social equity are guaranteed, and a sense of respect for, and oneness with nature and fel-
low humans is achieved.
In addition, a number of individuals in other Indian institutions have provided support and assis-
tance in var ious wa ys, including scientific c ooperation, that have n ot b een fo rmally linked
through contracts. Most importantly a re the National Centre for Biological Sciences and the
Centre for Wildlife Studies, both in Bangalore.
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NINA Report 736
3 Outputs
3.1 Activities taken up and completed
The project has had social science and natural science activities all over India focussing on a
number conflict species ranging from sea turtles to elephants (figure 1).
Figure 1. Project sites in India.
Several activities were planned for to fulfil the project objectives and goals. Almost all planned
activities have been completed with written technical reports submitted (table 1).
Table 1. Status on activities taken up.
Activities Investigator(s) Project period Status Report

Main project lead Jørn Thomassen 2007-2011 Completed Final report to
(NINA) RNE (this)
Project lead, India Raman Sukumar 2007-2011 Completed Final report to
(CES) RNE (this)
Activity 1. Kick off workshop Project members 2007 Completed N.A.
Activity 2. All India Forest Division Jayant Kulkarni January 2009 to Completed T echnical
level questionnaire survey of Human (CES,IISc) March 2011 report submit-
- Wildlife conflict ted
Activity 3. Attitudes of local people Included in activity N.A. N.A N.A.
towards wildlife-human conflicts 4.10
Activity 4.1a-1. Elephant-Human C. K. Sar (ANCF) 2007 - 2011 Completed Technical
Interactions in Eastern India- Orissa report submit-
ted
Activity 4.1a-2. Elephant-Human Mukti Roy (CES, 2007 - 2011 Completed Technical
Interactions in Eastern India- West IISc) report submit-
Bengal ted
Activity 4.1b. Wildlife-Human con- G. Kannan (CES, December Completed T echnical
flict in the Nilgiris Eastern Ghats IISc) 2007-March report submit-
landscape 2009 ted
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NINA Report 736
Activity 4.2. Understanding human Vidya Athreya November 2007 Completed T echnical
Leopard interactions in the western (ANCF); John Lin- - March 2011 report submit-
state of Maharashtra, India nell (NINA); Morten ted
Odden (HiHM)
Activity 4.3. The role of Canine Abi Tamin Vanak December Completed T echnical
rabies in Human-Wolf conflict: Pre- and Aniruddha Bel- 2007-Feb 2009 report submit-
liminary investigations in rural Maha- sare (ANCF) ted
rashtra, India
Activity 4.4. Crop damage by a wild Kavita Isvaran January 2008- Completed T echnical
Indian Ungulate: Investigating eco- (CES, IISc) December 2010 report submit-
logical causes and developing miti- ted
gation measures
Activity 4.5. Crop raiding by wild Milind Watve April 2008- Completed T echnical
Ungulates in Tadoba–Andhari Tiger (IISER, Pune) March 2010 report submit-
Reserve, Maharashtra: A study of ted
ecological patterns and remedial
measures
Activity 4.6a. The Trouble with Tur- Rohan Arthur (NCF, March 2008 – Completed T echnical
tles: Fishers, green turtles, and sea- Mysore) December 2010 report submit-
grass meadow dynamics in the Lak- ted
shadweep Islands
Activity 4.6b. The Nature of Conflict Kartik Shanker March 2008 – Completed T echnical
- understanding Knowledge and (CES, IISc, ATREE, December 2010 report submit-
Perceptions of and Attitudes towards Bangalore) ted
Sea Turtle Conservation in Orissa
Activity 4.7. Comparing human Kartik Shanker June 2008 – Completed T echnical
wildlife conflict across different land- (CES, IISc, ATREE, August 2009 report submit-
scapes: a framework for examining Bangalore) ted
social, political and economic issues
and a preliminary comparison be-
tween sites
Activity 4.8 has been moved to and N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A.
merged with activity 8.3
Activity 4.10. Crop Damage by Vijay Jardhari, Completed Technical
Wildlife in a Garhwal Himalayan Prabhakar Rao, report submit-
village Ayushman Choud- ted
hary (Kalpavriksh,
Pune)
Activity 5. Expert and stakeholder All projects 2007-2011 Completed, see N.A., but see
involvement chap.13 chap.13
Activity 6. Conflict mitigation N.A. Phase II N.A.
Activity 7. Convention on Biological John Linnell (NINA) 2007-2011 See chap. 15 N.A., but see
Diversity chap.15
Activity 8.1. What does large carni- Siddhartha Krishnan July 2009 - Feb- Completed T echnical
vore predation of buffalo mean to (ATREE) ruary 2011. report submit-
the Toda? Understanding cultural, ted
politico-legal and ecological contexts
and consequences of Toda conflicts
with tigers and leopards on the
Nilgiri pastures, Southern India.
Activity 8.2. Human - large carni- Sunetro Ghosal June 2008-June Completed T echnical
vore interactions in Akole, north- (ANCF) 2009 report submit-
western Maharashtra ted
Activity 8.3. Understanding and Nitin Rai and Sidd- 2009-2011 Compl eted Technical
Mitigating Human-Wildlife Conflict in hartha Krishnan report submit-
the Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple ted
Wildlife Sanctuary in the Context of
the Forest Rights Act 2006
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NINA Report 736
3.2 Results
Sections 3.2.1 – 3.2.1 5 are summa ries of the various pr oject ac tivities. An o verview of the
technical reports from each activity are found in appendix 1.
3.2.1 All India Forest Division level questionnaire survey of Human - Wildlife
conflict (activity 2)
Principle investigator: Jayant Kulkarni (CES, IISc)
Background / Study area / Study objective / Methods used
There is currently no a vailable overview of hum an-wildlife conflicts from across India. There-
fore, we conducted an all India survey of human-wildlife conflicts in order to fill this gap.
The main component of the study wa s a postal surv ey of hu man-wildlife conflicts sent to all
forest divisions in the country , using a standard questionnaire addressed to the Forest Depart-
ments of all states. The purpose was to gather data on various aspects of human-wildlife con-
flicts, including type of conflict, magnitude of conflict and species involved in conflict.
The survey was addressed to 28 Indian states. The species for which the s urvey would be car-
ried out and the main co mponents of the q uestionnaire were decided at a workshop at Indian
Institute of Sciences in N ovember 2007. Data was collected for 18 species and for 2006, 2007
and 2008.
Data was obtained from 25 states. Because of lack of respon se, data w ere not obtained from
Meghalaya, Manipur an d Simla. Data were receiv ed from 622 divisions out of a total o f 804.
Thus 77.4 % of the divisions from the 25 states are represented.
Main results
Human deaths: The total number of human deaths caused by wildlife in the years of the sur-
vey was 888 (figure 2). The total ex-gratia payment for human deaths these two years was INR
57.2 Million.
Figure 2. Number of Human Deaths in each state 2006-2008.
Human injuries: The total number of human injury cases due to wildlife was 7381 (figure 3).
The total ex-gratia paym ent for human injury was INR 34 Million. The number of inj ury cases
was very high in Madhya Pradesh.
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NINA Report 736
Figure 3. Number of Human Injuries in each state 2006-2008.
Damage to livestock: The number of livestock killed due to HWC is 14144. The total ex-gratia
payment for livestock kills is INR 37.4 Million.
Crop damage: The total number of crop dama ge cases is 80956. The total ex-gr atia payment
for crop damage is INR 100 Million.
Blackbuck crop raiding. Photo: Kavita Isvaran.
Species involved: The elephant was found to be responsible for most human deaths, followed
by leo pard, sloth bear a nd tiger. Th e maximu m number of deaths was in Assam. Th e jacka l
was reporte dly responsi ble for the maximum num ber of hu man inju ries, mostly in Madhya
Pradesh (rabies suspected). The other species r esponsible for high number of huma n injuries
are sloth bear, leopard and elephant.
Retaliatory killings of wild animals: The num ber of retali atory k illings of wild ani mals in-
cluded; 15 3 electrocutions and 50 to poisoning. T he a nimals electrocuted included el ephant,
sloth bear, nilgai, wild b oar a nd chital . The ma ximum numb ers of poisoni ng de aths we re for
leopard, tiger and elephant.
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NINA Report 736
Official permission for killing wild animals is given in cas e of animals causing danger t o
humans or loss of prop erty. 31 such cases were recorded for the p eriod of the survey a nd in-
clude elephant, leopard, tiger, monkey, black bear, wild boar, sloth bear and nilgai.
Perceptions of conflict intensity were determine d for vario us categories of human-wil dlife
conflict. The elephant, rh ino and carn ivores such as leopard, tiger, lion, all bear species and
wolf were perceived as being r esponsible fo r hu man deaths and in juries and livestock kills.
Herbivores such as r hino, nilgai, wild boar, bear species, monkey an d gaur were perceived as
being responsible for crop damage. Species perceived as responsible for p roperty damage in-
cluded elep hant, monkey, rhino, lang ur and b ear species. The elepha nt wa s perceived to be
responsible in all categories of human-wildlife conflict, except livestock kills.
Mitigation measures: Various types of mitigation measures are practised by local peo ple and
the Forest Depa rtment for managi ng human -wildlife conflict. Mitigati on measures such as
noise-making, vigilance, and ba rriers are pr actised mainly ag ainst herbivo res to preve nt crop
damage. Measures such as vig ilance, patrol squa ds, and com pensation are used a gainst her-
bivores and carnivores. Trapping, tranquilising and translocating appears to be used frequently
to manage conflicts due to leopard and monkey.
3.2.2 Elephant - Human Interactions in Eastern India- Orissa (activity 4.1a-1)
Principal investigator: Chanchal K. Sar (ANCF)
Background / Study objective / Study area / Methods used
The objective of the stud y was to gather information on human-wildlife conflicts in the e astern
Indian state of Orissa, with emphasis on elephant-human conflicts.
A questionnaire was circulated to all Forest Divisions of the state to gather more basic informa-
tion on the elephant -human conflict and other human-wildlife conflicts. Out of 50 administrative
divisions of the state forest department, 43 divisi ons were covered. Inform ation was collected
for the years 200 6, 20 07 and 20 08. The survey covered four carnivo res ( tiger, leop ard, wolf
and crocodile), two omnivores (bear and wild pig) , and one herbivore (elephant). T hrough the
survey we collected infor mation on the exte nt of crop an d p roperty dama ged by elephants,
numbers of humans killed and in jured by ele phants and other wild animals, elepha nts killed in
retaliation, e x-gratia compensation p aid, elimi nation of d angerous animal s by the for est de-
partment, rel ative abundance of wild animal s pecies involved i n conflict and mitigation strate-
gies adapted by forest department and farmers.
Elephants can cause damage to cultivated crops, and be responsible for human death and injury.
Photo: Nature Conservation Foundation.
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NINA Report 736
Main results
According to the survey, the following species are involved in conflicts: tiger, leopard, wolf and
crocodile, wild pig and sloth be ar, and elephant. All the carnivores in th e study were involved
in human attacks leading to death and injury, as well as killing of cattle. The omnivores caused
damage to cultivated crops, and were responsible for human death and injury. The only herbi-
vore, elep hant, was bla med for crop damage, property dam age, causi ng death and i njury of
humans and for killing cattle.
During the study period an average of 68.5 people were killed every year by wild animals in the
43 divisions. The majorit y of these were by el ephants (74 %), followed by sloth bear 22%. Ti-
ger, leopard, wolf and crocodile were responsible for 1% each. During the study period an av-
erage of 128 people were injured every year by wild animals in the sampled divisions. The ma-
jority of these wer e by wild bea rs (83%) fo llowed by elephant (14 %). All property (house)
damage cases wer e caused by elephants. 17 of t he divisions reported 475 partial or complete
house damages every year.
Field investigations s howed that cro ps were actually dam aged by el ephants, pigs a nd bea rs.
However, all crop dam age cases wer e recorded as being d ue to elephants. The main cr op af-
fected was paddy (rice), while maiz e, sugarcane , ragi (finger millet), jackfruit, and mangos
were also damaged by wild animals. In the samp led forest divisions a total of 7654.22 ac res of
crop, mainly paddy, were damaged by elephants during the study period.
In the state a total 9 4 el ephants were reportedly found dea d in the official records duri ng the
study period. The elephant death cases recorded were not all due to the consequences of con-
flict. However, majority of these were due to retaliatory killing by farmers and villagers. Outside
the elephant reserve areas, the level of all components of conflicts were hig her. The fragmen-
tation of forest due to e.g. i ndustrialisation and mining is asso ciated with an increas e in the
human-wildlife interface and resu lting conflicts. Th e highest number of human killings was in
the Keonjhar territorial for est division, follo wed by Sundergarh and Kar anjia. The two divisions
Keonjhar and Sundergarh cover almost 55% of the state’s total mining ar ea. The fra gmenta-
tion of forest and the dependence of tribes on forest resources cause many deaths and injuries
to humans. Particularly during the c ollection of mouha flo wers, bears commonly atta cked hu-
mans.
The establishment of big industries and the d ownstream subs idiary projects in Sa mbalpur
north, Sundergarh, Angul, Dhenkanal, Athgarh and Keonjhar forest divisions restrict the normal
movement o f elephants. The congr egation of elep hants in these par ticular places for a long
time creates food scarcity and incr easing conflic ts with people. The loss of elepha nts’ move-
ment paths of in Angul a nd Dhenkanal divisions has increas ed the pro blems of crop damage.
Farmers are now d emanding lar ge compensation s for their loss, and taking political actions,
arranging demonstrations and roadblocks.
3.2.3 Elephant - Human Interactions in West Bengal - Eastern India (activity

4.1a-2)
Principle investigator: Mukti Roy (CES, IISc)
The habitat in northern West Bengal is highly fragmented due to various developmental activi-
ties like con version of forest into tea plantat ions, settlements, agriculture and e xploitation o f
timber. Human expansion and the fra gmented landscape it causes have increased the level of
human wildlife conflicts.
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In order to understand the status of conflict in West Bengal a study has been conducted to map
human-wildlife conflicts in gen eral, a nd conflicts involving ele phants in pa rticular. The mai n
method used was to collect records from the various Forestry Department divisions.
The study also identified elephant corridors in these regions, where the elephants mainly used
tea gar dens for their migr ation. The fo cus was on one of the most crucial elephant corridors
(Bharnobari, Dalsingpa ra and Beech tea gar dens corridor) t hat fall in Buxa–Jald apara ar ea
(figure 4). These corrid ors were ma rked and mapped. Land use patterns were mapped inside
these corridor areas by tracking elephants with GPS transmitters.
Figure 4. Proposed elephant corridor in the Buxa-Jaldapara area.
Conversion of uneconomical tea gard ens to forests has been prop osed as way to red uce con-
flicts and co ntribute to carbo n sequestration. For baseline scenario carb on estimation multiple
plot tree spe cies, shrub species and g rass species were collected. The C arbon level in these
plants was e stimated. For projection scenario, sample plots of 100 0 m 2 were laid in a total of
89 plantations of different ages. Soil samples of project site and plantation area were collected
and analysed.
Main results
In West Bengal there are 3 major con flict zones. In northern West Bengal, elephants, leopards
and gaur a re the mai n conflict c ausing species. In souther n We st Beng al the mai n conflict
causing species include the elephant. In south-ea stern West Bengal (Sunderbans areas) tiger
is the main conflict causing species.
On ave rage, 6.358 cases of crop damage, 1. 429 cases of ho uses being damage and 58 hu -
man deaths were o bserved between 2000-2001, and 20 07-2008 in northe rn West Bengal. On
average 23 people were killed, 57 injured, 1. 763 houses demolished an d 2.150 hect ares of
crop land were damaged by elephant in southern West Bengal (table 2).
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Table 2. Elephant and human mortality in north Bengal and south Bengal
North Bengal South Bengal

Elephant Human Elephant Human
Year Death Death Death Death
2000-2001 20 58 4 17
2001-2002 15 56 8 36
2002-2003 35 61 2 20
2003-2004 21 52 NA 16
2004-2005 25 72 NA 27
2005-2006 19 62 NA 25
2006-2007 28 58 NA 20
2007-2008 32 44 NA 17
In the Sunderbans, south West Bengal, an average of 8 people were killed and 18 people were
injured by tigers every year from 2006-2009.
In norther n West Bengal elepha nt-human conflict cases increased with the increase in forest
fragmentation. Consolidating of habitat and land use planning is needed to reduce level of con-
flict in these areas. Plans are bei ng drafted to restore ele phant corridors be tween fragmented
forest patches by taking unprofitable tea g ardens out of production and replanting forest. The
socio-economic analysis takes into account multiple factors, including the future of the present
work-force and possible carbon sequestration benefits.
3.2.4 Wildlife - Human Interactions: Nilgiri Eastern Ghats Landscape (activity

4.1b)
Principal investigator: Kannan (CES, IISc)
The expansion of roads and township areas, increasing areas of cultivation and uncontrollable
tourism app ears to h ave resulted i n human wildlife conflict in the Nilgi ri E astern Gh ats land-
scape. A stu dy on human-wildlife int eraction in these landscapes has be en carried out to as-
sess the conflict status and to suggest possible solutions. The purpose of the study was to map
the spatial and temporal distribution of human-wild life conflicts in the study area, e valuate the
wildlife hum an inte raction across the forest di vision in Nilgiri Eastern Gha ts landscape an d
mitigation measures used in the landscape, and to understand people’s attitudes towards wild-
life conservation.
Eleven villa ges were selected for monitoring of crop damag e by ele phants as well as cattle
depredation by larger carnivores. Sathyamangalam forest division was exc lusively selected for
studying crop damage by blackbuck antelope. Data was collected from January 2 008 to March
2009.
The study villages wer e visited twice a mont h to record d ata on crop damage b y el ephants,
blackbuck and cattle depred ation by tigers and leopards. Data on crop type, crop phe nology,
area of dam age and w hether it had been trampled or eaten, mitigation measures a nd GPS lo-
cation of the place were collected during each visit to the study village.
Landowners were asked about the group composition of animals. In case of cattle lifting market
value of the cattle, the animal respon sible for damage, an d l ocation of th e incident w ere col-
lected from the owner of the cattle. Apart from these data on crop raiding and cattle lifting com-
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pensation cl aims was collected from forest depa rtment for the last five years to a nalyze th e
trend of conflicts over the time period.
Elephants crossing a road. Photo: John Linnell.
Main results
The le vel of damag e b y eleph ants was extr emely hi gh in Bandipur, S athyamangalam an d
Nilgiri North forest divisions. This coul d be related to the availability of palatable crops through-
out the ye ar. During th e study perio d 240 case s of crop dam age b y elep hants were r eported
out of which Bandipur Tiger reserve h ad the highest frequency of damage when compa red to
other divisions in the landscape.
Similarly, 81 cases of crop damage by blackbu ck were reported from peripheral villages of
Bhavani sagar and the S athyamagalam range of Sathyamangalam forest division. The emer-
gence of crop damage by blackbuck in the periphery of Sathyamangalam division is a recent
development and although it is curren tly negligible it may beco me severe in the future, n eces-
sary steps need to be taken to prevent such damage.
Conflicts involving car nivores have been increasing every year in the a rea. 21 cases of cattle
lifting by carnivores were reported across the landscape in targeted villages in the study period.
Among these villages in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve were affected most.
Information on compensation paid where elephants have caused damage to crops or property,
or injuries and deaths towards humans , were collected from the forest divisions. Among all the
divisions, Bandipur Tiger Reserve has the highest amounts of compensation paid.
Elephants cause the lar gest amount of economic loss among all the conflict animals. The in-
tention with the compen sation sche me towards people affected by elep hants is to minimise
negative attitude towa rds conserva tion of the species. The tole rance level of affected people
was probably high in the beginnin g of the scheme, however curre ntly there is widespread dis-
satisfaction about the scheme among villagers.
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3.2.5 Understanding Human - Leopard interactions in the western state of Ma-

harashtra, India (activity 4.2)
Principal investigators: Vidya Athreya, Kaati Trust (Pune), John Linnell (NINA) & Morten Odden
(UMB/HiHM).
A lack of understandin g of the ecology behi nd leopard conflicts is one of the gre at knowledge
gaps in Indian wildlife research. The goal of this project has be en to conduct targeted ecologi-
cal studies of leopard -human c onflict in multi-use landscapes . The study was conducted be -
tween 2007 and 2011 in a highly p opulated irrigated valley in the Akole subdistrict, in the west-
ern edge of the Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra.
Local and state data o n leopard c onflict were obtained. A spa tial survey o f damage, conflict
events, density and distribution of human populations, as well as the density and distribution of
livestock, fer al animals and the prese nce of l eopards was conducted. Further, the main prey
base of leopards in human-d ominated landscapes was quantified and a pr ey census was con-
ducted.
GPS telemetry technolo gy was used t o understand how th e leopards utilise the human domi-
nated landscape, leopard scats were collected fo r obtaining data on diet composition and pre y
selection and for acquiring DNA samples that w ill be used for leopard p opulation density esti-
mation, and camera traps were used to census the leopard population.
Leopard equipped with a GPS sender. Photo: Jørn Thomassen.
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Main results
Five leopards were equip ped with GPS collars to track the leopard’s movem ents. A total of 11
adult leop ards were p hotographed wi th the use of camera trap s, six females and five males.
Two of the six females were ph otographed with accompanying cubs. There was a high d egree
of concordance between the camera trap and DNA based estimates of leopard density – in the
region of 6 animals per 100km2.
Leopard positions in and around Akole, Maharashtra. Map: Google.
In the 31 villages in the study area a total of 223 cases were filed with the forest department for
compensation for d omestic animals killed du e to l eopards. Co mpensation claims repor ted to
the Forest Department s how th at the average bi omass killed by leopards each year is 4360
kilos. The main proportion of species found in leopard scats was livestock and dog.
Leopards have a pan-Indian range and among the wild carnivores are responsible for the larg-
est number of attacks on humans, many being fatal as well. Furthermore, because of the scar-
city of scientific informatio n on the leopards especially when they live outside Protected Areas,
managers di d not h ave the baselin e knowledge r equired to d eal with the conflict issue effec-
tively. Using the results of this collab orative effort, the Ministr y for Envir onment and Forests
also issued guidelines which were se nt by the Fore st Minister to all the Chief Minister s of all
the states and to the Chief Wildlife Wardens as well.
3.2.6 The role of Canine rabies in Human- Wolf conflict: Preliminary investiga-
tions in rural Maharashtra, India (activity 4.3)
Principal Investigators: Abi Tamin Vanak and Aniruddha Belsare (ANCF)
Wolves and other wild canids occur in locations close to human dominated areas in India. Free
roaming domestic dogs are common in such la ndscapes, and are known reservoir of rabies. A
potential for spill over of canine rabies to wolves and other canids exists; and rabies might play
an important role in human-wolf conflict.
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NINA Report 736
A preliminary survey was undertaken to investigate the role of rabies as a driver of human-wolf
conflicts in Solapur, Ahmednagar and Osmanabad districts of Maharashtra between December
2007 and January 2009. Villages for the work were select ed on the basis of either newspaper
reports of wolf attacks on humans or regional civil hospital records of human rabies deaths and
dog-bite injuries. Records from the Mahar ashtra Forest Depart ment (MFD) were accessed for
wolf attack data, and the Maharashtra State Animal Husbandry Department records for domes-
tic animal post-bite treatment data.
A questionn aire sur vey was conducted d uring dog vaccination campaig ns orga nized by th e
Maharashtra Forest D epartment in villages. The aim was to d etermine the attitude of vil lagers
towards free-ranging dogs, dog and wolf attacks on humans, awareness regarding rabies, and
any actions they may have taken towards preventing rabies or animal bites.
After the ce ntre-point va ccination ca mpaign in each village, house visits for vaccinating dog s
which could not be brought to the vaccination station w ere conducted. Owned and ownerless
dogs that we re difficult to get to were captured using box traps. We used th e opportunity pro-
vided by the vaccination campaigns to test the dogs for rabies.
Wolf attack victims were interview ed, and we monitored the status of the human as w ell as
animal victims periodically durin g the study pe riod. One w olf captured in Solapur city was
tested for rabies.
Wolf. Rabies might play an important role in human-wolf conflict. Photo: Nature Conservation Foun-
dation.
Results
Over a five year period, reco rds of 24 incidences of wolf attacks on humans were obt ained in
Ahmednagar and Solapur districts, resulting in four human deaths.
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Although much attention is given to co nflict situations arising fro m human-leopard encounters,
this high rate of conflict invol ving wolves does not seem to hav e gathered as much attention,
other than sporadic reports in the local media.
There may b e several re asons why this human-w olf conflict d oes not gar ner much attention.
These attacks o ccur over a wide g eographic area in a sporadic and un predictable manner.
Thus there are no “hotspots” of conflict as is the case with leopard and elephant. Furthermore,
these attacks are not predatory in nature, and since the “problem” animal is often killed within a
short span of time, there is little simmering discontent among the local population.
The pattern of wolf attacks on humans indicates the presence of rabid beh aviour by these ani-
mals. Since the Indian wolf populations occurs at low densities, they are unlikely to be the main
reservoir of rabies, and are more likely to get infected with rabies from a more common host
reservoir. In India, dogs are im plicated in 9 6% of rabies rel ated mortality e vents and ar e the
main reser voir host of this virus. In most rural settings, dogs commonly are associated wit h
households or settlements and referred to as village dogs. Village dogs are usually well-
tolerated by people, with the ex ception of dogs sh owing ra bies-like symptoms. There a re re-
ports of villagers killing dogs with such symptoms. However, these incidences are not recorded
or documented, and laboratory confirmation of rabies has never been undertaken. As a result ,
there is no epidemiological data available for canine rabies in rural India.
Human rabies is diagnos ed based on the history of an animal bite a nd the clinical symptoms.
Once such diagnosis is reached the relatives accompanying the patient are encouraged to take
the patient home as ther e is no available treatme nt and death is inevitable. As a result, almost
all rabies deaths happen outside the hospital and thus are not recorded. Further, because rela-
tives as well as the hospitals are reluctant to conducting post-mortem examinations, there is a
lack of labor atory co nfirmed cases. According to a n ational multi-centre survey to assess the
burden of human rabies in India, published in 2007, there has not been a single laboratory con-
firmed case of human rabies.
The results from the que stionnaire surveys indicate the attitud e of local pe ople to the dange rs
of rabies is cavalier, with a ll respon dents indicating a lack of aware ness of simple preventiv e
measures such as administering anti-rabies vaccination of owned dogs.
3.2.7 Crop damage by a wild Indian Ungulate: Investigating ecological causes

and developing mitigation measures (activity 4.4)
Principal investigator: Kavita Isvaran (CES)
Background / Study site / Study objective / Methods used
Some animals’ behaviou ral decisions directly impact human livelihoods an d may thereb y un-
dermine conservation goals. In order to address this growing concern, it is essential to unde r-
stand the patterns and causes of this beh aviour. In this study t he crop use behaviour of black-
buck was investigated. The blackbuck is an antelop e of the o pen plains en demic to the Indian
subcontinent.
The study was conducted at th e Gr eat Indian Bustard Sanct uary, Nannaj, and aime d to de-
velop a pr edictive framework for crop use by blackbuck by addressing the larger q uestion of
the factors explaining the use of a typically varied grassland-crop field landscape by blackbuck.
The study examined veg etation composition in the ar ea, spe cifically grasses, and bla ckbuck
use of the major ha bitat types. The se were pr otected grasslands, unprotected grasslands,
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plantations and agricultur al areas. Ecological fa ctors assumed to influence use of habitat by
blackbuck were also examined.
Blackbuck. Photo: Nature Conservation Foundation.
Results
Grass species richness, height, and above gro und plant bio mass varied widely acro ss the
landscape. Blackbuck e ncounter rates in the thr ee non-agricultural habitats varied sea sonally.
Protected grasslands were used extensively, followed by unprotected grasslands and l east in
plantations. The intensit y of use of an area b y blackbuck, as measured b y the abund ance of
indirect signs, was strongly affected by fora ge ch aracteristics, particularly grass bioma ss and
grass height, habitat openness (a measure of shrub and tree density in an area) and presence
of livestock.
Blackbuck on crop fields. Photo: Kavita Isvaran.
Blackbuck distribution va ried widely over space and time a nd appeared to reflect animals bal-
ancing forage quality with a perception of threat. The findings suggest that during the monsoon
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and early wi nter, whe n n utritional levels in t he for age are relatively hig h, b lackbuck ma y p ay
greater attention to perceived risk and avoid u nprotected grasslands wi th their highe r hu man
activity and livestock an d congreg ate in the prot ected patches, particula rly in the pr otected
grasslands. Towards summer, when nutritional levels are low in the for age, blackbuck appe ar
to use the landscape more widely and range both in protected patches, where human activity is
low but gras ses are taller and the hab itat is less open, and in unprotected patches, where hu -
man activity is high and t here is some livesto ck presence but grasses are shorter a nd perhaps
more profitable.
Contrary to earlier reports, this study finds that at the larger scale, blackbuck use of agricultural
habitats at N annaj was marginal rath er than wi despread, and was highly localized to a subset
of agricultur al areas a djoining n on-agricultural habitats, with cereals bein g the most affected
crops. At the scale of a field, use and consequently crop damage varied considerably. Perhaps
due to a per ceived higher risk, blackbuck forays into agricultural habitats was also restricted to
not more than 34 meters. Mitigation measures c an be tried an d tested in the study area as oc-
currence of crop damage can be predicted quite accurately. The process of choosing w orkable
mitigation methods for implementation is underway.
3.2.8 Crop raiding by wild Ungulates in Tadoba–Andhari Tiger Reserve, Maha-

rashtra: A study of ecological patterns and remedial measures (activity 4.5)
Principal investigator: Milind Watve (IISER, Pune)
Tadoba-Andhari Tig er Reserve (TATR) lies in th e Ch andrapur district of Vidarb ha region of

Maharashta. It supports a wide a ssemblage of ungulates, such as wild b oar, nilgai a ntelope,
sambar, chital, gaur, and barking deer.
Wild boar is one of the main crop raiding species in the Tadoba area. Photo: Jan Ove Gjershaug.
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On the western b order of the Tadob a range the forest borders onto agricultural lands. 75 % of
the agricultu re in this ar ea is subsistence type and monsoo n depe ndent. Although rai nfall is
high, it is irregular and affects crop productivity . Crop r aiding by wild h erbivores wors ens the
scenario and is therefore a major reas on for conf lict. Wild boar and nilgai are responsible for
most of the crop attacks.
Crop r aiding is affe cted by a lar ge n umber of va riables including animal behaviour, region al
climatic conditions, and local croppi ng patterns. An ecological study of crop raiding by wild un-
gulate speci es along the north ern part of west ern bou ndary of the Tad oba-Andhari Tig er R e-
serve (TATR) was con ducted with th e pu rpose of identifying multiple factors that may be re-
sponsible for initiation and aggravation of the crop raiding phenomenon.
The study w as conducted in two ph ases. In the first phase the two cropping seasons namel y
Kharif (monsoon crops) a nd Ra bbi (p ost monsoon crops) of the yea r 200 8-09 wer e covered .
This phase was of an e xploratory nature an d co nsisted of intervie ws of farmers as we ll as a
first hand assessment of crop damage.
Learning fro m the first phase the survey design was refined in the secon d phase and farms
along three to ten kilometre long tr ansects extending away from the park boundary were moni-
tored periodically throughout the two cropping seasons.
Main results
Through interviews we id entified different types of damages caused by di fferent species. The
raids by wild boar appeared to be well distributed throughout the season whereas those by nil-
gai were more likely after ripening.
People ge nerally claimed that crop raidi ng was un common dur ing the mon soon and b ecame
more common after the end of monsoon season. The practice of physically guar ding the fields
typically starts post monsoon. The observational data o n the other hand showe d that attacks
were frequent in both Kharif (monsoon) and Rabbi (post monsoon) crops but animals appeared
to travel greater distances for crop raiding in the rabbi season. The losses due to crop damage
were estimated to be close to 50 % of the net produce.
Apart from d irect loss by eating, tram pling o r di gging, indir ect losses caused b y discourage-
ment of farmers from investing in intensive agriculture appear to contribute to the losses.
Among the variety of crops gro wn i n the a rea s ome ar e mo re pr one to raiding com pared to
others. Interestingly, although soybean was among the most frequently raided crops there was
an increasing trend to gr ow soybean. On the ot her hand, kara dai, the suffola oil seed has no
threat of crop damage at all but very few farmers grow it. For karadai the difficulty in harvesting
and inability to reach the right market channels are the likely factors preventing its wide scale
cultivation. It appears that raiding is not the major factor in the choice of crops, but that it is the
market value that dominates the decision.
The observational data shows that the frequency of raids by wild ungulates decreases with dis-
tance from the park. Nevertheless animals appear to cover a long distance to raid crops. In the
post monsoon animals appeared to travel greater distances to raid crops and this might be ow-
ing to active guarding in park neighbouring areas. Individual fields could be raided about once
in a month. Nevertheless owing to their unpr edictability, guarding was necessary every night.
This is a major ad ded, but hidde n, cost in term s of man-h ours that farmers close to the park
incur.
In spite of lo sses incurred du e to crop raiding, there are few records of far mers claiming com-
pensation although the g overnment offers compensation packages. It is likely that farme rs are
traditionally habituated t o losses due to crop raidi ng, and hence it is not considere d to be a n
issue of serious magnitu de. It is also possible that they do n ot know abo ut the compen sation
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packages or are kept awa y by the corruption and/or bureaucracy involved in such procedures.
The study certainly indicates that estimates of crop damage based on compensation claims are
not realistic.
Since the direct and indirect damages estimated are substantial, compensation is unlikely to be
an effective solution in th e long run. One needs to look for better long term remedies such as
the use of non-palatable crops or novel deterrents for crop raiding species.
3.2.9 The Trouble with Turtles: Fishers, green turtles, and seagrass meadow dy-
namics in the Lakshadweep Islands (activity 4.6a)
Principal investigator: Rohan Arthur, Nature Conservation Foundation (NCF), Mysore
Background/ Study area / Study objective / Methods used
The herbivorous green turtle is globall y threatened, but locally ver y abundant around the Lak-
shawadeep islands, especially in the Agatti lagoon. Hunting has been banned for mo re than a
decade, a nd fishers in L akshawadeep no w blam e t he green turtle for a decline in the ir fish
catch. Agatti Island, where the conflict is at its severest, was chosen as a main focus area for a
study of conflicts between conservation of green turtles and the interests of local fishers.
While part of the conflict between fishers and turtles can be explained b y accidental gear dam-
age and other direct damage cause d by th e turtle, it cannot completely e xplain the stre ngth of
the fishers’ reactions against the green turtle.
Agatti island is part of the Lakshadweep islands south-west of India. Map: Google Earth.
The ob ject o f the study was to explo re both fi rst- and second -order c onflicts between fishers
and green turtles in a seagrass meadow in the Lakshadweep Archipelago. First-order conflicts
are conflicts that aris e as a result of animals directly utilising resources valued by humans.
Second-order conflicts arise when a s pecies is affecting a res ource not directly utilised by hu-
mans, but whose modification results in real or p erceived los ses of resou rces valued by hu-
mans.
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Individual and focus grou p interviews were conducted with fishers and other community mem-
bers in order to gather traditional eco logical knowledge and map their perc eptions of th e driv-
ers of conflict. Based on these in itial studies, a series of ecol ogical studies were conducted in
the seagrass meadow to explore the validity of some of the fishers’ claims.
Main results
The results from the interviews with local fishers suggested that numbers have increased since
the hunting ban. The perception among the fishing community of Agatti Island is that green tur-
tles, found in the lagoon in high dens ities, are both directly and i ndirectly responsible for a de-
cline in fish catches. This notion is strongl y held by the majority of the fishing community, and
has resulted in clandestine killing and other persecution of green turtles.
Fishers identified several mechanisms through whi ch turtles re duced their ability to catch fish.
Green turtles were percei ved as creating a distur bance around nets that scare fish away fro m
nets and reduces their catch as a re sult. Turtles were also ac cused of bre aking through net s
and lines, causing significant economi c losses and opportunity costs, until n ets were re paired
or new gear purchased. These can be categorised as first-order conflicts.
Another mechanism fishe rs identified as reducing fish catch was overgrazing of the seagrass
meadow in t he lago on b y turtles. Th e fishers me ant that over grazing lowered the pote ntial of
the meadow to attract fish. Adult fish from the coral reef were less inclined to enter the meadow
when it was over grazed. It was also the fishers’ perception th at overgrazed meadows l ead to
lower fish re cruitment and juvenile settlement in them. Ove rgrazing that le ads to r educing fish
abundance can be classified as a second-order conflict.
Green turtle at the beach in Lakshadweep. Photo: Rohan Arthur.
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The observational and experimental studies condu cted in the A gatti lagoon evaluated the abil-
ity of turtles to modify seagrass ecosy stems. The studies indicated that increasing densities of
the gre en tu rtle resulted in significant c hanges i n structure and d ynamics of the se agrass
meadows in the lagoon.
The lag oon showed a cl ear spatial variation i n the numb ers of turtles, which, at the highest
density sites had n umbers that ri valled the high est reported anywhere. This variation resulted
in different intensities in g razing across the lagoon, and gave the possibility to study the gree n
turtles ability to significantly modify seagrass ecosystems at large scales.
The results showed that the tu rtles substantially changed the seagrass meadow structure, b y
reducing can opy hei ght, shoot lengt h, width and d ensity. The turt les modify plant growt h, re-
duce floweri ng and can potentially even cause c hanges in the species composition of the
meadow.
Comparison between different places in the lag oon with variable turtle densities and with other
islands with very low densities of green turtles, showed that the amount of fish was very signifi-
cantly impacted by green turtle-induced reductions of seagrass canopy height.
3.2.10 The Nature of Conflict - understanding Knowledge and Perceptions of and

Attitudes towards Sea Turtle Conservation in Orissa (activity 4.6b)
Principal investigator: Kartik Shanker (CES)
Orissa, on the east coast of India is one of the three global sites where synchronous nesting of
thousands of olive ridley turtles occurs, making this a well-recog nised ecological region. How-
ever, fishing communities have begun resisting official marine conservation laws.
Ridleys turtle at the beach in Orissa. Photo: Kartik Shanker.
This study aimed to document the different kinds of gears and craft used in the marine villages,
as well as develo ping a n unde rstanding of peo ples’ aware ness, perception and attitude to-
wards the sea turtles, conservation in general, fisheries laws and management.
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The study included both primary a nd secondary data. While secondar y information wa s col -
lected from official sources and lib raries, primary data was col lected through field sur veys be-
tween March and May 2010.
Main results
Fishing prac tices are often viewed as a thre at to conserv ation. So far sea turtle mortality in
Orissa is reported to occur most often in bottom trawl nets, and gillnets.
Trawler owners and capt ains are often unwilling t o abide by the rules of either the marine pro-
tected areas and other a reas where they are not allowed to fish . Fisherman associations have
started protests because they perceive turtle conservation as being an obstacle against fishing
rights.
Other threats towards the turtles are developments on or ne ar their nesting beaches, such as
building of plantations, artificial illumination, and proposals for commercial ports.
The conflicts arising out o f the lack of agreement on conservation is also attributed to fail ure of
different groups, such as fisher folk, government departments, scientists and conservationists
to come together to w ork out effectiv e, appropriate, and com monly agreed upon conservation
measures.
3.2.11 Comparing Human - Wildlife conflict across different landscapes: a frame-

work for examining social, political and economic issues and a preliminary
comparison between sites (activity 4.7)
Principal investigator: Vishnupriya Kolipakam and Kartik Shanker (CES)
Though protected areas in India are intended to separ ate humans from wildlife, they do so to
varying degrees due to t he presence of hum ans in most parks and sanctuaries. Beyond these
protected areas, there are large areas of overlap between people and wildlife at the bor ders of
these parks, and vast tracts of agricultural and wildlife habitat wher e people and wildlife come
into contact and conflict with each other.
Hence, attitudes of local people to wil dlife are an important ele ment of conservation, and their
support and attitude towards coexistence is important for conservati on regimes. This study e x-
amines historical, socio-economic, political and socio-cultural fact ors that contribute to conflict
in two study areas. The first area, Kutch in the state Gujarat is a protected area, while the sec-
ond, Rollap adu in Andhr a Pradesh, is a non-prot ected area. The method s used were struc-
tured questionnaires and focus group discussions.
Main results
The two study sites wer e similar in the specie s involved in conflict. They both e xperienced
problems with crop r aiding by ungulates (blackbuck in Rollapa du and nilgai in Kutch) an d live-
stock loss due to the presence of wolves. However there are significant differences between
the areas in the manifestation of conflict. In terms of their legal status, the area studied in Kutch
is not protected, while Rollapadu includes a sanctuary.
In Kutch, nilgai ar e given high religious value because of their resemblance to the cow that is
considered sacred by Hindus. The same tolerance was not shown towards wolves in Kutch. In
Rollapadu the overall attitude tow ards blackbuck was very negative. According to the co mmu-
nity, this was because of t he high density of blackbuck in the area, and the lack of proper com-
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pensation schemes and remune ration from forest department for lands th at have be en an-
nexed to cre ate the sanctuary. The overall attitude towards the wolves seemed to be pos itive,
but there are more agriculturalists than pastoralists in this area.
Nilgai antelope is part of the conflict picture. Photo: Nature Conservation Foundation.
The study shows that th ere is not necessarily a link between how oft en p eople encou nter o r
experience damage cau sed by wild species, and the e xtent of their n egative sentiments to -
wards the species. Histo rical and cultural fact ors may pla y an important ro le in shaping peo-
ple’s attitudes. For example, in Kutch, people with low encounter rates and/or with no damage
from wolves had negative opinions about wolves, while in R ollapadu, people with both l ow and
high encounter rates with wolves were positive. However, this does need to be verified against
actual losses incurred from wolves in both areas, and whether differences in levels of p astoral-
ism influenced this difference in attitude.
There were key differenc es in the attitudes towards compensation schemes. In Kutch, where
compensation schemes were not introduced on a regular basis, people felt that it could not re-
place their losses. But in Rollap adu, where compensation is supposed to be pr ovided on a
regular basis, people feel that more and regul ar compensation c ould help to resolve conflict.
Communities from both areas fe lt that the gover nment was not sensitive to their need s, and
that it needed to take active steps to p rotect them from crop loss. Both areas also agreed that
conservation laws were not usef ul to society and that they s hould be dr afted in consultation
with local communities.
In Kutch, most people favoured non-lethal solutions to conflict, while in Rollapadu, people were
more antagonistic, and felt that either elimination o r implementation of satisfactory compensa-
tion pro grammes were required. This antagonism is likely to be relate d to the fact that most
villages have not received compensation for the la nds taken over by the for est department for
the sanctuary, and beca use of procedur al difficulties in getting compen sation for crop loss.
While there are multiple axes along which the tw o areas differ, the pres ence of the sanctuary
and th e rel ationship with the forest d epartment appears to h ave cr eated additional l evels of
conflict and antagonism in the Rollapadu region.
These case studies sho w how a ntagonism towards laws can lead to retali ation, and n egative
attitudes towards animals, thus having the opposite effect than the laws were intended to have.
The need to involve communities in creating conservation frameworks, or at least in local deci-
sion making, seems necessary if their support is required for conservation.
The results presented in this report are pr eliminary, an d further data collection and a nalysis
should be carried o ut. The gap in p eople's perception about conflict, offi cial figures, and go v-
ernment pe rceptions abo ut conf lict needs to be more closely examine d. Given the r ole of a
suite of social factors, such as local knowle dge, culture, economic status and governance, it is
critical that future studies incorpor ate these aspects to gain a n uanced understanding of con-
flict which will lead to better mitigation and m anagement plans. Even more important, a general
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NINA Report 736
understanding of the drivers of conflict can help shape policy so that conflict can be reduced to
the greatest extent p ossible. At the very l east, policy needs to be modified, so that it do es not
aggravate conflict and negatively impact conservation objectives.
3.2.12 Crop Damage by Wildlife in a Garhwal Himalayan village (activity 4.10)
Principle investigator: Vijay Jardhari, Prabhakar Rao and Ayushman Choudhary

(KALPAVRIKSH)
Summary
Jardhargaon village is situated in the Himalayan foothills, in the di strict of Tehri Garhwal in the
State of Uttarakhand. The village has a total population of 2000. Most villagers are engaged in
agriculture. The pro blem of wildlife damaging cr ops has increased recentl y. Based on inter-
views and discussions with the farmin g community of Jardha rgaon, the stu dy briefly describes
the situation of crop damage in the village, and seeks to identify potential solutions.
Rhesus Macaques cause extensive damage to crops in the Jardhargaon village, Uttarakhand. Pho-
to: Jan Ove Gjershaug.
Farmers wh ose fields ar e situated in close pro ximity to fores ts report th at they have always
lived with wild animals a nd ar e accustomed to some crop lo ss from the m. The situation ha s
become wor se with wildlife numbers increasing coupled with shrinkage in t he forested area .
Monkeys and wild boar cause t he greatest problems by tramp ling, uproot ing and eati ng the
plants and crops. Months of hard labour can be undone by wildlife raiding crops, monkeys dur-
ing day time and boar during night.
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These are some of the suggestions given by the villagers to deal with crop raiding:
• The villagers are demanding controlled culling of pigs and trapping (and relocation) of
monkeys. They want the Gove rnment to pay for all the c harges involved. The villagers
want trapped monkeys moved a way from the village and released in wildli fe sanctuar-
ies.
• The deman d of farmers is that compensation should be base d on market values of
crops. Instead of cash, the farmers are read y to accept crops and gr ain as compensa-
tion.
• In the valle ys, solar fencing is being demanded by farmers. They want this to be done
under the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREG) being implemented
in the State. Construction of stone walls is another option. Such walls and fences can
keep away many animals but not monkeys.
• Monkey sterilization has also been suggested as way of reducing their numbers.
• There has never been a greater need of revi ving some of the n eglected age old prac-
tices of keeping wild animals away from the farms.
• Eradication of lantana (a n invasive pl ant species) and planting grass and other fodder
species is another programme sugg ested und er NREG. Lant ana has spread wildly in
the grasslands in close p roximity to the houses and farms. These thickets are b elieved
to provide ideal resting place for pigs.
3.2.13 What does large carnivore predation of buffalo mean to the Toda? Under-
standing cultural, politico-legal and ecological contexts and consequences
of Toda conflicts with tigers and leopards on the Nilgiri pastures, Southern
India (activity 8.1)
Principle investigator: Siddhartha Krishnan, ATREE (Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and
the Environment)
Afforestation in the Nilgiri hills has provided a habitat for ti gers and leopards, and lead to an
increase of their prese nce. This has again lea d to an increas e in attack o n buffaloes, which
serve as both livestock and cultural symbols for t he Toda. The Todas in the Nilgiri hills are a
community of around 1 500 persons. Although tradit ionally they were pastoralists with a b uffalo
based economy, the Todas have gr adually become more de pendent on agriculture. However,
the buffalos still are of great cultural importance.
Tiger predation on sacred buffalos is a major problem for the Todas. Photo: Espen Lie Dahl.
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Using a qual itative sociological frame work this study seeks to go b eyond the materi al conse-
quences of pred ation, a nd to understand wh at these conflicts mean to the Todas, wh o hav e
their own definitions of the conflict. Understanding what conflicts mean to people, their capabili-
ties and needs, is important in deciding strategies for confli ct mitigation and landscape man-
agement.
Topic guided and oral history inte rviews were conducted with Toda families belonging t o all of
their 15 patriclans (family groups claiming common ancestry through the male line). In addition
field notes of landscape observations, unstructured encounters and conflict events were written
down. Documentary and archival records were sourced from the state archives in Chennai and
from Toda respondents who possessed such records.
Main results
Material evidence for tige r presence and predation was collected throu gh narration of e ncoun-
ters by Toda s, physical e vidence observed during fieldwork as well as photogra phs of injured
buffaloes and carcasses. Buffalo predation has material consequences in terms of loss of live-
lihood. The main income bringing livestock products from the buffalo are milk and dung.
In addition to their significance for livelihood, buffalo are given high cultural value. Toda religion
is a highly ritualized buffa lo cult, and sacred buffa los are central in lifec ycle events. The Toda
classify their buffaloes into different categor ies, rangin g fro m the domestic to the ritual-
sacramental. You h ave the ‘secular’ b uffalo that are reared and milked for d omestic purposes.
In addition there ar e various categories of ‘sacred’ buffalo asso ciated with each patriclan. The
sacred buffalos are gi ven high ritu al importanc e a nd gr aze on pastures ar ound templ es. Milk
from sacred buffalo can only be used for temple rituals, and n ot for h ousehold or commercial
use. A sacred buffalo killed by a tiger cannot be replaced.
A sacred buffalo killed by a tiger cannot be replaced. Photo: Ketil Skogen.
Todas perceptions of livestock loss also need to be located in a wider phenomenon of change
in the pastoral landscape. For the Todas the Nilgiris Shola pastures are a well defined mix of a
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sacred and production (cultural) landscape. Transformation of grasslands into eucalyptus, pine
and wattle p lantations ha s reduced grazing rang es. In additio n the new f orests also provide
tigers with cover to prey upon Toda Buffalos more often.
For the Todas, both the forests and the tigers are perceived as not belonging in their pas tures.
The forest d epartment which has afforested t heir landscape are believed to have rele ased the
tigers from zoos into thei r landscapes . Todas clai m that the tigers’ ‘unn atural’ be haviour, in-
cluding occasional failure to fell a captured buffalo or their frequent proximity to hamlets is evi-
dence for this theory.
The re port a rgues that conflict resolution and its institutionalization thro ugh landscape leve l
conservation can only succeed if one understands the Toda ideas of landscape, predator pres-
ence and conservation.
3.2.14 Human - large carnivore interactions in Akole, north-western Maharashtra

(activity 8.2)
Principal investigator: Sunetro Goshal (ATREE / UMB)
Background / Study site / Study objective / Methods used
The area a round Akole in the sout h western part of Maharashtra is an agricultural landscape,
with a compl ex web of h uman communities that share space with a dense population of leop-
ards. From a social scien tific perspective this study investigates how people and wildlife, spe-
cifically large carnivores, coexist in a human-dominated rural landscape in western India, which
is outside th e protected area network. Besides providin g a d escriptive account of the interac-
tion, the research asks why peopl e tolerate a potentially dangerous carn ivore in their midst,
and how they deal with issues of conflict.
Data was collected throu gh fieldwork using par ticipant obser vation and q ualitative inter views.
Historical data was obtained throu gh archival re search. This project us es the findings as a
point of dep arture to focus on the complex ne gotiations carried out in the socio-economic, po-
litical, cultur al and ecolo gical landscapes, which modulate coex istence an d conflicts b etween
people and large carnivores.
Main results / conclusions
Interactions betwee n lar ge carnivor es and p eople are co mplex, espe cially in a human-
dominated multi-use lan dscapes. In Akole, different systems of knowle dge coe xist and com-
pete, each with their own sets of assumptions, implications and grey areas. The various trends
influence attitudes toward s leopards, and pr ovide a context to adapt to the presence of large
carnivores in the landscape.
Although neither static nor u niversal, there exists a d egree of empath y to wards the le opards
amongst pe ople in Akole that st ems from a worl dview that places people and their culture
within nature. This worldview is informed by religious, especially Hindu, social and cultural nar-
ratives.
People in Akole are not necessarily obsessed with the idea of life being sacred and in some
circumstance are willing to entertain the idea of killing too. Furt hermore, there are obvious indi-
vidual variations in the strength of this belief. The important p oint her e is to acknowled ge it s
existence and possible impact on attitudes towards leopards.
In some of the communities, like Thakkars and lower class Maratha famili es, the leopards fea-
ture amo ngst the rich pa ntheon of vill age deities, in the form of the “big cat” deity Waghoba,
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and the female deity Waghjaimata. These narr atives bring th e leopar d into the human social
sphere and also provide a framework to negotiate coexistence between people and large cats,
through a mix of respect, social control and appeasement.
Some communities perceive the leopard male (and the tiger) as the deity Waghoba, and the female
as the deity Waghjaimata. Photo: Espen Lie Dahl (leopard) / John Linnell (Waghoba).
Several indi viduals a dmitted that the y w ere scar ed of le opards and would rath er the y be re -
moved from their area to a conservation landscape. These individuals subscribed to a different
narrative, which respects the leop ard and its right to live b ut in a pr otected area and not in an
agricultural landscape like Akole. Em pathy is also strained by the existence of fear of leopa rd
attacks on humans. Protest marches are known to be held in the immediate wake of leopar d
attacks.
The leop ards of Akole are also inve sted wi th deep symbolic meanings. The most pertinen t
symbolisation of leopards (and wolves) in the research sites has been as an expression of so-
cial relations, stresses of stratification and inherent power dynamics.
For instance , many m embers of ma rginal co mmunities, and e ven the lo wer classes of domi-
nant communities, claimed the go vernment released leopards to pre vent them from extr acting
firewood from their plantations. T hese individuals were willing to tolerate the presence of large
carnivores and even the occasional loss of livestock or dogs, as they had no other option. This
attitude is e mbedded in a wider pe rception of po werlessness to influence decisions th at affect
them, at different levels.
In contrast, the wealthier and more powerful individuals viewed the leopards as a threat to their
authority and wanted them removed from the landscape. These individuals blame the state for
not acting but exercised their influence to ensure that the department put up trap cages to live-
trap and rem ove leopards, while also extracting compensation from t he government for depr e-
dation.
The forest department is legally inves ted and em powered with the responsibility of conserving
wildlife including the leo pards. They thus punish individuals who harm wild life as well as those
who trespass on their plantations. As a result, they are held morally resp onsible for any unto-
ward i ncidents like depre dation a nd a ttacks by leopards, which soon tra nslate into pre ssure
from political figures and superior officers.
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3.2.15 Understanding and Mitigating Human-Wildlife Conflict in the Biligiri Ran-

gaswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary in the Context of the Forest Rights
Act 2006 (activity 8.3)
Principal investigator: Nitin Rai (ATREE)
Human-wildlife conflict is not only produced by the material loss of household production but is
produced by a systematic erosion of local rights, livelihoo ds and access to resources that is
driven b y wildlife conservation actions. Tribals and forest dwell ers ha ve been tre ated as en-
croachers by an administration that has viewed forests as the property of the stat e. These are
forests that originally we re e xploited for timber a nd othe r pr oducts while more rece ntly th ey
have become viewed as areas with high levels of biodiversity that needs to be pr otected. The
earlier commercial extr active ag enda a nd the more r ecent conservation ag enda have bot h
marginalized tribals whose subs istence livelihoo ds are intricat ely linked to forests and whos e
habitations lay within these forests.
The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act
(Forest Righ ts Act) was enacted in 2 006 to restore rights to fo rest land, re sources and man-
agement to scheduled tribes and traditional forest dwellers. The act aims to correct the historic
injustices that scheduled tribes have suffered at the han ds of col onial forestry laws as well as
post-independence Indi an forest ma nagement. This project e xplored th e i mplications of the
Forest Rights Act for mitigating huma n-wildlife conflicts. For a more grou nded un derstanding
the protected ar ea Billigiri Rangaswamy Temple (BRT) W ildlife Sanctuary in south-eastern
Karnataka was chosen as a study site. Here, human-wildlife conflicts prevail in the form of crop
depredation and occasionally human mortality and injury. Elephants and wild boar are common
crop raiders.
Elephants are common crop raiders. Photo: Raman Sukumar.
Wild boar that raid crops was mentioned by the Soligas (a local tribal group) as the most prob-
lematic conflict species, and was therefore chosen for closer study. Thus, the study investi-
gates wild boar raids of fields, their intensities and frequencies, economic costs, Soliga percep-
tions of conflict, obser vations of boar beha viour, and the imp acts of the Forest Right Act on
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boar raids along with mitigation pote ntial. The m ethods used in the project were eco nomic
baseline surveys, qualitative interviews, transects for ecol ogical baselines, and focus group
interviews.
Main results
All along the Soligas have witne ssed the forest being inva ded by lantana ( an invasive plant).
The Forest Rights Act has gene rated a strong sense of security and sentiments over t he land-
scape among the Soliga.
The Soliga have given assistance over identification of priority areas for lantana clearance and
suggestions of how to reduce parasitic plants duri ng fruit harvest, thus vesting of conservation
rights may potentially lead to lantana removal.
The Soligas offer keen in sights into wild boa r group dynamics and r aiding behaviour, and pro-
vided val uable sugg estions for h ow to decre ase crop raids and imp rove forest con dition
through the control of invasive species. Crop raiding though prevalent in the pre-sa nctuary pe-
riod, was less intense as tubers were abundant, their regen eration facilitated by frequent fires.
Other mitigation options t hat the Forest Rights Act can ope n up include ac cess to bank loans
for installing solar power ed electric fences. Sola r fencing is widely sugg ested as a p referred
technology to mitigate conflicts.
Another common crop raider - the Wild boar. Photo: John Linnell.
But techno-managerial efforts such as solar fences and tr enches and clearing lantana around
fields is only going to mitigate t he issues at the surface while the actual conflict over right s and
livelihoods will continue to simmer. It is not the wil d boars that the Soligas’ regard as bei ng the
greatest conflict, rather it is the conservation policies of the forest department. The lack of ten-
ure security over land and forest results in the inability to ‘cope’ with the problem. This is there-
fore a political and ideological issue and not merely and ‘ecological’ problem to be mitigated.
The vesting of forest rights while not in itself mitigating the problem might go a long way in alle-
viating the povert y that wild boar raids cause as well as providi ng the possibility for Soli gas to
be invol ved i n making the decisions on how to mitigate the problem. Thou gh the Soligas first
claimed community forest rights un der the Fo rest Rights Act, they are yet to be granted such
rights. Since half the Soli gas pop ulation is landles s, the grant of land does not ensur e better
livelihoods. Community forest rights are essential.
A recent de velopment has further provoked tensions. The notificat ion of the sanctuary a s a ti-
ger reserve effectively nullifies potential gains made under the Forest Rights Act and thr eatens
the Soliga with dislocation, curtailment of rights and loss of livelihoods.
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4 Degree of achievement of the goals and objectives of

the project
Table 3 sho ws the ori ginal go als, objectives, ex pected result s and activiti es as written in th e
application to the embassy. The o riginal text fr om the a pplication is wri tten in the left column.
Notes are a dded on w hich concrete activities were lau nched to achieve them and a brie f
statement on the extent to wh ich we have achie ved them (see al so chapter 3.1). The activity
codes correspond to thos e in th e annual reports. To avoid repetition most details are provided
under “Expected results”.
The overall Goal of the pro ject is to understand the wildlife h uman in teractions in India an d
Norway and develop mechanisms of coexistence suitable to the countries.
Table 3. Degree of achievement of the goals and objectives of the project.
Project objectives (sub goals) Explanation, ref to activities covering the sub goals
Map the spatial and temporal distribution of Activity 2 = the “All India S urvey” of conflic t records collected
material co nflicts bet ween people a nd wild- from the F orestry De partment offices acro ss the cou ntry. The
life Forest Depart ments of most st ates do not have a n admi nistra-
tive map sh owing b oundaries of forest divis ions i n the sta tes.
For this re ason and because of the long time it took to r eceive
the dat a from the forest divisions GIS comp onent of the st udy
could not be carried out.
Conduct targeted ecological research where Activity 4.1 – 4.7 and 4.10 = studies of i nteractions bet ween
necessary to b etter un derstand th e mech a- leopards, wolves, elephants, blackbuck, other crop ra iding her-
nisms of conflict for selected species. bivores a nd monke ys, and s ea turtl es with hum ans across a
range of study sites.
Evaluate th e utility of a r ange of m itigation Activity 6 = prepar ation for Phase II of the proj ect as no con-
measures (b oth thos e th at are already in crete mitigation actions were intended to be applied during this
use a nd thos e which c ould be intro duced) phase of the project.
designed to promote coexistence.
Promotion of mutual e xperience sh aring The whole pr oject h as i nvolved experience shar ing bet ween
among equal partners co ncerning th e i nte- Norwegian and Indian partners and among the Indian partners.
gration of wildlife into hu man-dominated
landscapes.
Explore attitud es to hum an-wildlife re lation- Activity 4.6, 4.7 and 8.1 – 8.3 = a selection of cas e studies us-
ships, and a nalyze [HW C] in the li ght of ing a diversity of methodologies.
relevant socia l structures and culture p at-
terns.
Explore the ch allenges and opportunities of Activity 6 = prepar ation for Phase II of the proj ect as no con-
resolving wildlife-human co nflicts th rough crete mitigation actions were intended to be applied during this
several means including establis hing so- phase of the project
cially equ itable and envir onmentally re-
sponsible, inc ome-generating activit y fo r
villagers.
Expected results Status
Database on wildlife-human confl icts fo r Activity 2 i n In dia h as resu lted in a surve y of forestr y de part-
India and Norway ment rec ords of hum an wildlife co nflicts from most I ndian
states. Progress was much slower than hoped because of poor
organization of forestry department records and difficulty in as-
sessing them. Ho wever, the database is u nique and has much
potential for yielding resu lts of great v alue, altho ugh the delay
has prevented some of th e ho ped for analyses be ing com-
pleted. T he e xperience of o btaining th e d ata h as in itself pro-
vided imp ortant insig hts into institutional ca pacity a nd institu-
tional cultur e w ithin th e fore stry de partment. In Nor way, thes e
data (at l east concerning liv estock de predation by carn ivores
and u ngulate-traffic acci dents) are al l r eadily available from
constantly updated and op en access databases ma intained b y
the Directorat e for Nature Mana gement an d Statistics Nor way
respectively.
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NINA Report 736
Identification of “hot s pots” of conflict in In- This result has depended on the completion of the above (activ-
dia. ity 2) which has delayed the formal analyses of the data.
Deeper u nderstanding of people’s attitudes Formal data c ollected t hrough a ra nge of s ocial sci ence meth-
to wildlife and related conflicts. odologies (q uantitative q uestionnaires, i n de pth intervi ews, ob-
servation an d partici pation) o n rural p eople’s attitudes to wards
human-wildlife conflict has b een co llected u nder the frame s of
activities 4.6, 4.7 a nd 8.1 – 8. 3. In ad dition, the res earchers
involved i n al l other activit y a reas hav e ga ined a l arge am ount
of informal feedback from people in their study areas.
Impact of wildlife-human co nflicts on spe- This has be en a cross-cutting sub-theme across the whole pro-
cies po pulations assess ed i n relati on th eir ject b ecause our mai n foc us has been on s tudying wildlife im-
endangered status and viability. pacts o n humans rath er th an human im pacts on wildlife. H ow-
ever, in most cases the fact that conflicts exist is because of the
ability of wildlife to survive and even thrive in human-dominated
environments be yond the l arge protected a reas. W e have not
found a ny indication that hu man im pacts o n wildlife ar e threat-
ening species survival within our case studies, but we do have
evidence th at huma n toler ance to conflicts may be er oding in
some ar eas which c ould thr eaten its pers istence i n the near
future.
Comparative i mplications for the impl emen- This work is conducted under activity 7. It has not been a topic
tation of the international Convention o n of formal stud y, rather it ser ves as an overall c ontext within
Biological Diversity will be discussed, espe- which to pl ace the implicati ons of our resul ts. The documenta-
cially with res pect to the relative rol es of tion of divers e and widespread confl icts be tween h umans and
protected ar ea versus multiuse landscape wildlife implies that there is a strong need to modify the existing
strategies in the two countries. focus with the CBD (and the developments that fall with Ecosys-
tem Services (TEEB) framework) on the benefits of biodiversity
with a mutua l understanding of the p otential costs of b iodiver-
sity. This in turn implies that the CBD’s focus on benefit sharing
must also be complimented by a focus on sharing the costs.
Preliminary a daptation strategi es sug- The Project and activity 6 = this work consists of the preparation
gested. for phase 2.
Findings of the stud y d isseminated to wild- There have b een many meetings between project staff and the
life conservation policy makers in India and responsible a uthorities, esp ecially with th e F orestry D epart-
Norway. ment, at al l levels from l ocal to state a nd national. Forestry De-
partment staff has a lso been invo lved in fi eldwork an d pr oject
activities. In addition, there have been many informal and formal
meetings which have allowed the resu lts to be transfer red.
There has be en a gre at de al of medi a focus on pro ject res ults
within Ind ia, and to a m ore limited ex tent in Nor way. On the
international level, project results have been presented in scien-
tific jour nals a nd at scie ntific confer ences. On the policy l evel,
the project was represented at the Norwegian Embassy’s stand
at the Delhi Sustainable Development Summit in January 2011.
Strengthened institut ional co operation b e- The project has led to increased awareness of the global nature
tween I ndia a nd N orway f or effective im- of human-wildlife conflicts and the large number of similarities in
plementation of intern ational conve ntions issues that impede conservation of biodiversity. This awareness
such as the Co nvention on Biological Diver- has b een m ainly rais ed among th e rese archers, ho wever the
sity. fact that these individuals serve on a wide range of national and
international working gro ups and c ommittees will fac ilitate the
transfer of this informatio n to manag ement and p olicy m aking
levels.
Capacity b uilding a nd exchange of ecologi- The positive experience of cooperation between the Norwegian
cal e xpertise bet ween Nor wegian an d In- and Indian institutions has led to a cle ar will to conti nue with a
dian institutions. second phase of this project, as well as to the subm ission of a
number of other applications for mo ney to allow the further de-
velopment of activities initiated within the frames of this project.
The networking among the diversity of Indian institutions within
the project should also be emphasized.
Contact a nd c ollaboration b etween Indi an The project as a whole and activities 4.6 and 8.1, 8.2 and 8,3 in
and Norwegian social scie nce groups work- particular hav e led to a g ood contact bet ween the re levant so-
ing with relevant issues. cial sci ence gr oups in the t wo cou ntries with joi nt rese arch ac-
tivities in t wo study areas. Of special note is the integration be-
tween social science and natural science approaches achieved
49
NINA Report 736
under activities 8.2 and 4.2 a nd within 4.6. I t is fair to s ay that

the pr oject has led to a far greater ap preciation of th e i mpor-
tance of socia l science a pproaches in hu man-wildlife conflic t
research.
Policy-relevant researc h to promote wildlife A number of clear policy recommendations have been obtained
and nature conservation conducted. from most project activities. The summing up workshop and the
period at the end of the pro ject will l ead to the structur ing of
these recommendations.
Consultations and discussion meetings held See above.
with relev ant Ministr y (En vironment an d
Forests/agriculture) a nd r esearch institu-
tions.
Activities Status
Workshop in Bangalor e during early 2007 Completed as planned.
for preparing the deta iled pl an of activities
and to narr ow down th e regi ons/species t o
be c overed, a nd develop th e formats fo r
field data collection.
Detailed but rapid survey to assess the na- Covered by a ctivity 2 - i nstitutional iss ues within th e for estry
ture an d e xtent of wildlife-human c onflicts department led to this taking much longer time than needed.
across the country.
Mapping of wildlife-human co nflicts to spa- The map la yers are avai lable, but the dela ys within activit y 2
tial l ayers us ing Geo graphical Informati on have led to delays in the integration of these two databases.
System (GIS) software.
Detailed s urvey o n the attit udes of loca l This was covered by activities 4.6, 4.7and 8.1 – 8.3. The scope
people to wards wildlife an d various co nflict of activit y 3 e nded u p be ing less tha n h oped for because of
mitigation strategies logistical prob lems, mainly beca use the origi nal plans w ere
over-ambitious and is included in activity 4.7.
Targeted ecological studies species/regions Activities 4.1 – 4.6 and 4. 10 covered these issues. The studies
were in general very successful, although they differed widely in
scope and budget and accordingly had different levels of ambi-
tion.
Expert cons ultations and workshops to dis- Conducted as planned.
cuss th e fi ndings an d p repare fi nal p roject
reports and publications.
Workshops a nd disc ussion meetings to Cross cutting activity under all project activities. The interactions
disseminate findings of the studi es to all th e occurred as many informal meetings were integrated into other
stakeholders (researchers, polic y mak ers existing forum s for science-p olicy int erface rather than as pro-
and administrators) in India and Norway. ject spec ific m eetings, with t he e xception of the fina l pr oject
workshop.
During the third year prepare, for two Indian The project was granted a one year, no cost extension and we
wildlife landscapes, detailed pla ns for c on- are currently (year 4) planning for a Phase II.
flict mitigatio n, for which fu rther fund ing
could be so ught for impleme ntation o n th e
ground during the fourth and fifth years.
Examine the application of the fin dings to Activity 7 and above (se also chapter 15).
realize th e aims of th e C onvention on Bio-
logical Div ersity, esp ecially with resp ect to
the Malawi and Addis Ababa principles.
50
NINA Report 736
5 Sustainability of the co-operation between the par-

ticipating institutions
The Embassy funding w as essential to initiate such a large, wi de-ranging project with so many
partners, and it is impossible to imagine any other source of funding which could have done the
same. Except for some minor challe nges t he co operation ha s gone smoothly an d th ere is a
general understanding of the benefits of cooperation, reflected in t he desire to ensure that this
first phase of the project is followed up with a phase 2.
Several new contacts between project participants and among stakeholders have been made
during the project period, and ther e are intentions and wishes to continue to interact an d col-
laborate with the other participant institutions and stakeholders in the future.
It is in the nature of muc h research that a lar ge part of the d ata analysis and pu blication of re-
sults happens in the months and year s after a project formally ends, and a n Embassy funde d
phase 2 will serve as an invaluable platform to ensure the realization of the remaining potential
that lies within the data collected and the established partnerships.
The question of the sustainabilit y of the partnerships beyond t hose activities funded by the
Embassy is important. In gene ral, it should be possible to sustain many of th e closest partner-
ships. Domestic funding for this type of applied research is available within both countries. Dur-
ing the life of the project’s phase 1 limited cofounding from other sources has been obtained for
some pro ject activitie s fr om sources such as the Kaplan / Panther a f oundation, the Ruffor d
Small Grants Program, the Resea rch Council of No rway and the Norwegian University of Life
Sciences. The fact that India is eligible to a pply for Eur opean Union funding through the EU’s
7th Framewo rk Program also opens t he wa y for potential future fun ding. NINA has already
made several other attempts to apply for additional funding from sources such as the Research
Council of Norway together with various Indian partners where the par tnership was developed
within the frames of this project. In s ummary, while it is unlike ly to be abl e to maintain such a
massive cooperative pr oject on other funding sou rces, it is highly likely th at a numb er of the
more specific and closer partnerships will endure.
Local people in the Akole area. Photo: Jørn Thomassen.
51
NINA Report 736
6 Arrangement for institutionalisation of benefits

The umbrella project on Human Wildlife Interactions was coordinated through a series of work-
shops organised in Ban galore at the I ndian Inst itute of Science . All par ticipants of the p roject
shared their views and findings of their individual studies. The different activities have benefited
from the interactions from all the par ticipating institutions incl uding the Norwegian ins titutions
as well as the Indian institutions.
The information and i nsights provided by the Norwegian coordinators and p articipants were of
great help in bringing clarity to the various studies. The project therefore benefited greatly from
the cooperation of all the partici pants. Continuation of this arrangement will benefit future pro-
jects as well. In both N orway and India there has been an attempt to involve as many in dividu-
als as possible in the project’s activities, so as to give the broadest contact base possible, and
hence lift the partnerships from being between individuals to being between institutes.
From the kick-off workshop in March 2007. Photo: Jørn Thomassen.
52
NINA Report 736
7 Mutuality of benefits derived by individual institutions

This project’s cooperation has pr ovided many mu tual insights. NI NA has obtained benefit from
gaining knowledge about Indian conditions, and better insight into the adaptation and mitigation
synergies through a dialogue with Indian experts. IISc and Indian partners have obtained bene-
fit from insights into wildl ife manag ement techni ques emplo yed in a different societal context
(Scandinavia).
The Indian p artners were able to ben efit from the Norwegians’ experience at conducting inter-
disciplinary conflict research in human-dominated landscapes, while the Norwegians were able
to gain critical insights into the uniq ue levels of tolerance displayed by the rural Indians. How-
ever, man y of the findings were ver y similar between th e two countries, indicating that some
aspects of h uman-wildlife conflict may well be uni versal, albeit with much local variation in the
details. The Norwegian institutions have gained valuable experience with working in India while
the Indian institutions have gain ed experience wit h the potential f unding that is availabl e from
Norwegian sources.
The collaboration between Norway and India has also contributed to br idging the North -South
gap in future discussions on biodiversity conservation policies as well as implementation of the
Convention on Biological Diversit y an d the upcoming Intergo vernmental S cience Policy Plat-
form on Biod iversity and Ecosystem Services. In the latter case there has been consid erable
focus on reducing the capacity asymmetry that exists between north and south – and such col-
laborations as this clearly help to provide the contac t network between individuals, institutions
and countries that are central to reducing this gap.
Indian – Norwegian partnership (Raman Sukumar, CES and Jørn Thomassen, NINA). Photo: John
Linnell.
53
NINA Report 736
8 Assessment of technology/knowledge transfer ex-

changed between institutions
The project has seen a g reat deal of experience exchange between Norway and India. Norwe-
gian researchers engaged themselves heavily in some of the concrete Indi an case studies, es-
pecially those focusing on wolves and leopards in Maharashtra (activity 4.2 and 8.2) and on the
studies conducted in the Nilgiri Hills (activity 8.1 and 8.3). From these cooperations, a number
of collaborative scientific publications have a nd will be produce d. Beyond these activities, Nor-
wegian partners have be en involved to vari ous degrees in the planning and implementation of
almost all activities in India. This bein g said, the g reatest degree of inte gration of exper iences
will occur during the closing stage of the project when the results of the various activities are
compared to each other, when scientific papers are produced and policy recommendations are
developed.
The linkage was at a level far greate r than expected in a capacity building project and could be
best described as a mut ual coope ration betw een equals. Wh ile the Nor wegian researchers
contributed s ome d egree of techni cal knowle dge i n all fields, especially so cial science meth-
ods, GPS-telemetry and genetic analysis of non-invasively collected biological samples (scats),
the Indian partners with whom they interacted were able to reciprocate with their own experi-
ences and skills such that both par tners learnt a lot from each ot her. As w ell as the te chnical
cooperation, exposure to the radically different wildlife management systems and philos ophies
in the two countries has provided a much needed perspective on their own domestic situations
Collaboration and knowledge transfer in the field. Photo: Ketil Skogen.
54
NINA Report 736
9 Strategy for dissemination

Human-wildlife conflicts are a topic with massi ve media cover age in both Norway an d India,
and as such the pr oject’s results have b een hig hly r elevant for ong oing societal and political
debates. Fro m the begin ning of t he pro ject it was agreed tha t a proper di ssemination of the
various pro ject results to st akeholders, scientific community, policy makers and society was
crucial to achieve a better coexisten ce in conf lict areas. The project has prod uced art icles in
peer review scientific journals (and many more will come), written several research reports,
produced conflict management gui delines, written numerous popular articles in newspape rs
and jour nals, given seve ral intervie ws on radi o and TV, given public and scientific presenta-
tions and even produced and performed a theatre production on leopard – human conflicts!
From the theatre production on leopard – human conflicts. Photo: Vidya Athreya.
The media has covered several of the issues that we have been studying and many journalists
have interviewed project scientists or based their reports on project results. Several of the pro -
ject’s scientists have been very active in writing their own popular science articles and initiating
the production of a wide range of communicati on packages ranging from TV documentari es to
training courses and han dbooks to po pular books and, as mentioned, theatre productions – in
all cases trying to use the most appropriate media to reach the desired stakeholder group. Top-
up funding for communication activi ty was obtained from the Research Council of Norway and
its activities will peak during the coming months.
Below are listed various publications, media coverage, popular articles and other dissemination
activities (table 4).
55
NINA Report 736
Table 4. Publications, media coverage, popular articles and other dissemination activities in the pro-
ject.
Dissemination category Reference to sub projects

(activities)
Scientific publications
• Athreya, V.R., Thakur, S.S., Chaudhuri, S. & A.V. Belsare. 2007. Leopards Activity 4.2. Leopards and
in human–dominated areas: a spillover from sustained translocations into wolves in western India: the
nearby forests? - Journal of Bombay Natural History Society 104(1). ecology of human-leopard and
• Athreya, V.R. & A.V. Belsare. 2008. Morphometry of leopards from Ma- human-wolf conflicts in Ma-
harashtra, India. - Cat News 48. harashtra, India.
• Athreya, V. 2006. Is Relocation a Viable Management Option for Unwanted
Animals? – The Case of the Leopard in India. ~ Conservation and Society
4(3): 419–423
• Athreya, V.R. 2007. Living with dangerous animals. - Seminar 577.
• Aniruddha V. Belsare, B.V.Sc. and A.H., and Vidya R. Athreya.2010. Use of
Xylazine Hydrochloride-Ketamine hydrochloride for immobilization of wild
leoparde (Panthera pardus fusca) in emergency situations - Journal of Zoo
and Wildlife Medicine 41(2): 331–333.
• Samrat Mondol, Navya R., Vidya Athreya, Kartik Sunagar, Velu Mani Selva-
raj and Uma Ramakrishna. 2009. A panel of microsatellites to individually
identify leopards and its application to leopard monitoring in human domi-
nated landscapes - BMC Genetics 2009, 10: 79.
• Lal, A., Arthur, R. Marba, N., Lill, A. and Alcoverro, T. (2010) Implications of Activity 4.6. Sea turtles, fish-
conserving an ecosystem modifier: increasing Green Turtle (Chelonia my- ers and shared spaces: un-
das) densities substantially alters seagrass meadow structure and dynam- derstanding the roots of con-
ics. Biological Conservation. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2010.07.020 flict in Lakshadweep and
• Arthur, R., Kelkar, N., and Madhusudan, M.D. (in review). Shared spaces: Orissa
Understanding first and second order conflict between fishers and turtles in
India. Conservation Letters
Scientific publications under preparation
• Athreya, V. Density estimation of leopards using capture recapture me- Activity 4.2. Leopards and
thods. In prep. wolves in western India: the
• Athreya, V. Diet analysis and prey availability for leopards in a human dom- ecology of human-leopard and
inated landscape. In prep. human-wolf conflicts in Ma-
• Athreya, V. The losses people face due to presence of leopards in the land- harashtra, India.
scape. In prep.
• Athreya, V. Using faecal DNA to estimate leopard populate and sex struc-
ture in a human dominated landscape. In prep.
• Athreya, V. Habitat use and home range analysis of leopards outside PA’s
in India. In prep.
• Mallick, S. and K. Shanker. In prep. A comparison of fishing practices, and Activity 4.6. Sea turtles, fish-
attitudes to and perception of sea turtle conservation along the southern ers and shared spaces: un-
Orissa coast. In prep. derstanding the roots of con-
• Sridhar, A. and K. Shanker. In prep. Agents perceptions on sea turtle conflict in Lakshadweep and
servation in Orissa - through looking glasses and multiple lenses. In prep. Orissa
• Ghosal, S., Athreya, V. and Linnell, J. XXXX. Paradigms of large cat con- Activity 8.2 Human - large
servation in India – do we have the knowledge that we need and from the carnivore interactions in
places that we need it? Submitted to Economic and Political Weekly Akole, north-western Ma-
(www.epw.in) harashtra
• Ghosal, S., Skogen, K and Krishnan, S., Human-Wildlife Interaction land-
scapes: A Comparative Study between large carnivore conservation in hu-
man-dominated landscapes in India and Norway. In prep.
Research reports
• Krithivasan, R., Atreya, V. & Odden, M. (2009) Human-Wolf Conflict in hu- Activity 4.2. Leopards and
man dominated landscapes of Ahmednagar District, Maharashtra. Final re- wolves in western India: the
port submitted to Rufford Small Grant Program. ecology of human-leopard and
• Athreya, V.R. & A.V. Belsare. 2005 human-wolf conflicts in Ma-
Helping the Maharashtra Forest Department rescue or treat endangered harashtra, India.
wild carnivores. Submitted to the Wildlife Trust of India, New Delhi and the
Office of the Chief Wildlife Warden, Maharashtra.
• Athreya, V.R., Thakur, S.S., Chaudhuri, S. & A.V. Belsare. 2004
A study of the man-leopard conflict in the Junnar Forest Division, Pune Dis-
trict, Maharashtra. Submitted to the Office of the Chief Wildlife Warden,
56
NINA Report 736
Maharashtra State Forest Department, and the Wildlife Protection Society

of India, New Delhi, India.
• Athreya, V.R. & A.V. Belsare. 2005
Training Maharashtra Forest Department personnel to use chemical re-
straint and micro-chips to better manage man-leopard conflict. Report sub-
mitted to The Rufford Maurice Laing Foundation, U.K.
• Athreya, V.R. & A.V. Belsare. 2006
Providing the Maharashtra Forest Department technical and veterinary
support to better deal with wild animals that require human intervention.
Technical report submitted to Wildlife Trust of India, New Delhi and the Of-
fice of the Chief Wildlife Warden, Maharashtra.
• Vanak, A.T., Belsare, A.V. & Gompper, M.E. (2007). Survey of disease Activity 4.3. Canids in west-
prevalence in free-ranging domestic dogs and possible spill-over risk for ern India: rabies as a driver of
wildlife - a case study from the Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary, Maharash- Human-Wolf conflict and the
tra, India. Final report, Rufford Small Grants Foundation, UK. Pp 1-13 role of free ranging domestic
http://www.ruffordsmallgrants.org/files/RSG%20Vanak%20Final%20Report dogs as carriers of the dis-
%202007.pdf ease
• Krishna, C.Y. & Isvaran, K. 2010. Crop damage by Blackbuck: Investigating Activity 4.4. Blackbuck in
ecological causes and developing measures for mitigation. Interim report western India: a proposal to
submitted to Maharashtra State Forest Department. 20pp. examine ecological mecha-
• Krishna, C.Y & Isvaran, K. 2010. Wildlife mortality on roads in the vicinity of nisms and develop measures
the Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary, Nannaj. Report submitted to Ma- for mitigation of crop damage
harashtra State Forest Department. 12pp. by a wild Indian ungulate
Technical reports
• Linnell, J., Thomassen, J. & Jones, K. 2011. Wildlife-Human Interactions: The project
From Conflict to Coexistence in Sustainable Landscapes. - NINA Special
Report 45. 12 pp.
http://www.nina.no/archive/nina/PppBasePdf/temahefte/2011/45.pdf
• Thomassen, J., Linn ell, J. & Skoge n, K. 20 11. Wildlife-Human Interactions:
From Conflict to Coe xistence in Sustai nable Landscapes. Final report from
a joint Indo-Norwegian project 2007-2011. - NINA Report 736. 81 pp 8+ ap-
pendix).
• Jayant Kulkarni (CES, IISc). 2011. All India Forest Division level question- Technical reports from this
naire survey of Human - Wildlife conflict (activity 2). project, see annex 1
• Sar C K & Lahiri-Choudhury D K. 2011. Elephant-Human Interactions in
Eastern India- Orissa (activity 4.1a-1)
• Mukti Roy 2011. Elephant-Human Interactions in Eastern India- West Ben-
gal (activity 4.1a-2)
• Kannan, G. & Sukumar, R. 2011. Wildlife Human Interactions: from Conflict
to Coexistence in Sustainable Landscapes: Nilgiri Eastern Ghats Land-
scape (activity 4.1b)
• Vidya Athreya. 2011. Understanding human Leopard interactions in the
western state of Maharashtra, India (activity 4.2)
• Abi Tamin Vanak & Aniruddha Belsare. 2011. The role of Canine rabies in
Human-Wolf conflict: Preliminary investigations in rural Maharashtra, India
(activity 4.3)
• Kavita Isvaran & Chaitanya Krishna. 2011. Crop damage by a wild Indian
Ungulate: Investigating ecological causes and developing mitigation meas-
ures (activity 4.4)
• Milind Watve. 2011. Crop raiding by wild Ungulates in Tadoba–Andhari Ti-
ger Reserve, Maharashtra: A study of ecological patterns and remedial
measures (activity 4.5)
• Rohan Arthur, M.D. Madhusudan, Nachiket Kelkar, Aparna Lal, Núria
Marbà & Teresa M. Alcoverro. 2011. The Trouble with Turtles: Fishers,
green turtles, and seagrass meadow dynamics in the Lakshadweep Islands
(activity 4.6a)
• Aarthi Sridhar, Sasmita Mallick & Kartik Shanker. 2011. The Nature of Con-
flict - understanding Knowledge and Perceptions of and Attitudes towards
Sea Turtle Conservation in Orissa (activity 4.6b)
• Vishnupriya Kolipakam & Kartik Shanker. 2011. Comparing human wildlife
conflict across different landscapes: a framework for examining social, po-
litical and economic issues and a preliminary comparison between sites (ac-
tivity 4.7)
• Vijay Jardhari, Prabhakar Rao & Ayushman Choudhary. 2011. Crop Dam-
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NINA Report 736
age by Wildlife in a Garhwal Himalayan village (activity 4.10)

• Siddhartha Krishnan. 2011. What does large carnivore predation of buffalo
mean to the Toda? Understanding cultural, politico-legal and ecological
contexts and consequences of Toda conflicts with tigers and leopards on
the Nilgiri pastures, Southern India (activity 8.1)
• Sunetro Ghosal. 2011. Human - large carnivore interactions in Akole, north-
western Maharashtra (activity 8.2)
• Nitin Rai & Siddhartha Krishnan. 2011. Understanding and Mitigating Hu-
man-Wildlife Conflict in the Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary
in the Context of the Forest Rights Act 2006 (activity 8.3)
Manuals
• Human-Leopard conflict management guidelines (English) Activity 4.2. Leopards and
• Human-Leopard conflict management guidelines (Hindi) wolves in western India: the
• Human-Leopard conflict management guidelines (Marathi) ecology of human-leopard and
• Guidelines for Human-Leopard conflict management (Ministry of Environ- human-wolf conflicts in Ma-
ment and Forests, April 2011) harashtra, India.
http://www.eSocialSciences.com/data/articles/Document1224201149.69812
3E-02.pdf
Guidelines for human-leopard conflict management are one of numerous outputs from the project.
Source: Vidya Athreya.
58
NINA Report 736
Popular articles and reports

• Raman Sukumar & Lalitha Murali Elephants. 2011. People & The Battle For Project – Special issue of
Peaceful Co-Existence. Current Conservation 2010, vol 4 issue 4. Current Conservation 2010,
• John Linell & Morten Odden. 2011. Mind The Moose: Tales Of Conflict vol 4 issue 4.
From The Land Of The Midnight Sun. Current Conservation 2010, vol 4 is-
sue 4.
• Arati Rao. 2011. Whose Right Is It Anyway? The Farmer-Ungulate Conflict.
Current Conservation 2010, vol 4 issue 4.
• Janaki Lenin. 2011. Sugarcane Leopards. Current Conservation 2010, vol 4
issue 4.
• Rohan Arthur & Kartik Shanker. 2011. Olive And Green: Shades Of Conflict
Between Turtles
• & Fishers In India. Current Conservation 2010, vol 4 issue 4.
• Jay Mazoomdar. 2011. Act Responsible At The Top. Current Conservation
2010, vol 4 issue 4.
• Sindhu Radhakrishnan & Anindya Sinha. 2011. Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde:
The Strange Case Of Human-
• Macaque Interactions In India. Current Conservation 2010, vol 4 issue 4.
• Sunetro Ghosal, Siddhartha Krishnan & Ketil Skogen. 2011. Space Odys-
sey: Rephrasing Conflicts Over Large
• Carnivore Conservation. Current Conservation 2010, vol 4 issue 4.
• Ranjan Chakraborthy. 2011. Prioritizing the Tiger: A History of Human-tiger
conflict in the Sundarbans. Current Conservation 2010, vol 4 issue 4.
• Janaki Lenin. 2011. Circumventing the Elephant. Current Conservation
2010, vol 4 issue 4.
• Raman Sukumar, John Linell & Kartik Shanker. 2011. Can We Solve Hu-
man-Wildlife Conflict? Current Conservation 2010, vol 4 issue 4.
• The need for more proactive solutions Activity 4.2. Leopards and
th
~ Pankaj Sekhsaria - 16 Oct 2010 wolves in western India: the
• Leopard Tamil Article Sep-2010 ecology of human-leopard and
• Lessons from human - wildlife conflicts human-wolf conflicts in Ma-
• Precaution is better than a wrong treatment harashtra, India.
• Leopard trouble: Any solution?
• Athreya, V.R. 2004. What do we do with the leopards? Hornbill July – Sep
2004
• Athreya, V.R. 2009. Leopards and people. Sanctuary Asia. February.
• Linnell, J., Odden, M., Goshal, S., Athreya, V. 2011. Det er en leopard på
kjøkkenent (It’s a leopard in the kitchen)! Våre Rovdyr 1/2011.
• Arthur, R and K. Shanker. 2010. Olive and Green: Shades of conflict be- Activity 4.6. Sea turtles, fish-
tween turtles and fishers in India. Current Conservation 4.4. ers and shared spaces: un-
• Sridhar, A. The unfairness of doing good. Infochange News & Features, derstanding the roots of con-
December 2010 http://infochangeindia.org/Environment/Coastal- flict in Lakshadweep and
commons/Questions-about-conservation.html Orissa
• Sridhar, A. and K. Shanker. Conservation beyond penalties and punishment
Infochange News & Features, April 2010.
http://infochangeindia.org/Agenda/Coastal-communities/Conservation-
beyond-penalties-and-punishment.html
• Ghosal, Krishnan and Skogen. 2011. ‘Space odyssey: Rephrasing conflicts Activity 8.1 What does large
over large carnivore conservation’. Current Conservation. carnivore predation of buffalo
• Untitled comparative paper with Sunetro Ghosal (NORAGRIC) and Ketil mean to the Toda? Under-
Skogen (NINA) in progress. standing cultural, politico-legal
and ecological contexts and
consequences of Toda con-
flicts with tigers and leopards
on the Nilgiri pastures, South-
ern India.
• Jones, K. & Skogen, K. 2011. Ulv, ulv – tiger, tiger (Wolf, wolf – tiger, tiger). Social science components
Forskning.no. 16. May 2011.
http://www.forskning.no/artikler/2011/mai/288068
Newspapers and journals
• Down to Earth February 2011 - Leopards in our alley Activity 4.2. Leopards and
• learning to live with the leopards? ~ DNA Mumbai 29 Jan 11 wolves in western India: the
ecology of human-leopard and
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NINA Report 736
• Dont Shoot a cornered cat ~ Indian Express human-wolf conflicts in Ma-

• Leopards in my backyard ~ Pankaj Sekhsaria harashtra, India.
• Ajoba's trek from Malshej Ghat to national park ~ The Times of India, Mum-
bai
• LET'S UNBELL THE CAT ~ The Times of India, New Delhi
• LIVING EARTH ~ Indian Express
• The different shades of human animal relations ~ Financial Express
• Watching the cat walk ~ Bangalore mirror
• Article published in the Marathi Newspaper 'Gavakari'
th
~ 17 June 2010
• Article published in the Marathi Newspaper 'Prabhat'
th
~ 17 June 2010
• Article published in the Marathi Newspaper 'Navakal'
~ 16th June 2010
• Article published in the Marathi Newspaper 'Nagar-Vrutant'
th
~ 15 June 2010
• Article published in the Marathi Newspaper 'Sarvamat'
~ 15th June 2010
• Article published in the Marathi Newspaper 'Sakal'
~ 14th June 2010
• Leopard trouble: Any solution?
~ Article published in the Marathi Newspaper 'Sakal' on 1st November 2009
• Precaution is better than a wrong treatment
~ Article published in the Marathi Newspaper 'Sakal' on 10th November
2009
• Vanak, A.T. (2008). “A dogged problem”. Down to Earth Magazine, Issue: Activity 4.3. Canids in west-
August 31, 2008 ern India: rabies as a driver of
http://www.downtoearth.org.in/full6.asp?foldername=20080831&filename=n Human-Wolf conflict and the
ews&sec_id=50&sid=43 role of free ranging domestic
dogs as carriers of the dis-
ease
• Anandha Vikatan Tamil weekly interviewed us on 29-10-2008 on the topic Activity 4.1b. Wildlife-Human
“Why elephants are invading village?” conflict in the Nilgiris Eastern
Ghats landscape
• Ketil Skogen interviewed in an article in the Norwegian newspapers Project
“Fædrelandsvennen” and “Aftenposten” June 6th, 2011: Folk & rovdyr –
Mange former for samliv (“People and carnivores – many paths to coexis-
tence”)
Radio/TV coverage
• Kartik Shanker and Aarthi Sridhar have been interviewed on Air India Radio Activity 4.6. Sea turtles, fish-
shows regarding sea turtle conservation issues in Orissa. ers and shared spaces: un-
derstanding the roots of con-
flict in Lakshadweep and
Orissa
• Vidya Athreya, John Linnell, Jørn Thomassen and Sunetro Ghosal: Human Activity 4.2 and 8.2 Human –
– leopard coexistence in Akole – “Schrödingers Katt” on NRK (Norwegian leopard interactions in Akole
Broadcasting Corporation) at 19:45 hours, 11 March 2010 (merged titles)
• IBN Lokmat carried a documentary of our work at 1000 hours on 10 Octo- Activity 8.2 Human - large
ber 2010 carnivore interactions in
Akole, north-western Ma-
harashtra
• Ketil Skogen interview 18th May 2011: Rovdyr i India og Norge i program- Social science components
met ”Banden” på NRK P3 (carnivores in India and Norway in ”Banden” on
NRK (Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation), channel 3))
http://www.nrk.no/programmer/sider/banden/
Films
• July 2011: "Elephants days and nights" (taken from the title of one of Su- Activity 4.1a. Elephants in
kumars popular books), is a film produced to reflect the conflict study in eastern India (West Bengal )
West Bengal. It has a lot of footage about the GPS collaring and elephant
movement as well, and ends with the issue of possible conversion of tea
plantation to forest plantation using carbon credit financing.
• We plan to organize screening to general (conservation, natural history,
forest department) audiences in some of the major cities. Copies will also
be distributed to forest departments and conservation organizations. Ashish
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NINA Report 736
and Shanthi Chandola who made the film will also explore the possibility of
channels such as National Geographic and Discovery screening the film.
Norwegian TV possibilities will also be checked.
Public presentations at scientific / technical conferences
• Sridhar, A. ‘Everybody loves a good fence: MPAs and control over coasts’ Activity 4.6. Sea turtles, fish-
th
Presented at the 30 Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and ers and shared spaces: un-
Conservation, 27th -29th April, 2010, Goa. derstanding the roots of con-
• Sridhar, A. ‘Are Marine Protected Areas capable of achieving conservation flict in Lakshadweep and
in India?’ At the Bombay Natural History Society Centenary Celebrations in Orissa
Bangalore, 17th -19th February 2009.
• Skogen, K. Conflicts over large carnivores in India and Norway: How do Social science components
people’s understanding of the landscape affect attitudes?
- Game research days, Grimsö Research Station, Sweden, October
2010.
- Hedmark University College course in “Human dimensions”, January
2011.
- HWC conference in Bangalore, March 2011.
- International Symposium on Society and Natural Resource Manage-
ment, Madison, Wisconsin, June 2011 (“forthcoming”).
• Linnell, J. Conservation and conflicts: why saving the world is not easy! Project
Thursday Seminars at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology
(NTNU) Museum of Natural History and Archaeology
Forthcoming presentations
• Vidya Athreya and Sunetro Ghosal will talk at the ACES conflict conference Activity 4.2 and 8.2
in Aberdeen in August http://www.aces-2011.org/
• Jørn Thomassen will present the project at the Norwegian University of The Project
Science and Technology in September 2011: “They can live with us, but
can we live with them”
Several manuscripts are under preparation for submission to peer reviewed journals.
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NINA Report 736
10 Assessment of any commercial spin-offs or pros-

pects for commercial benefits as a off shoot of the
project
It has not be en the aim of the project to gain any commercial spin-offs or prospects. However,
potential spin-offs from the pr oject can be a b etter coexistence in t he multiuse landscapes
given that the recommendations are followed up. Reduced crop damage will in particular mean
increased access to food which again can have commercial value.
Landscape in Maharashtra. Photo: Jørn Thomassen.
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NINA Report 736
11 Decentralisation and engagement with civil society

The pro ject invol ved institutions from a wide ran ge of geogra phic locations across Ind ia – in
fact the partners were based almost entirely outside Delhi, coming from Pune, Bangal ore and
Mysore. In addition, it involved institutions wi th a wide ran ge of stru ctures, including universi-
ties, government funded research institutions, foundations and environmental NGOs. Likewise,
in Nor way, the main inst itution was b ased in Trondheim, but p roject collaborators we re also
situated in Oslo, Ås, Hedmark and Agder.
Further, the various pro ject sites were located almost all over India, from West Bengal an d
Uttaranchal in the north to Lakshadweep and Nilgiri hills in the south. The nature of most of the
projects resulted in e xtensive contact and engagement with th e civil society – th e main target
of the human-wildlife conflict picture. The extent of these are listed below in chapter 13.
The nature of most of the projects resulted in extensive contact and engagement with the stake-
holders - interviewing local people has been important in several of the project activities. Photo:
John Linnell.
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NINA Report 736
12 Stakeholder meetings
A wide rang e of stakeholder en gagement has occurred in most of the activities (table 5). This
has largely occurred thr ough the informal cont acts that eme rge whe n conducting ecological
research in rural areas or interviewing people during social science studies.
John Linnell talking about human-wildlife conflicts to local forest officers. Photo: Jørn Thomassen.
All these interactions involve a two way transfer of knowledge and experience. In addit ion, to
these informal eng agements, most p rojects have had extensive c ontact w ith the forestry d e-
partment and local village councils.
Table 5. Stakeholder meetings conducted in the project.
Activity 4.1a. Elephants in eastern India (West Bengal )

Sl No Place of Meetings Date of Meeting with Reason for meeting
meeting
1 West Bengal Forest Mr.S.B.Mondal, Principal Chief Wildife-human conflict & CDM elephant
Department Conservator of Forest corridor project
(Wildife),West Bengal
2 West Bengal Forest Chief Conservator of Forest Wildife-human conflict & CDM elephant
Department (Wildlife) ,northern Circle corridor project
3 West Bengal Forest Conservator of Forest northern Wildife-human conflict & CDM elephant
Department Circle corridor project
4 West Bengal Forest Divisional Forest Officer. Jal- Wildife-human conflict & CDM elephant
Department paiguri corridor project
5 West Bengal Forest Divisional Forest Officer. Wildife- Wildife-human conflict & CDM elephant
Department III corridor project
6 West Bengal Forest Divisional Forest Officer,Widlife-II Wildife-human conflict & CDM elephant
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NINA Report 736
Department corridor project

7 West Bengal Forest Field Director ,Buxa Tiger Re- Wildife-human conflict & CDM elephant
Department serve corridor project
8 West Bengal Forest Deputy Field Director, Buxa Tiger Wildife-human conflict & CDM elephant
Department Reserve ,West corridor project
9 West Bengal Forest Deputy Field Director, Buxa Tiger Wildife-human conflict & CDM elephant
Department Reserve ,East corridor project
10 West Bengal Forest Range officer, MalSquad Wildife-human conflict & CDM elephant
11 West Bengal Forest Range officer, khunia Squad Wildife-human conflict & CDM elephant
Department Squad corridor project
12 West Bengal Forest Range Officer, Binnaguri Squad Wildife-human conflict & CDM elephant
13 Tea Management Dooars Branch Indian Tea Asso- CDM elephant corridor project
ciation
14 Tea Management Manager Beech Tea Garden CDM elephant corridor project
15 Tea Management Manager Dalsingpara Tea Gar- CDM elephant corridor project
den
16 Tea Management Assistant Manager Bharno- CDM elephant corridor project
bariTea Garden
17 NGO Doars Jagaran, Bnarhat, Jal- CDM elephant corridor project
paiguri
18 NGO Nature and Adventure Soci- CDM elephant corridor project
ety,Oodlabari,Jalpaiguri
19 Osmanabad Sept. 08 Meeiting with the Resident Medi- Discussions regarding human rabies
cal Officer in the Civil Hospital records maintained by the hospital
20 Osmanabad Sept. 08 Meeting with the District Animal To obtain information regarding Animal
Husbandry Officer, Osmanabad rabies cases
21 Ropale Village, Dist. Nov. 08 Meeting with the villagers Discussions regarding organising vacci-
Solapur nation campaign
22 Javala, Nannaj and Dec. 08 Meeting with the villagers Discussions regarding organising vacci-
Savargaon Villages, nation campaign
Ahmednagar District
Activity 4.1a. Elephants in eastern India (Orissa )

meeting
Berhampur Circle
1 Berhampur Oct.10 DFO Berhamp ur & other office Discussed ab out the inform ation av ail-
2 Ghumsur North Oct.10 staff of the forest division. able on th e wildlife - h uman conflict and
possible miti gation metho ds ada pted b y
3 Ghumsur South Oct.10 the vill agers a nd the efficiency of thes e
methods. Co llected inform ation ab out
the distribution of conflicting species.
Bhawanipatna Circle
4 Subarnapur Mar.10 DFO Subarn apur office staff Discussed ab out the inform ation av ail-
of the forest division. able on th e wildlife - h uman conflict and
5 Bolangir Mar.10 DFO Bolan gir & other office staff possible miti gation metho ds ada pted b y
of the forest division. the vill agers a nd the efficiency of thes e
6 Kalahandi North Mar.10 DFO Kala handi N orth & other
office staff of the forest division.
7 Kalahandi South Mar.10 DFO Kalah andi So uth & o ther
office staff of the forest division.
8 Khariar Mar.10 DFO Khari ar & other office staff
of the forest division.
9 Sunabeda WL Mar.10 DFO Sunabeda WL & other office
staff of the forest division.
Koraput Circle
10 Malkangiri Mar.10 DFO Malkan giri & other office Discussed ab out the inform ation av ail-
staff of the forest division. able on th e wildlife - h uman conflict and
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NINA Report 736
11 Koraput Mar.10 DFO Koraput & other office staff possible miti gation metho ds ada pted b y
12 Jeypor Mar.10 DFO Je ypor & other office staff

13 Nawarangapur Mar.10 DFO Na warangapur & oth er of-
fice staff of the forest division.
14 Rayagada Mar.10 DFO Ra yagada & other office
Sambalpur Circle
15 Sambalpur North Sep.08 DFO Sambalp ur North & ot her Discussed ab out the inform ation av ail-
office staff of the forest division. able on th e wildlife - h uman conflict and
16 Sambalpur South Jan.09 DFO Samba lpur So uth & o ther possible miti gation metho ds ada pted b y
office staff of the forest division. the vill agers a nd the efficiency of thes e
17 Rairakhol Jan.09 DFO Rairakhol & other office staff the distribution of conflicting species.
18 Bamra WL Sep.08 DFO Bamra WL & oth er office

staff of the division.
19 Hirakud WL Sep.08 DFO Hiraku d WL & oth er o ffice
Angul Circle
20 Angul Aug.08 DFO Angu l & other office staff Discussed ab out the inform ation av ail-
21 Athgarh Aug.08 DFO Athgarh & other office staff possible miti gation metho ds ada pted b y
22 Athmallik Aug.08 DFO Athmallik & other office staff the distribution of conflicting species.
23 Cuttack Aug.08 DFO Cuttack & other office staff

24 Dhenkanal Aug.08 DFO Dhenka nal & other office
25 Satkosia Wildlife Jun.08 DFO Satkosia W ildlife & o ther
office staff of the division.
Bhubaneswar Circle
26 Chandaka WL Aug.08 DFO Chandaka WL & other office Discussed ab out the inform ation av ail-
staff of the division. able on th e wildlife - h uman conflict and
27 Khurda Mar.10 DFO Khurd a & other office staff
the vill agers a nd the efficiency of thes e
28 Puri WL Mar.10 DFO Puri W L & other office staff the distribution of conflicting species.
29 Nayagarh Oct.08 DFO Na yagarh & other office
30 Mahanadi WL Oct.08 DFO Mahanadi WL & other office

31 Rajnagar WL Mar.10 DFO Rajn agar W L & other o ffice

32 City Division Mar.10 DFO Cit y D ivision & other office
Baripada Circle
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33 Baripada Mar.08 DFO Baripada & other office s taff Discussed ab out the inform ation av ail-
34 Balasore WL Mar.08 DFO Balas ore W L & ot her office
35 Bhadrak Wl May.08 DFO Bhadrak W l & other o ffice the distribution of conflicting species.
36 STR Mar.08 Field D irector STR & other office
staff of the Tiger reserve.
37 Rairangpur Apr.08 DFO Rairan gpur & other office

38 Karanjia May.08 DFO Berhamp ur & other office
Rourkela Circle
39 Keonjhar Territorial Jun.09 DFO Keon jhar T erritorial & other Discussed ab out the inform ation av ail-
office staff of the forest division. able on th e wildlife - h uman conflict and
40 Keonjhar WL Jun.09 DFO Keonjh ar W L & other office
41 Rourkela Jan.09 DFO Rourkela & other office s taff the distribution of conflicting species.
42 Sundargarh Jun.09 DFO Sund argarh & other office

43 Bonai May.09 DFO Bona i & other office staff
44 Deogarh May.09 DFO Deogarh & other office staff
45 PCCF WL Feb.08 PCCF W L Orissa and ot her staff Discussed a bout the wildlife -huma n
OrissaBhubaneswar of the Office in the presence of conflict situation in Orissa and collection
Prof. R Sukumar. of informati on from the d ifferent forest
divisions of Orissa.
46 CF Koraput circle Mar.10 CF Korap ut cir cel a nd oth er staff Discussed ab out the inform ation av ail-
of the circle office able on th e wildlife - h uman conflict and
47 CF Sambalpur Jan.09 CF Sambal pur circle and ot her Discussed a bout the i dentification of
staff of the Office in the presence corridor of el ephants i n a nd ar ound
of Prof. R Su kumar a nd re pre- Sambalpur forest circle.
sentative of the local industries.
48 PCCF General Feb.10 PCCF Gener al, Orissa an d o ther Discussed a bout the imp lementation of
Orissa staff of the Office in the presence elephant corrid or to mitigate t he confl ict
Bhubaneswar of Prof. R Sukumar. problem.
49 Head of the Dept. Mai.10 Head of the Dept. Zoo. and We discuss ed abo ut wildlife -hum an
Zoo. and Botani, GM Botani, and students of the de- conflict problem and solution options.
college, Sambalpur partment .
50 27 Vi llages i n 4 F or- Apr.- Villagers of concern villages Collected information o n sp ecific Ques-
est Divisions Jun.10 tionnaire form same selected families.
Workshop attended Date Workshop attended by Talk / Power point presented on topic
and presented pa-
per
51 Workshop on “Ele- 28th Forest Rangers, Forest protection Presented paper on “Crop preference in
phant Management” March committee members and se- elephant depredation prone area”.
at Manchabandha 2008 lected villagers. And question answers with the villagers.
Central Nursery,
Baripada, Baripada
Forest Cricle, Orissa,
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Organised by Con-
servator of Forest
and Field Director,
Similipal Tiger Re-
serve, Baripada,
52 Workshop on 4th Jun e Forest officials from eastern and Participated as rapporteur for two ses-
“Man-Elephant Inter- 2008 central region of India, research- sions.
face” at Regional ers and selected villagers from
Museum of Natural elephant affected villages.
History, Bhubanes-
war, Organised by
State Wildlife De-
partment, Govt. of
Orissa.
53 Workshop on 15th Students from Indian Institute of Presented paper (PowerPoint) on “Ele-
“Wildlife Conserva- Oct. Mass Communication, phant Conservation in Orissa”.
tion in Orissa” at 2009 Dhenkanal, Orissa, Students
Indian Institute of from local colleges and local for-
Mass Communica- est officials.
tion, Dhenkanal,
Orissa. Organised by
Wild Orissa and In-
dian Institute of Mass
Communication.
Activity 4.2. Leopards in western India: the ecology of human-leopard conflicts in Maharashtra, In-
dia
meeting
1 Mumbai 09. Aug Bombay Natural History Society Talk on work
2 Nasik 09. May Nashik F orest Departme nt w ork- Policy meeting organized by state forest
shop department
3 Mumbai 10. Mar Bombay Veterinary College Workshop for their stu dents and teac h-
ers
4 Dehradun 10. Apr Wildlife Institute of India Workshop on telemetry
5 Shimla 10. May HP FD Talk to local forest officers
6 Akole 10. May Press conference Talking to media at study site
7 Coimb atore 10. Jun Sacon Talk to scientists
8 Tadoba 10. Jul Tadoba Tiger Reserve FD workshop
9 Pune 10. Sep Chief W ildlife Warden Ma harash- Talk about work
tra
10 Karmala 11. Jan Village Karmala FD wanted me to talk to vil lagers who
pressurizing FD to set up trap cages
11 Delhi 11. Mar Meeting with c entral e nvironment To apprais e h im of l eopard conflict is-
minister sues
12 Dehradun 11. Mar IGNFA Was invited to talk at mid-car eer training
for IFS
13 Karad 11. Mar Multiple stakeholder workshop FD wanted V idya Athr eya t o talk at the
town where l eopard h ad been s hot –
meeting was organized b y FD and p o-
lice, med ia a nd loc al vi llagers were
called
Activity 4.5. Crop Raiding by Wild Ungulates in Tadoba–Andhari Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra: a
study of ecological patterns and remedial measures
meeting
1 Nagpur Jul.08 PCCF (Wildlife) Nagpur Discuss o bjectives of the pr oject, pro-
posed meth od for d ata co llection an d
expected outcome of the analysis with a
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NINA Report 736
view to seek permission for initiating field

work
2T adoba Anderi Tiger Jun.08- Farmers in villages along western 1152 farmers from 14 vill ages were in-
Reserve Jan.10 boundary of TATR. terviewed
3 Cha ndrapur Jul.10 Meetings with Mr. Moha nbhai Discussing fi ndings, an d sugg esting
and Hiralal of Vruksha Mitra solutions vi able at grass ro ot level a nd
Dec.10 (Chandrapur) and Mr. Vi jay De- applicable in regional social framework
the of Rajor a Vikas Samiti (T al
Rajora, Dist Chandrapur),
Activity 4.6. Sea turtles, fishers and shared spaces: understanding the roots of conflict in Orissa
meeting
1 Bhub aneshwar, Dec.08 OMRCC(Orissa Marin e Re- Introduction to members ab out the pre-
Orissa sources C onservation Co nsor- sent pro ject a nd oth er OMR CC d iscus-
tium) sions
2 Bhub aneshwar, Apr.09 OMRCC Discussions o n members pr ojects an d
Orissa operational aspects of the OMRCC
3 Chatra pur, Ganjam Aug.09 OT FWU representatives (fish- Consultative m eeting on perceptions of
district, Orissa worker leaders) of Ganjam district and recommendations on legislations for
marine conservation
4 Rajn agar, Aug.09 OT FWU representatives (fish- Consultative m eeting on perceptions of
Kendrapara district, worker le aders) of R ajnagar, and recommendations on legislations for
Orissa Kendrapara district marine conservation
5 Bhub aneshwar, Nov.09 OMRCC meeting Discussion on furtheri ng th e obj ectives
Orissa of the platform and on le gal recog nition
to local monitoring efforts
6 Kali akono, Astarang Jan.10 OT FWU representatives (fish- Consultative m eeting on perceptions of
Block, Pur i district, worker l eaders) of Kaliak ono, and recommendations on legislations for
Orissa Puri district marine conservation
7 Kharn asi, Feb.10 OT FWU representatives (fish- Consultative m eeting on perceptions of
Kendrapara district, worker leaders) of Mah alakpara and recommendations on legislations for
Orissa block, Kendrapara district marine conservation
8 Goa, India Apr.10 Conducted a specia l one -day To p rovide an op portunity fo r pa rtici-
meeting titled ‘F isheries F orum’ pants to le arn and sh are i nformation o n
at the 30th A nnual S ymposium the natur e, cu lture a nd or ganisation of
on S ea T urtle Biol ogy and Con- fisher comm unities, the ch allenges a nd
servation, Goa, India politics of fis heries mana gement an d
marine conservation.
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NINA Report 736
13 Policy implications
The entire project was intende d to b e based around applied research, and as a result a ll pro-
jects had clear policy implications, the most important of which are listed below (table 6). There
are some overlap b etween Policy implications and Recommend ations (chapter 14). Policy im-
plications, howe ver, focu s more on d ecision making an d mitigation based on e xisting knowl-
edge while r ecommendations are mor e oriente d against further knowled ge needs an d furth er
investigations and research to better understand the mechanisms of human – wildlife conflicts.
Table 6. Most important policy implications from the project.
Project Policy implications

Activity 2. All India sur- The dialog with the state forest officers is in itself an important output in the project. It has
vey and GIS mapping of revealed that data are very poorly organized in many states and that there is no overview
wildlife-human conflicts of conflict data available to inform decision makers about wildlife policy.
Activity 3. Attitudes of None
local people towards
wildlife-human conflicts
Activity 4.1a. Elephants 1. Development of strategy for wildlife –human conflict mitigation, preparedness for im-
in eastern India (West plementing such policy in the field.
Bengal and Orissa 2. Consolidation of forest area and linking of habitat through development of corridors.
3. Verification of population through different methods of census.
4. Training to forest staff with modern scientific methods of wildlife conservation for field
implementation.
Activity 4.1b. Wildlife- 1. Awareness meeting was conducted for stakeholders in Sathyamangalam to minimize
Human conflict in the human elephant conflict.
Nilgiris Eastern Ghats 2. Capacity building programme had been done for secondary school students in the
landscape (Completed) core area of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve to highlight the role of elephants in the ecosys-
tem.
3. Presentation had given to stakeholder of Masinagudi regarding ecology and behavior
of wild elephants.
4. Black buck census have been conducted first time in Sathyamangalam forest division
and also proposed for area ideal for Blackbuck habitat.
5. Removal of invasive weed in the Blackbuck habitat has been suggested to D.F.O
Sathyamanagalam.
6. Map generated with distribution of Blackbuck and also area vulnerable for crop dam-
age
Activity 4.2. Leopards 1. Increase in knowledge base of the fact that a large cat can persist with minimal harm
and wolves in western to human life even in densely human dominated landscapes
India: the ecology of hu- 2. Increase in understanding that conflict can be controlled even in extreme cases (high
man-leopard and hu- density of large cat among high density of humans)
man-wolf conflicts in 3. We can identify measures to take to reduce losses to people due to livestock depre-
Maharashtra, India. dation
4. We can identify measures to take to reduce human-large cat encounters in densely
populated rural town
5. Vidya Athreya has been nominated by the NTCA as member of committee
(http://projecttiger.nic.in/whtsnew/committee_leopard.pdf) which has been set up to
tackle leopard mortality due to conflict
6. A workshop with Policy makers attending will be conducted in early March 2011 to
present and discuss the major key findings of the project, to develop mechanisms of
better coexistence between animals and humans and to promote implications of policy
to control conflicts.
7. The data on wolf conflicts shows that depredation has a much smaller effect than dis-
ease in livestock mortality, and that relatively few people bother applying for compen-
sation because of the complexity of the process.
Activity 4.3. Canids in There are general implications that arise from the pr oject objectives that can be used to
western India: rabies as formulate policies. The spill-over of path ogens from domestic dogs to wild canids is well
a driver of Human-Wolf established. B ased on o ur p reliminary investigations, we find th at ther e are t wo m ain
conflict and the role of thrust areas to reduce such spill-over events:
free ranging domestic
dogs as carriers of the 1. The reduction of the susceptible reservoir population of dogs. This can be achieved
disease by sustained population control measures, targeted vaccination campaigns and edu-
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NINA Report 736
cation.
2. Reduction of contact between dogs and wild canids. This can be achieved by popula-
tion control measures, responsible dog ownership programs and the restriction of
free-ranging activities of dogs.
Activity 4.4. Blackbuck in 1. Semi-arid grassland management: Findings on habitat use by blackbuck suggest that
western India: a proposal unprotected grasslands should not be converted to plantations under afforestation
to examine ecological programmes as they become unsuitable to fauna dependent on this landscape. For
mechanisms and de- the same reason, exotic trees in plantations established in semi-arid areas should be
velop measures for miti- removed. Our findings indicate that blackbuck avoid areas with very tall grass; grass
gation of crop damage height was typically high within protected grasslands and plantations in the Nannaj
by a wild Indian ungulate landscape. In grassland protected areas elsewhere, grass is harvested on a rotational
basis and this mosaic of habitats provides habitat for species that prefer both tall and
short grass areas. A limited and carefully monitored rotational grass harvesting
scheme could be tried on an experimental basis. For the suggested management in-
terventions of reducing tree density in plantations and harvesting of grass, it is very
important that it is first tried out in a small area and that vegetation changes and the
behaviour of the different animal species of interest are intensively monitored in order
to assess the effectiveness of management measures and make appropriate modifi-
cations.
2. Crop damage mitigation measures: Our findings concerning the level of crop damage
occurring in the landscape can be used to examine levels of conflict (a more complex
phenomenon involving damage, perception and other factors) and underlying reasons
for this conflict. This study shows that blackbuck crop damage is localized and not ex-
tensive in Nannaj; however, in the places that it does occur, damage is frequently
substantial.
Our study has found that fields vary widely in whether they are likely to be visited by
blackbuck or n ot and we have identified some important predictors of whether a field
is likely to experience damage or not. This information could be used to map out agri-
cultural areas with differi ng l evels of risk of damag e b y bl ackbuck. F or the differe nt
levels of risk, a ppropriate potential mitigation measures can now be tested and evalu-
ated.
Activity 4.5. Crop Raid- 1. Since the direct and indirect damages estimated are substantially large and direct
ing by Wild Ungulates in damage is difficult to estimate, compensation is unlikely to be an effective solution in
Tadoba–Andhari Tiger the long run. The subjectivity of damage assessment is more likely to breed corrup-
Reserve, Maharashtra: a tion. Also direct damage being only a small part of the total loss, compensation would
study of ecological pat- be always inadequate. Compensations should be looked upon only as temporary so-
terns and remedial lutions until long term remedies are allowed to evolve and effectively implemented.
measures 2. Experiments on growing unpalatable crops need to be performed as a possible rem-
edy. The remedy can be successful only if there is sufficient education of farmers to-
wards the new crops as well as organized efforts to reach the right market. This can
perhaps be effectively done through farmers’ cooperatives. Efforts are underway to
form such cooperatives. Alternatively the wild life management may offer buy back
schemes for such crops. Some such crop species are grown locally in some areas.
For example turmeric appears to be immune to attack by any wild animal. Currently it
is grown in small patches and fetches good market value. So far it has not spread be-
cause of greater input costs in plantation, greater water requirement and the need for
post harvesting processing that involves both cost and labour. The farmers’ coopera-
tive will try to work out solutions and promulgate such crops.
Activity 4.6. Sea turtles, Lakshadweep
fishers and shared 1. There is often a large chasm between the normal measures of conflict and its lived
spaces: understanding experience. This gap exists because conflict can often have multiple drivers, and not
the roots of conflict in all these drivers can be easily quantified. It requires a more nuanced understanding of
Lakshadweep and the first and second-order drivers of conflict to clearly appreciate its full impact on hu-
Orissa man communities. This may mean a fuller understanding of the ecological processes
that underly conflicts, or, in some instances, the socio-political underpinning of conflict
situations.
2. While first order conflicts may be relatively easy to monetize and alleviate through
compensation schemes and other such amelioratory devices, second order conflicts
may be much more difficult to translate into mere monetary terms. Realistic valuations
of opportunity costs and lost ecosystem services suggest that the cost of second or-
der conflict could be an order of magnitude higher than first-order interactions. This
may explain why many attempts at addressing conflict are inadequate since they
st
normally address only 1 order interactions.
3. At a more fundamental policy level, important questions are raised about prioritizing
ecosystem function and services over simple species conservation approaches. A
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NINA Report 736
more holistic management of sea grass ecosystems as functioning meadows rather

than turtle pastures may offer better all-round solutions for the ecosystem as well as
for communities and species dependent on it.
4. The study provides an opportunity to view coastal/ marine management decisions
using an approach of understanding and resolving conflicting resource use claims. By
investigating these claims, using natural and social science approaches, we have
been able to uncover not just the second order triggers of conflict such as competition
over limited resources (between turtles and fisheries), but also direct, or first order
sources of conflict such as loss of nets from turtle hits. These findings have the poten-
tial to inform what intervention or response might be appropriate and who should
adopt these, thereby providing a more grounded means of management rather than
technical fixes.
Orissa
1. By conducting 4 district workshops on fisherfolk perceptions in the three mass nesting
regions, we are utilizing the opportunity of engagement that the project presents, to
assist the traditional fishworker union in Orissa in developing a clear articulation on
each of the rules and regulations concerning turtles and fisheries management. This
has provided the union representatives with a chance to deliberate on the areas that
they can negotiate with the state and other agencies regarding fishing rights and ac-
commodations for conservation.
2. Our study about perceptions on conflicts and stakeholders also affords us the oppor-
tunity to understand the dynamic in operation in multi-stakeholder collaborative plat-
forms such as the Orissa Marine Resources Conservation Consortium, as a means to
resolve conflicts over conservation.
Activity 4.7. A landscape 1. Clearly, there are important cultural and religious factors that influence peoples atti-
level synthesis of wild- tudes and response to conflict.
life-human conflicts in 2. The understanding and perception of laws also affects influences conflict. In general,
India the understanding of law and its intent seemed to be unclear.
3. These case studies show how antagonism towards laws can lead to retaliation, and
negative attitudes towards animals, thus having the opposite effect that the laws were
intended to have. The need to involve communities in creating conservation frame-
works, or at least in local decision making seems necessary if their support is re-
quired for conservation.
4. The gap in people's perception about conflict, official figures, and government per-
ceptions about conflict needs to be more closely examined.
5. Given the role of a suite of social factors, such as local knowledge, culture, economic
status and governance, it is critical that future studies incorporate these aspects to
gain a nuanced understanding of conflict which will lead to better mitigation and
management plans.
6. A general understanding of the drivers of conflict can help shape policy so that con-
flict can be reduced to the greatest extent possible.
7. Policy needs to be modified so that it does not aggravate conflict and negatively im-
pact conservation objectives.
Activity 4.10. Crop Dam- None
age by Wildlife in a
Garhwal Himalayan vil-
lage
Activity 5. Expert and 1. A wide range of stakeholder engagement has occurred in most of the activities. This
stakeholder involvement has largely occurred through the informal contacts that emerge when conducting eco-
logical research in rural areas or interviewing people during social science studies. All
these interactions involve a two way transfer of knowledge and experience.
2. In addition, to these informal engagements, most projects have had extensive contact
with the forestry department and local village councils.
See also chapter 13

Activity 6. Conflict mitiga- Not reported, phase II
tion
Activity 7. Convention on 1. The goal of this project has been to exchange experience and jointly conduct re-
Biological Diversity search on human-wildlife conflicts to such a level that we have equivalent data on
ecological, economic, social and political aspects of the conflicts from both India and
Norway. Interdisciplinary research that collects scientific and local knowledge is cru-
cial to turn conservation conflicts into opportunities for coexistence.
2. The results of this project have served to identify the widespread nature and diversity
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NINA Report 736
of conflicts that occur between humans and wildlife, as well as the similarity of the
conflict picture between two countries as diverse as Norway and India. This realiza-
tion is central to understanding why the implementation of these biodiversity conven-
tions is so difficult across diverse socio-economic and political situations.
3. It implies that there is a need to realize that a lot of biodiversity conservation implies
a cost as well as benefits and that there is a need to consider both a sharing of costs
as well as a sharing of benefits.
See also chapter15

Activity 8.1 What does 1. The main stakeholders engaged in this project are the Toda people and the Tamil
large carnivore predation Nadu Forest Department. The former are not organized into any committees or coun-
of buffalo mean to the cils.
Toda? Understanding 2. One meeting was conducted with Todas belonging to various clans.
cultural, politico-legal 3. Another meeting is planned after the completion of the report. For this meeting lo-
and ecological contexts cal/state forest department personnel and the Todas are likely to be invited.
and consequences of 4. Engaging with forestry agencies involved in implementing the possible grassland res-
Toda conflicts with tigers toration component under the Green India Mission. The scheme itself is awaiting the
and leopards on the Planning Commission's approval.
Nilgiri pastures, South-
ern India
Activity 8.2 Human - 1. This project provides a critique of existing policy framework for large carnivore con-
large carnivore interac- servation for its restrictive outlook in excluding people, and human-dominated land-
tions in Akole, north- scapes, from conservation practices.
western Maharashtra 2. It provides inputs to make conservation practice, especially for large carnivores, more
effective without alienating people. It provides evidence on the practical implications of
political, historical, cultural and socio-economic norms and institutions, which can
make conservation practice more effective.
3. It provides practical suggestions to consolidate mechanisms that can mitigate conflicts
between people and large carnivores in the short and long term. This includes stream-
lining existing mechanisms and integrating legal, economic, socio-political and cultural
institutions that facilitate coexistence and minimize the impact of losses.
Activity 8.3 Towards an 1. Documenting FRA implementation and its influence in changing Soliga attitudes to
assessment of the man- conservation will have consequences for a rights based approach to conservation.
agement of Protected 2. BRT has recently been declared a Tiger reserve without any public consultation or
areas and Reserve for- due process. The results of the study will hope to influence the tiger reserve man-
ests in the context of the agement in ensuring a more inclusive PA management.
Recognition of Forests
Rights Act, 2006
Forest officers are important stakeholders in the human-wildlife conflict picture. Photo: John Linnell.
73
NINA Report 736
14 Recommendations
There are s ome overla p betwee n R ecommendations and Po licy implic ations (chapter 13).
Recommendations, howe ver, focus more on kn owledge n eeds and further investigations and
research to better understand the mechanisms of human – wildlife conflicts while polic y impli-
cations are more oriented against decision making and mitigation based on existing knowledge
(table 7).
Table 7. Most important recommendations from the project.
Project Recommendations
Activity 2. All India sur- The survey was a very enlightening experience since we had to contact a large number of
vey and GIS mapping of forest divisions from different states. So me recommendations are giv en below based on
wildlife-human conflicts the experience of carrying out the survey.
1. The records on HWC are maintained in different formats in different divisions. In most
divisions the records are maintained in registers and each division has a different
system of recording the information. It will be useful to develop a software that en-
ables recording of the data on this subject in a standard format at the forest division
office. This software should be distributed to all forest divisions for recording the in-
formation. Better still the data should be maintained in a centralised database over
the internet. Extraction of information will then be very easy. All divisions do not yet
have internet access but the process can be started at least for those divisions where
internet access is available. This issue needs to be taken up with the Ministry of Envi-
ronment and Forests.
2. Most states do not have an administrative map that shows all forest divisions in the
state. When we tried to obtain such maps we found that they were available for very
few states. Such maps should be prepared for by the Forest Department of each
state.
3. An unexpected finding emerged from the study. We found large number of attacks on
people due to jackal in Madhya Pradesh. On enquiry we found that the likely cause
was rabies infection. This represents a very high and localised incidence of rabies. It
is important to carry out an investigation into this by medical and veterinary experts.
Other findings are likely to emerge when the data is analysed in detail which may
warrant further investigation.
4. There are several differences in the policies and practices regarding management of
human wildlife conflict between different states. It would be very useful to carry out a
study on HWC management policy and practices in different states of the country
and to bring out recommendations for a uniform policy throughout the country.
Activity 3. Attitudes of None
local people towards
wildlife-human conflicts
Activity 4.1a. Elephants 1. To have details of elephant depredation pattern, a register of its frequency, should be
in eastern India (West maintained at all Range Offices, in which all claims along with date of raiding crop,
Bengal and Orissa affected area and number of marauding animals should be recorded.
2. The central database should include up-to-date data of encroachments and actual
loss suffered by villagers in the Division and the State as a whole.
3. One-window system should be followed for payment of ex gratia relief.
4. Mining policy should be environment friendly.
5. A State level elephant task force should be set up to make micro-level recommenda-
tions for the most affected Divisions for mitigating conflict and elephant conservation
measures.
6. Special efforts must be made to discourage raids on stored grain in January by erec-
tion of small energized barriers or spraying grounds surrounding stores or under-
ground silos with repellent chemicals.
7. Storing of harvested paddy should be community based in a village and should follow
the Pit / Khani (silo) method of Ganjam District of Orissa, where regular attack on
harvested stored grain is noticed.
8. The terrain permitting, more intensive use is recommended, tractors / motorcycle
without silencer for charging herds or even solitaries in the act of crop depredation.
9. Animals responsible for unprovoked and deliberate manslaughters should be elimi-
nated from the wild by shooting or capture on proper recognition.
10. Supp ly of anti-depredation equipments at Range and Beat level and to VSSs, such
74
NINA Report 736
as flare-lights, powerful spot-light with hand-held rechargeable batteries, rockets that

bang at the end, powerful crackers, spraying instruments to create big flare on lighted
brands, and hooters and loud-hailers, etc.
11. A micro-level study should be conducted to determine which villages need solar and
main-line electric connection to prevent depredation, particularly of stored grain, and
such lighting should be maintained by VSS or FPC of the area.
12. Creation of at least one elephant-scaring team for each Forest Division with vehicle
and scaring equipments.
13. A system of attractive cash rewards for information leading to recovery of elephant /
tiger / leopard products and arrest of culprits.
14. Two demo-plots or more in each of the identified forest division should be set up on
non-forest land to demonstrate the economic viability of cultivating alternative cash
crop unpalatable to elephants.
15. A top-most level review is urgently needed of the present highly inadequate rate of
relief for house damage and ensuing speedy settlements of the claims. Government
rules should be suitably amended to allow payment of ex gratia relief to stored grain
as well as damage to fruit trees and plants.
16. In dry season, elephant range boundaries should be demarcated and must be pro-
tected and expansion of all types of agricultural activity in these areas has to be
stopped.
17. On the buffer area of elephant - ranges the cultivated crop should be unpalatable to
elephants.
18. Buffer zones should not be protected by electric fencing or by other barriers; only the
regular cultivated areas should be protected.
19. The State should have a separate wing for all the elephant reserves of Orissa. An
officer should head it not less than of the rank of CCF.
20. In depth study on bear– human conflict is essential to mitigate the problem.
Activity 4.1b. Wildlife- 1. Realign the boundaries in protected areas and removal of invasive weeds from micro
Human conflict in the habitat of elephants would enhance the availability of vital habitat, and also minimize
Nilgiris Eastern Ghats conflict.
landscape 2. Prepare clear land use pattern map and incorporate seasonal movement and density
of elephant would give an idea of animal concentration in certain areas and alert
farmer for mitigation plans.
3. Compensation paid for crop and property damage should be given immediately with-
out delay and formalities for the same should be cut off.
4. Awareness program should be taken up immediately for the susceptible farmers in
order to maintain the EPT and electric fence.
5. High priority should be given for conservation education in schools in and around the
protected area to avoid serious conflict in future.
6. Encourage indigenous method of approaching conflict mitigation and also should
implement subsidy plans for such approach thorough government.
7. Identify problematic animal carefully before capture and monitoring should be done
on a regular basis after releasing in the wild.
8. Develop well established intelligence network to avoid poaching which continues as a
threat to carnivore population in the protected areas.
Activity 4.2. Leopards 1. Increase in knowledge base of the fact that a large cat can persist with minimal harm
and wolves in western to human life even in densely human dominated landscapes
India: the ecology of hu- 2. Increase in understanding that conflict can be controlled even in extreme cases (high
man-leopard and hu- density of large cat among high density of humans)
man-wolf conflicts in 3. We can identify measures to take to reduce losses to people due to livestock depre-
Maharashtra, India. dation
4. We can identify measures to take to reduce human-large cat encounters in densely
populated rural town
5. Vidya Athreya has been nominated by the NTCA as member of committee
(http://projecttiger.nic.in/whtsnew/committee_leopard.pdf) which has been set up to
tackle leopard mortality due to conflict
6. A workshop with Policy makers attending will be conducted in early March 2011 to
present and discuss the major key findings of the project, to develop mechanisms of
better coexistence between animals and humans and to promote implications of policy
to control conflicts.
7. The data on wolf conflicts shows that depredation has a much smaller effect than dis-
ease in livestock mortality, and that relatively few people bother applying for compen-
sation because of the complexity of the process.
Activity 4.3. Canids in Based on the preliminary data collected during this survey, we recommend that:
western India: rabies as
a driver of Human-Wolf 1. More intensive surveys of rabies prevalence be carried out in affected regions.
75
NINA Report 736
conflict and the role of 2. Workshops for capacity building of the state wildlife authorities and animal husbandry
free ranging domestic departments so as to ensure rapid response to wolf attacks on humans and endeavor
dogs as carriers of the to either capture the animal alive or obtain a suitable sample for confirmatory analysis
disease of rabies.
Activity 4.4. Blackbuck in 1. Semi-arid grassland management: Findings on habitat use by blackbuck suggest that
western India: a proposal unprotected grasslands should not be converted to plantations under afforestation
to examine ecological programmes as they become unsuitable to fauna dependent on this landscape. For
mechanisms and de- the same reason, exotic trees in plantations established in semi-arid areas should be
velop measures for miti- removed. Our findings indicate that blackbuck avoid areas with very tall grass; grass
gation of crop damage height was typically high within protected grasslands and plantations in the Nannaj
by a wild Indian ungulate landscape. In grassland protected areas elsewhere, grass is harvested on a rotational
basis and this mosaic of habitats provides habitat for species that prefer both tall and
short grass areas. A limited and carefully monitored rotational grass harvesting
scheme could be tried on an experimental basis. For the suggested management in-
terventions of reducing tree density in plantations and harvesting of grass, it is very
important that it is first tried out in a small area and that vegetation changes and the
behaviour of the different animal species of interest are intensively monitored in order
to assess the effectiveness of management measures and make appropriate modifi-
cations.
2. Crop damage mitigation measures: Our findings concerning the level of crop damage
occurring in the landscape can be used to examine levels of conflict (a more complex
phenomenon involving damage, perception and other factors) and underlying reasons
for this conflict. This study shows that blackbuck crop damage is localized and not ex-
tensive in Nannaj; however, in the places that it does occur, damage is frequently
substantial. Our study has found that fields vary widely in whether they are likely to be
visited by blackbuck or not and we have identified some important predictors of
whether a field is likely to experience damage or not. This information could be used
to map out agricultural areas with differing levels of risk of damage by blackbuck. For
the different levels of risk, appropriate potential mitigation measures can now be
tested and evaluated.
Grassland management:
- Our findings indicate that plantation areas in Nannaj are under utilized by black-
buck, most likely because blackbuck tend to avoid more closed habitats. There-
fore, reducing tree density in plantations, especially the exotic tree Glyricidia se-
pium would increase blackbuck use of plantation areas. More generally, we sug-
gest that unprotected grasslands should not be converted to plantations under
afforestation programmes as they become unsuitable to fauna dependent on this
landscape.
- Our findings indicate that blackbuck avoid areas with very tall grass. In grassland
protected areas elsewhere (for e.g., Velavadar National Park in Gujarat), grass
is harvested on a rotational basis (Figure 24) and this mosaic of habitats pro-
vides habitat for species that prefer both tall and short grass areas. A rotational
grass harvesting scheme could be tried on an experimental basis.
For the sugg ested mana gement interve ntions of reduc ing tree dens ity i n pla ntations
and harvesting of grass, it is very important that it is first tried o ut in a sm all area and
that vegetation changes and the behaviour of the different anim al species of interest
are intensively monitored in order to a ssess the effectiveness of manag ement meas-
ures and make appropriate modifications.
3. Monitoring of blackbuck populations: Blackbuck at low population densities is unlikely

to cause extensive crop damage. Population trends can be established and incorpo-
rated into the management decisions only if long term data are available. Very little in-
formation exists on blackbuck population dynamics at Nannaj and therefore it is es-
sential to set up a robust and effective monitoring scheme.
Activity 4.5. Crop Raid- 1. Since the direct and indirect damages estimated are substantially large and direct
ing by Wild Ungulates in damage is difficult to estimate, compensation is unlikely to be an effective solution in
Tadoba–Andhari Tiger the long run. The subjectivity of damage assessment is more likely to breed corrup-
Reserve, Maharashtra: a tion. Also direct damage being only a small part of the total loss, compensation would
study of ecological pat- be always inadequate. Compensations should be looked upon only as temporary so-
terns and remedial lutions until long term remedies are allowed to evolve and effectively implemented.
measures 2. Experiments on growing unpalatable crops need to be performed as a possible rem-
edy. The remedy can be successful only if there is sufficient education of farmers to-
wards the new crops as well as organized efforts to reach the right market. This can
perhaps be effectively done through farmers’ cooperatives. Efforts are underway to
form such cooperatives. Alternatively the wild life management may offer buy back
76
NINA Report 736
schemes for such crops. Some such crop species are grown locally in some areas.
For example turmeric appears to be immune to attack by any wild animal. Currently it
is grown in small patches and fetches good market value. So far it has not spread be-
cause of greater input costs in plantation, greater water requirement and the need for
post harvesting processing that involves both cost and labour. The farmers’ coopera-
tive will try to work out solutions and promulgate such crops. However, first of all a
search and experimental plantations for inedible crops suitable for the particular soil
and climatic conditions need to be undertaken.
3. The approach of self inquiry, i.e. participation of farm ers in data collection appeared
to be highly useful and insightful and an extension of it needs to be explored.
Activity 4.6. Sea turtles, Lakshadweep
fishers and shared 1. The study provides an opportunity to view coastal/ marine management decisions
spaces: understanding using an approach of understanding and resolving conflicting resource use claims. By
the roots of conflict in investigating these claims, using natural and social science approaches, we have
Lakshadweep and been able to uncover not just the second order triggers of conflict such as competition
Orissa over limited resources (between turtles and fishers), but also direct, or first order
sources of conflict, such as loss of nets from turtle hits. These findings have the po-
tential to inform what intervention or response might be appropriate and who should
adopt these, thereby providing a more grounded means of management rather than
technical fixes.
Orissa
1. By conducting 4 district workshops on fisherfolk perceptions in the three mass nesting
regions, we are utilizing the opportunity of engagement that the project presents, to
assist the traditional fishworker union in Orissa in developing a clear articulation on
each of the rules and regulations concerning turtles and fisheries management. This
has provided the union representatives with a chance to deliberate on the areas that
they can negotiate with the state and other agencies regarding fishing rights and ac-
commodations for conservation.
2. Our study about perceptions on conflicts and stakeholders also affords us the oppor-
tunity to understand the dynamic in operation in multi-stakeholder collaborative plat-
forms such as the Orissa Marine Resources Conservation Consortium, as a means to
resolve conflicts over conservation.
Activity 4.7. A landscape 1. The need to involve communities in creating conservation frameworks or at least in
level synthesis of wild- local decision making seems necessary if their support is required for conservation.
life-human conflicts in 2. Further data collection and analysis should be carried out. The gap in people's per-
India ception about conflict, official figures, and government perceptions about conflict
needs to be more closely examined. Given the role of a suite of social factors, such
as local knowledge, culture, economic status and governance, it is critical that future
studies incorporate these aspects to gain a nuanced understanding of conflict which
will lead to better mitigation and management plans.
3. A general understanding of the drivers of conflict can help shape policy so that con-
flict can be reduced to the greatest extent possible.
4. Policy needs to be modified so that it does not aggravate conflict and negatively im-
pact conservation objectives.
Activity 4.10. Crop Dam- None
age by Wildlife in a
Garhwal Himalayan vil-
lage (Completed)
Activity 5. Expert and N.A.
stakeholder involvement
Activity 6. Conflict mitiga- Not reported, phase II
tion
Activity 7. Convention on See chapter 15
Biological Diversity
Activity 8.1 What does 1. In understanding and mitigating conflicts, biologists need to also engage with sociolo-
large carnivore predation gists a nd anthropologists, rather th an c onstantly s eeking the ec onomist. Confl icts
of buffalo mean to the have cultural and symbolic meaning, besides material aspects.
Toda? Understanding 2. While e ngaging with th e mat eriality of conflict is ind ispensable, eng aging with p eo-
cultural, politico-legal ple’s me aningful interpr etations of the c onflict circumstances, the landsc ape of con -
and ecological contexts flict, and carn ivore pres ence is crucial. Es pecially i n terri torial forests where p eople
and consequences of will live in legislatively mandated ‘violate’ circumstances and thus need to be recruited
Toda conflicts with tigers to participate in conservation.
and leopards on the 3. Consider th e u pper N ilgiris fo r grassl and r estoration under the Green In dia Missi on.
77
NINA Report 736
Nilgiri pastures, South- Grassland restoration works well as a c onflict mitigation mechanism as monitoring of
ern India predator and prey stands enhanced.
4. Revamp the official compensation process by cutting red tape and making the proc-
ess transparent.
Activity 8.2 Human - 1. Politics of conservation in human-dominated landscapes. Based on the research done
large carnivore interac- in Akole, one can claim that more research is required to understand the politics of
tions in Akole, north- conservation in human-dominated landscapes. With more such studies, specific policy
western Maharashtra instruments need to be drawn up for conservation practice in human-dominated land-
scapes. The current policy framework is based on a PA-centered strategy and ignores
the dynamics of human-dominated landscapes outside PAs, which are home to a sig-
nificant percentage of wildlife and high densities of people. To succeed, such instru-
ments must account for and strengthen existing norms and institutions, which are
conducive to conservation rather than induce antagonism towards conservation and
also draw inputs from different (and relevant) disciplines including biology, political
science, history and anthropology (Saberwal and Rangarajan, 2003).
2. Large carnivore management practices. A critical evaluation of current large carnivore
management practices is required, including its biological and political dynamics. The
result of such an evaluation can be used to draw up a protocol to manage stable
populations of large carnivores, rather than translocating them in response to politico-
economic pressures. This would prevent random (and unnecessary) trapping of leop-
ards, counter political pressure to trap animals and hold the forest department ac-
countable for management practices. The protocol also needs to provide mechanism
for prompt action in case of attacks on humans, while also investigating their nature
and causes. Not only will this provide feedback to improve management practices but
also ensure the animals are handled appropriately. However, frontline forest depart-
ment staff would still need to deal with villagers and pastoralists facing losses to leop-
ards. These staff members must be trained in dealing with people and crisis man-
agement. It may not be practically possible to insulate the forest department from po-
litical pressure (given the entrenched interests of department officials and politicians),
the protocol may provide a relatively more transparent strategy to defuse conflict
situations between large carnivores and humans.
3. Livestock Protection and Compensation Schemes. The main material interaction be-
tween people and large carnivores is through depredation of livestock and pet ani-
mals. In this context, an improvement of livestock protection is crucial. Communities
like the Thakkars protect their animals better than others and as a consequence suffer
fewer losses. The occasional losses might still occur and the resulting compensation
must be linked to protection measures. The rationale behind this recommendation is
simple; while individuals blame the department and the leopard for depredation, they
often do not take responsibility for adequately protecting their animals. Furthermore,
there are numerous instances of people willingly exposing unwanted animals to dep-
redation risks, in an effort to collect compensation. It is thus imperative that compen-
sation schemes be linked to better protection of livestock. The obvious challenge here
are individuals who do not have the resources to effectively protect their animals
(leaving them vulnerable to depredation) and consequently such losses can be eco-
nomically catastrophic. A possible solution is to provide support to these individuals to
protect their animals better, but the implementation is problematic. It might be more
feasible to work with the village panchayats to incentivise the compensation scheme
and provision of support to those who lack resources to protect their animals.
The compensation scheme itself nee ds to be streamlined and more trans parent in its
functioning an d purp ose. In its current forma t, it is riddled with corr uption and hi ghly
bureaucratic. It often runs counter to c onservation ne eds and serves as a majo r
source of fricti on bet ween the forest dep artment and legitimate ap plicants for com -
pensation for depredation. It also puts the onus of conservation and management of
leopards, s olely o n the department, erodi ng socio-cultural ad aptive insti tutions that
have allowed people to coexist with leopards.
4. Strengthen institutions of tolerance. Large carnivore management needs to account

and integrate socio-cultural institutions, which facilitate coexistence between people
and large carnivores. These institutions precede and predate the current socio-legal
framework of conservation practice in India. However, such an extension of conserva-
tion practice and its socio-legal framework is fraught with conceptual and practical
challenges. It requires further research in non-protected areas, which include people
in conservation while also help identify relevant socio-cultural and political frame-
works.
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NINA Report 736
Strengthening of such institutions is justified on several grounds. Firstly, they are syn-
ergistic with c onservation pr actices while also f acilitating live lihood stra tegies. S ec-
ondly, they provide an existing framework for conservation, based o n traditional eco-
logical knowledge and beliefs. Conservation management can au gment such existing
systems, rather than waste resources trying to replace them, to produce a similar out-
come. Thirdly, if done sensitively, existing socio-cultural institutions ease acceptance
of the current l egal frame work. The first task, however, must be to ide ntify them an d
work out mechanisms on how they can be augmented in different parts of the country.
Activity 8.3 Towards an 1. Documenting FRA implementation and its influence in changing Soliga attitudes to
assessment of the man- conservation will have consequences for a rights based approach to conservation.
agement of Protected 2. BRT has recently been declared a Tiger reserve without any public consultation or
areas and Reserve for- due process. The results of the study will hope to influence the tiger reserve man-
ests in the context of the agement in ensuring a more inclusive PA management.
Recognition of Forests
Rights Act, 2006
Supporting dialogue through appropriate fora is crucial to reduce human-wildlife conflicts. Fisher-
men are important stakeholders in the human-turtle conflicts. Photo: Kartik Shanker.
79
NINA Report 736
15 Contribution to implementation of CBD and impact on

domestic wildlife management policy
Over the last three decades we have witnessed an increasing focus on the environment and
biodiversity, resulting in a number of i nternational treaties an d agreements. The Convention of
Biological Diversity (CBD ) stands out as the first g lobal ag reement on con servation a nd sus-
tainable use of biological dive rsity. Since 1992 more than 1 50 gover nments have ratified the
convention.
The CBD ou tlines concrete appr oaches on how to achieve co nservation, primarily through its
“Ecosystem Approach” and its guiding “Malawi principles”. These principles were furth er devel-
oped in th e “Millennium Ecosystem Assessment” and the “Addis Ababa principles and guide-
lines for the sustainable use of biodiversity”. The CBD has also served as a vital springboard
for the establishment of the “Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services” (IPBES) which UNEP have received a mandate to establish from the U N
General Assembly.
All sources of knowledge, here represented by the Todas, should be used when relevant according
to the Malawi principles. Photo: Ketil Skogen.
Despite a focus on linkin g biodiversity conserva tion to human well being, many countri es are
struggling to implement these conventions. This is due to an often overlooked fact; wildlife con-
servation can actually generate many conflicts with human well being. People and wildlife often
live in close proximity, and wide-ranging wildlife does not necessarily stay inside protected ar -
eas. Many species can create di rect and severe conflicts with human interests. Conflicts occur
in a variety of contexts, when wildlife species raid agricultural crops, damage property, kill peo-
ple or livestock, or spread diseases. When conservation programs succeed, and wildlife popu-
lations expand in numbe rs and rang e, many of t hese conflicts increase, resulting in a need to
adjust management proc edures fr om a “preventi ng extinction ” phase to o ne whe re th e goal
becomes “learning to live with success”.
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NINA Report 736
Wildlife-human conflicts are cur rently recognized as a serio us impediment to the implementa-
tion of international biodi versity conventions, species recove ry plans and the manage ment of
protected areas. These types of conflicts are perhaps one of the most important aspects in the
overall controversy between human interests and biodiversity conservation in general.
The goal of this project has been to e xchange experience and jointly conduct research on hu-
man-wildlife conflicts to such a level that we have equivalent data on ecological, economic, so-
cial and political aspects of the conflicts from bot h India and Norway. Interdisciplinary research
that collects scientific and local knowledge is crucial to turn conservation conflicts into opportu-
nities for coexistence.
The results of this pro ject have served to id entify the widespread nature and diversity of con-
flicts that occur between humans and wildlife, as well as the similarity of the conflict picture be-
tween two countries as d iverse as Norway and India. This rea lization is central to und erstand-
ing why th e implementation of t hese biodiversity conve ntions is so difficult across diverse
socio-economic and political situations. It implies that there is a need to realize that a lot of bio-
diversity con servation im plies a cost as well as benefits and that there is a nee d to consider
both a sharing of costs as well as a sharing of benefits.
Cultural context can be an important modulator of the human-wildlife conflict picture. Photo: Jørn
Thomassen.
81
NINA Report 736
16 Conclusions
Despite a postponed laun ch for a few project activities and some chall enges in obtaining data
in some of the activities, we feel certain t hat this project has been a success. The over all goal
of the project has been to underst and the wildlife human interactions in India and Norway (in a
sample of multiuse landscapes) and devel op mechanisms of coexistence suitable to the coun-
tries. The main focus in the pro ject was put on a few species such as eleph ant, blackbuck and
other herbivores, leopard, wolf, marine turtles – all species in conflict with humans. A large part
of India was covered in t he various studies on the se species and in the so cial research com-
ponent of the project.
This project’s cooperation has provided many mutual insights. The Indian partners were able to
benefit from the N orwegians’ exp erience at cond ucting interd isciplinary conflict research in
human-dominated landscapes, while the Nor wegians were able to gain critical insights in to the
unique levels of tolerance displayed by the rural Indians.
The project has disseminated th e project results in a variety of ways, i.e. produced articles in
peer review scientific journals (and more will come ), written several research reports, produced
conflict management guidelines, written numerous popular articles in newspapers and journals,
given seve ral intervie ws on r adio and TV, given public and scientific pr esentations and eve n
produced and performed a theatre production on leopard – human conflicts! Moreover, several
of the pro ject’s scientists have been very active in writing th eir own po pular science articles
and initiating the pr oduction of a wid e ra nge of communication p ackages rangin g fr om TV
documentaries to training courses and handbooks to popular books and, as mentioned, theatre
productions – in all cases trying to use the best media to reach the desired stakeholder group.
A wide range of stakeh older engagement has occurred in most of the activities. This has
largely occurred thro ugh the informal contac ts th at emerge when con ducting ecological re-
search in rural areas or interviewing people during social science studies. All these interactions
involve a two way transf er of knowle dge an d ex perience. In addition, to these informal en-
gagements, most projects have ha d extensive co ntact with th e forestry de partment an d loca l
village councils.
Important outcomes from the project are numerous recommendations and policy implications,
and the future challenge for stakeholders and decis ion makers will be to assess and implement
actions to achieve a better coexistence between humans and wildlife. Interdisciplinary research
that collects scientific and local know ledge is cruc ial to turn conservation c onflicts into oppor-
tunities for coexistence which again strikes to the core of the Convention of Biological Diversity
(CBD).
This project was originally conceived as being phase 1 of a two phase process, where phase 1
was intende d to be main ly based on research, an d phase 2 w as intended to focus on imple-
mentation of some of the re search based recommendations. Ba sed on o ur experience so far,
including both the scientific results and the institutional cooperation, there is a clear will among
the participants to continue with a phase 2 where we believe that our research results will ease
some of the conflicts that c an have such a negative impact on both biodiversity and human li-
velihoods.
82
NINA Report 736
Annex 1. Overview of Technical reports

Access to the technical reports can be obtained by contacting NINA.
83
736
ISSN: 1504-3312
ISBN: 978-82-426-2325-6

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736 Wildlife-Human Interactions:

From Conflict to Coexistence

NINA Report (NINA Rapport)

NINA Special Report (NINA Temahefte)

NINA Factsheet (NINA Fakta)

Norwegian Institute for Nature Research

Thomassen, J., Linnell, J. & Skogen, K. 2011. Wildlife-Human Inte-

NINA head office NINA Oslo NINA Tromsø NINA Lillehammer

Human - large carnivore interactions in Akole, north-western Maharashtra: how people

- Kartlegging av menneske-dyr-konflikter over hele India: Spørreundersøkelse sendt til

- Menneske-dyr-konflikter i Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife-reservatet: Forstå og

English and scientific names of species in the report .............................................................. 13

2 Objectives and Scope of the Cooperation Project .............................................................. 18

Maharashtra (activity 8.2) ................................................................................. 44

4 Degree of achievement of the goals and objectives of the project ......................................48

5 Sustainability of the co-operation between the participating institutions ............................. 51

6 Arrangement for institutionalisation of benefits ................................................................... 52

7 Mutuality of benefits derived by individual institutions .........................................................53

8 Assessment of technology/knowledge transfer exchanged between institutions ................54

9 Strategy for dissemination .................................................................................................. 55

10 Assessment of any commercial spin-offs or prospects for commercial benefits as a off

11 Decentralisation and engagement with civil society ............................................................63

12 Stakeholder meetings .........................................................................................................64

13 Policy implications .............................................................................................................. 70

15 Contribution to implementation of CBD and impact on domestic wildlife management

Annex 1. Overview of Technical reports .................................................................................. 83

English and scientific names of species in the report

Trondheim/Oslo, July 2011

As a result wildlife-huma n conf licts a re tod ay recognized as a serious im pediment to the im -

2 Objectives and Scope of the Cooperation Project

2.2 Cooperating institutions

2.2.2 Indian Partners

Nature Conservation Foundation (NCF)

Figure 1. Project sites in India.

Table 1. Status on activities taken up.

Activities Investigator(s) Project period Status Report

Principle investigator: Jayant Kulkarni (CES, IISc)

Background / Study area / Study objective / Methods used

Figure 2. Number of Human Deaths in each state 2006-2008.

Figure 3. Number of Human Injuries in each state 2006-2008.

Blackbuck crop raiding. Photo: Kavita Isvaran.

3.2.2 Elephant - Human Interactions in Eastern India- Orissa (activity 4.1a-1)

Principal investigator: Chanchal K. Sar (ANCF)

Background / Study objective / Study area / Methods used

3.2.3 Elephant - Human Interactions in West Bengal - Eastern India (activity

Principle investigator: Mukti Roy (CES, IISc)

Background / Study objective / Study area / Methods used

Figure 4. Proposed elephant corridor in the Buxa-Jaldapara area.

North Bengal South Bengal

3.2.4 Wildlife - Human Interactions: Nilgiri Eastern Ghats Landscape (activity

Principal investigator: Kannan (CES, IISc)

Background / Study objective / Study area / Methods used

Elephants crossing a road. Photo: John Linnell.

3.2.5 Understanding Human - Leopard interactions in the western state of Ma-

Background / Study area / Study objective / Methods used

Leopard equipped with a GPS sender. Photo: Jørn Thomassen.

Leopard positions in and around Akole, Maharashtra. Map: Google.

Principal Investigators: Abi Tamin Vanak and Aniruddha Belsare (ANCF)

Background / Study objective / Study area / Methods used