'

336

A cuui.og is to be made for a line of unifor

poims. What is the gradient ? calculate thed.
volume of cuui.og on the assumption tba1 the
SURVEYING

m gradient passing lbrou&b the first and last!

grow><
[3
at right angles to the centte line is levelle
the culliDB ill each side 1t to I. Use plism
oidal
Given : Breadth of formation 30 feet ; slope of
formula.
(U.P)

d where the cross- slope varies considerably

. Minor Instruments
1. A cuui.og is to be made lhrougb the groan line, and cross slope is 8 to I. At B the
At A, the depth of the cut is 12 ft at theand at C 14 ft and 10 to I. AB and BC are each
centre
com:spondiDg figures are 10 ft and 12 to 1 prisDtoidal
the side slopes 1t to I. Calculate by the
100 feeL The formation width is 30 feet and (U.P.)
between A and C.
method the volume oC the i:uui.og ill cubic yaros 14.1. HAND LEVEL
used for recollllaissance and preliminary
A hand level is a simple, compact instrument sts
ANSWERS d and for taking short cross-sections. It consi
survey, for locating contours on the groun
15 em long, provided with a small bubble
tube
of a rectaoguJar or circular tube, 10 to
5. (a) 4013 cubic yds. (b) 352.52 sq. ft. at the top. A line of sight, parallel
6. 6953 cubic yds. to the axis of the bubble tube,
is defined by a line joining a
7. 3919 cubic yds.
;:in-bole at the eye end and a
horizontal wire at the object end.
1D order to view the bubble tube
at the instant the object is sighted,
[ij• ....2
== ~=
2
m==b==m~==~3
a smaU opening, immediately be·
FIG. 14.1. HAND Ll!VEL.
I low the bubble, is provided in
I
i the tube. The bubble is reflected I. BUBBLE TUBE 3. EYE SLIT OR HOLE
through this opening on to a 4. CROSS-WIRE.
I mirror, which is inside the tube
2. REFLECTING MIRRO R

inclined at 45' to the axis, and and

ntirror occupies half the width of the tube
immediately under the bubble tube. The of sight is horizontal when the
half. The line
the objects are sighted through the other the reflec tor.
-wire, or lies on a line ruled on
centre of the bubble appears opposite the cross
To use the instrument
(I) Hold the instrument in band (prefe
rably against a .rnd or staff) at the eye level
observed.
and sight the staff kept at the point to be
(il) Raise or lower the object end of
the tube till the image of the bubble seen
-wire.
in the reflector is bisected by the cross
(iit) Take the staff reading against the cross-wire.
of the sight may also be provided.
In some of the band levels, telescopic line
AdJustment of the hand level (Fig. 14.2)
the bubble is centred.
To make the line of sight homonll11 when
20 to 30 metres apart.
(I) Select two rigid supports P and Q
at about

(337),
 Iii SURVEYING MINOR IN5l'RUMENTS
339
II 338
II,,,, The Abney level can be used for (z) measuring vertical angles, (il) measuring slope

r-·=;""OC~':OC':':':o':::cc:::::i:
(2) Hold the level at a point
oi the ground, aod (iii) tracing grade contour.
A on the supporr at P aod mark a
.,n (i) Mtasuremeat of vertical angle
!I point D on the other supporr Q, when
the bubble is central. (I) Keep the instrument at eye level and direct it to the object till the line of
·(3) Shift the instrument to Q, 11aJf)};;;. ;; I I ;;;;;111; J;;; 0;;
;;;; ; ; J INIJ})J}JI I;;; JJ iU I; I sight passes through it.
P
hold it at the point D. centre the bubble, (2) Since the line of sight is inclined, the bubble will go out of centre. Bring the
aod mark the point B where the line FIG. 14.2 bubble to the centre of its run by the milled-screw. When the bubble is central. the line
of sight slrikes the first supporr. If of sight muse pass tlirough the object.
,, A and B do not coincide, the ins011D1ent requires adjustment. (3) Read the angle on the arc by means of the vernier.
,, '
(4) Select a point C 'midway between A and B. With the adjustment screws,
raise (il) Measurement or slope or the ground
!i .I
:;
li I
I~
or lower the cross-wire till the line of sight bisects C. (I) Take a target, having cross-marks, at observer's eye height and keep it at the
L·l other end of the line.
I~ ' .I
14.2. ABNEY CLINOMETER (ABNEY LEVEL)
(2) Hold the instrument at one end aod direct the instrument towards the target till
il'i
Abney level is one of the various forms of clinometers used for the measurement
1

'!_:1
the horizontal wire coincides with the horizontal line of the target.
1

i ~ ' ·I
of slopes, taking cross-sections, tracing contours, setting grades aod all other rough levelling·
,'.:'.'1' operations. lt is a light, compact and hand instrument .with low precision as compared (3) Bring the bubble in the centre of its run.
!;':'·
~:;:, to engineer's level. The abney level consists of the fp~~wing (Fis. 14.3): (4) Read the angle on the arc by means of the vernier.
'.. ::;j (I) A square sighting tube having peep bOle or eye-piece at one end aod a cross-wire (iiJ) Tracing grade contour : See § 10. 6.
i_ ,:!i:l
: 1td at the other ·end. Near the objective end, a mirror is placed at an angle of 45" 'inside Testing and Adjustment of Abney Level :
i:!t;ti the tube and occupying half the width, as in the hand level. Immediately above the mirror, "' (I) Fix two rods, having marks at equal heights h (preferably at the height of observer's
r·ri!i"' an opening is provided to receive rays from the bubble tube placed above it. The line
of sight is defined by the line joining the peep hole and the cross-wire.
eye), at two points P and Q, about
20 to 50 metres apat1. -·- -·-·-·-a; ·-·-·-·-·-·-·-· B

~~
(2) A small bubble tube, placed immediately above the openings attached to a vernier
Ii!l
r
1 arm, which can be rotated either by means of a milled headed screw or by rack and
pinion arrangement. The intage of the bubble is visible in the mirror.
(2) Keep the Abney level
the point A against the rod at P
and measure the angle of elevation A
at

·-·- - -- - -·- - - - -· i
h
1:!:'

lI.;·i;
When the line of sight . is at any inclination, the milled-screw is operated till the a, towards the point B of the rod i
bubble is bisected by the cross-wire. The vernier is thus moved from its zero position,
the amount of movement being equal to the inclination of the line of sight.
Q.
(3) Shift the instrument to Q.
lh
a

\Ill! (3) A semi-circular graduated arc is fixed in. position. The zero mark.of the graduations hold it against B aod sight A. Measure p
coincides with the zero of the vernier. The reading increases from oo to 600 (or
the angle of depression a,. FIG. 14.4
90" ) in both the directions, one giving the angles of elevation aod the other angles of (4) ·If a, aod a, are equal,
depression. In some instru- the instrument is in adjustment i.e., the line of sight is parallel to the axis of the bubble
1'/: ments, the values of the tube when it is central and when vernier reads zero.
,1· slopes, corresponding to . . a 1 +a2

II the angles, are also

marked. The vernier is of
extended type having least
(5) If not, turn the. screw so that the vermer reads the mean readtng - -2-
The bubble will no longer be central.
Bring the bubble to the centre of its run by means of its adjusting scrws. Repeat
count of 5' or 10'.
the test till correct.
If the instrument is
to be used as a band level, Note. If the adjustment is nOt done, the index error, equal a,;"' ,
may be noted
,I, the venller ffi set to read aod the corr.:.:~on ntay be applied to all the observed· readings.
I zero on the graduated arc
I FIG. 14.3. ABNEY LEVEL.
'\,
aod the level is then used
(BY COURTESY OF MIS VICKERS IN5rRUMENTS LTD.)
i'' as an ordinary hand level.
,I
I'II
 341
SURVEYING MINOR INSTRUMENfS
340
METER) 14.4. BUREL HAND LEVEL
14.3. INDIAN PATrERN CLINOMETER (TANGENT CLINO (Fig. 14.6)
Indian pattern clinometer is used This ci>nsists of a simple frame t. PRAME
for determining difference in elevation carrying a mirror and a plain glass. 2
between points and is specially adopted The mirror extends half-way across the, · MIRROR
to plane tabling. The clinometer is placed frame. The plain glass exten¢.; to the 3 PLAIN GLASS
on the plane table which is levelled other half. The frame can be suspended ·
by estimation. The clinometer consists vertically in gimble s. The edge of the 4. GIMBLE
of the following : mirror fomts vertical reference line. The
(I) A base plate carrying a small instrument is based on the principle 5: SUPPORTING RING
bubble rube and a levelling screw. Thus. that a ray of light after being reflected
the clinometer can be accurately levelled. back from a vertical mirror along the 6. ADJUSTING PIN
(2) The eye vane carrying a peep path of incidence, is horizontal. When
hole. The eye vane is hinged at its the instrument is suspended at eye level, FIG. 14.6. BUREL HAND LEVEL
lower end to the base plate. the image of the eye is visible at the
(3) The object vane having gradu- edge of the mirror, while the objects
are at the level of observer's
ations in degrees at one side and tangent appearing through the plain glass opposite the intage of the eye
of the angles. to the other side of the eye.
central opening. The object vane is also 14.5. DE LISLE'S CLINOMETER (Fig. 14.7)
hinged at its lower end to the base
plate. A slide, provided with a small
"' This is another form of clinometer, similar to that of 'Burel
measuring the vertical angles, determining the slope of the ground ,
band level, used for
and for setting out
window and horizontal wire in its middle, gradients. This consists of the· following :
can be moved up and down the object g .a mirror extending
(1) A simple frame, similar to that of a Burel level, carryin
vane by a rack and pinion fitted with sighted through the other half which is open.
FIG. 14 .5. INDIAN PATTERN CLINOMETER half-way across the frame, the objects being
a milled bead. The line of sight is · The frame can be suspended in gintbles.
defined by the line joining the peep ~2

hole and the horizontal wire of the slide. The edge of the mirror fomts
a vertical reference line. I. GIMBLE
over the base.
When the instrument is not in use, the vanes fold down (2) A heavy semi-circular arc is
attached to the lower end of the frame. 2. SUPPORTING RING
Use of !ndian Patt'ern Clinometer with Plane Table
The arc is graduated in gradients or
Pattern Clinometer
(I) Set the plane table over the station and keep the Indian slopes from 1 in 5 to I in 50. The 3. MIRROR
on it. arc is attached to the vertical axis so
(2) Level the clinometer with the help of the levelling
screw. that it may be revolved to bring the 4
the object vane till it bisects arc towards the observer (i.e. forward) · GRADUATED ARC
· (3) Looking through the peep hole, move the slide of
to be sighted . It is prefera ble to use a sigrtal to measure the rising gradients or away
the sigrtal at the ·Other point
hole above the level of the plane from the observer to measure the falling 5. ARM
of the same height as that of the peep
table station. gradients.
Thus, the difference (3) A radial arm is fitted to the 6. SLIDING WE!GIIT
(4) Note the reading, i.e. tangent ~f the angle, against the wire. centre of the arc. The arm consists of
eye and the object = distanc e x tangent of vertical·
in elevation between the
angle = d tan a. a bevelled edge which acts as index.
6
can be found from By moving the arm along the arc, the
The distance d between the plane table station and the object
ted if the reduced level of mirror can be inclined to the vertical.
.the plan. The reduced level of the object can thus be calcula The inclination to the horizontal of the FIG. 14. 7. DB USLB'S CLINOMETER.
the plane table station is known.
 343
MINOR INSIRUMBI'ITS
~2

equals the . inctination 14.7. CEYLON GHAT TRACER

line from the eye to the point at which it appears in the mirror
arm also carries a sliding weight. When the weight (Fig. 14.9)
of the mirror to the vertical. The
stop (at the end of the arm), it· counter balances the, weight of It is a very useful insttwnent for setting
is· moved to the ouler
the arc in horizontal position and makes the mirror vertical. To
make the line of the out gradients. It essentially consists ·of a long
radial arm is turned back circular tube having a peep hole at one end
sight horizontal, the weight is slided to the outer slope and the 7
to its fullest extent. and cross-wires at the other egds. The tube
To measure a gradient is supported by a A-frame hliving a hole
be turned forward at its top to fix the instrument to a straight
(I) Slide the weight to the inner stop of the arm. The arc should
. rod or stand. The tube is also engraved to
for rising gradients and backward for falling gradients
length in such give readings of gradients. A beavy weight
(2) Suspend the insninnent from the thumb and hold it at arm's · · slides along the tube by a suitable rack and
the edge of the mirror.
a position that the observer sees the reflected image of his eye at
pinion arrangement. The wei~t, at its top,
open half of the frante
(3) Move the radial arm till the object sighted through the contains one bevelled edge which slides along
on the arc against the bevelled
is coincident with the reflection of the eye. Note the reading the graduations of the bar, and serves as
be in the form of gradient which can be
edge of the arm. The reading obtained will an index. The line of sight is defined by
i' converted into degrees if so required . '
the line joining the hole to the intersection
equal to the beight of observe r's eye
For better results, a vane or target of beight of the cross-wires and its prolongation. When
must be placed at the object and sighted. ·' ·
the bevelled edge of the weight is against
. say 1 in n.
A similar procedure is adopted to set a point on a given gradienc the zero reading, the line of sight is horizomal.
n. The arc should be turned forward for rising gradients For the elevated gradients, the weight is slided
i The arm is set on the reading I in FIG. 14.9. CEYLON GHAT TRACER.
falling gradients . A peg is driven at the other end of the line and towards the observer. For falling gradients,
and backward for the
insttwne nt man then 2. GRADUATIONS
a vane. equal to the height of observer's eye; is kept there. The
I. TUBE
the weight is slided away from the observer.
the vane at the other end. to raise or 4. RACK
,I sights the vane and siguals the assistant, holding (a) To measure a slope 3. SUDING WEIGHT
nt with the reflectio n of the eye in the mirror. The 6. SUPPORTING HOLE
lower the vane till it is seen coincide I. Fix the insttwnent on to the stand 5. A-FRAME
;'II'I: peg is then driven in or out till its top is at the level of the bottom of the vane.
and hold it to one end of the line. Keep 7. STAND 8. VANE OR TARGET.
~ I•
' 14.6. FOOT-RULE CLINOMF;TER (Fig. 14.8) the target at the other end.
2. Looking through the eye hole, move the sliding weight till the
line of sight passes
A foot-rule clinometer consists of a box •
wood rule having two arms hinged to each through the cross mark of the sight vane.
gradient of
other at one end, with a small bubble tube 3. The reading against the bevelled edge of the weight will give the
on each arm. The upper arm or part also carries the line.
a pair of sights through which the object can (b) To set out a gradient
be sighted. A graduated arc is also attached
I to the hinge. and angles of elevations and de-
pressions can be measured on it. A small compass
I. Hold the insttwnent at one end.
2. Send the assistant at the other end with the target.
3. Slide the weight to set it to the given gradient, say I in n.
is also receSsed in the lower arm for taking
;I.
bearings. FIG. 14.8. FOOT-RULE CLINOMETER. 4. Direct the assistant to raise or lower i:he target till it is bisected.
'' To sight an object, the insttwnent is held Drive a peg at the other end so that the top of the peg is at the
same level as
The upper arm is then that the bottom of the target.
firmly against a rod, with the bubble central in the lower arm.
the object. The reading is then taken on the 14.8. FENNEL'S CLINOMETER
raised till the line of sight passes through
of the following
arc. It is a precise clinometer for the measurement of slopes. It consists
lower arm on a
Another common method of using the clinometer is to keep the parts (Fig. 14.1!) :
to be measured . The rule is then opened until the bubble
straight edge laid on the slope I. A telescope for providing line of sight.
central. The reading is then noted.
of the upper arm is 2. Two plate levels for checking borizontality of the holding staff.
 SURVEYING
'•·;
MINOR INSTRUMENTS
34S
1~~
~~
344
ent to the tracing point,
by means of a cord passing from the pencil round the instrum
,.
3. A vertical arc which rotates or tilts .'-' if. so required.

~
along with the tilting of the telescope. !i
14.10. THE SEXTANT
4. A hnlding staff. enables
The distinguishing feature of the sextant is the arrangement of mirrors whichan angle
~
and 5. A target mounted on a holding staff the observer to sight at two different objects simultaneously, and
thus to measure
of the same height. in a single observation. A sextanl may A
This instrument is specially designed for (a) Field of view (l>) Signal
be used to measure horizontal angle. ·
finding the lines of highways with a predetermined It can also be used to measure vertical
percentage inclination (i.e. percentage slope) and angles. Essentially, therefore, a sextant •' :.r . ..,...o
for determination of the percentage amount of consists of fixed glass (H) which is
inclination of existing highways. It ~ a vertical silvered to half the height while the
arc allowing to read slopes upto ± 40% with FIG. 14.10 upper half is plain. Arnither glass (PJ E
graduation to 0. 5 % thus making sure estimation is attached to a movable arm which
to 0.1% · can be operated by means of a milled
The design of the telescope, when inclined, admits the sighted
ohject, the ·diaphragm
head. The movable arm also carries
parallel to the vertical arc can be simultaneoUsly a vernier at the other end. The operation
with stadia lines and the first spirit level running
seen in the telescope [Fig. 14.10 (a)]. A second spirit lev,~! likewise is parallel to :the
of the sextant depends on bringing the
tilting axis. image of one poim (R), after suitable
14.9. THE PANTAGRAPH (Fig 14.12) reflection in two mirrors, into contact
with the image of a second point (L)
A pantagraph is an instrument G which is viewed direct, by moving the
used for reproducing, enlarging or re- movable mirror (PJ. Since the vernier .
ducing the maps. It is based on the and the movable mirror are attached
principle of similar triangles. It consists to the same arm, the movement of
of two long bars AB and AD hinged the vernier from the zero position gives FIG. 14.13. OPTICAL DIAGRAM OF A SEXTANT.
together at A and supporred on castors
the required angle subtended by the
or rollers at B and D. Two shorr
two objects at the instrument station.
arms EF and GF are hinged together d successively
"The sextant is based on the principle that when a ray of light is reflecte
at F and are connected to AD and ray is twice the angle
AB at E and G respectively. Thus
from twO mirrors, the angle between the first and last directions of
AGFE is a parallelogram of equal sides between the pimles of tlw two mirrors.
horizon glass) and
for all positions of the instrument. The FIG. 14.12 Thus, in Fig 14.13, H is the fixed glass (also known as the
the planes of two glasses
long bar AD carries a movable rubular frame which can be slided along it. The sliding P is the index glass or the movable glass. Let the angle between
double reflectio n, brought in the
frame carries an index and also a heavy weight Q which forms the vertical axis of the be a when the image of the object R has been, after
through ·the unsilver ed portion
instrument; the whole instrument moves about the point Q. The bar EF carries a pencil same vertical line as that of the object L viewed direcUy
on the bar EF. angle ~- PI is the index
point P attached to a carrier which can also be set to a desired. reading of the glass H. Let the rays from both the objects subtend an
serting of the instrument,
The longer arm AB carries tracing point at the end B. For any arm pivoted at P.
is kept at B and is traced. n, we bave
the point B, P and Q are in a straight line. The original map Since the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflectio
moves, but the point Q remains fixed in position.
Correspondingly, the pencil point P also LA=A ';LB= LB'
an amount BB', the point P moves to P ' the ratio
Thus, if B is moved straight by
ratio of reductio n. For any position of the tracing or "=
L A - LB (exterior angle)
between BB' and PP' being equal to the
~ =L A + L A' - (LB + LB') =2L A - 2LB =2 (L A
- LB) =2tt
point, the points · B', P' and Q are always in a straight line.
If it is desired to enlarge the map, the pencil point is kept at
B, the tracing point
or a=~
frames ai Q and P are set to the 2
at P and the map under the point P. The moving
enlargem ent. The pencil can be ndsed off the paper,
same reading equal to the ratio· of
 ~!1-<

347 "''l
SURVEYING MINOR INSTRUMENTS
346
(6) A milled-headed screw to rotate the index glass and the index arm.
Hence the angle between the mirrors is equal to half the acrual angle between two
(7) An eye hole or peep hole or a telescope for long distance sighting.
objeciS. While constructing the sextant, the plane of mirror P is so adjusted that it is
parallel to the mirror H when the index reads zero. The movement of the mirror P is (8) A parr of coloured glasses for use in bright sun.
equal to the movement of the vernier. The scale is numbered in values equal to twice (9) A slot in the side of the box for the object to be sighted.
the actual angle so that acrual angle between the o";"""' ;, read directly. Measurement of Horizontal Angle with Box Sextant
Optical Requirements of the Sextant I. Hold the instrument in the right hand and bring the plane of the graduated arc
I. The two mirrors should be perpendicular to the plane of the graduated arc. into the plane of the eye and the two points to be observed.
2. When the two. mirrors are par'!fiel, the reading on the index should be zero. 2. Look through the eye hole at the left hand object through the lower unsilvered :!
3. The optical axis ·should be parallel to the plane of the graduated arc and pass portion of the horizon glass.
through the top of the horizon mirror. If only a peep sight is provided in place of telescope, 3. Turn the milled-headed screw slowly so that the image of the right-hand object,
·the peep sight should ·be at the same distance above the arc as the top of the mirror. after double reflection, is coincident with the left-hand object ; view directly through the
upper half of the horizon glass. Clamp the vernier. If a slow motion screw is provided,
bring the images of object into exact coincidence.
I There are mainly three types of sextants
The reading on the vernier gives directly the angle.
(I) Box Sextant
Note. The venex (V) of an angle measured is not ·exactly at the eye but at the
(2) Nautical Sextant
intersection of the two lines of sight which, for small angles, is considerably behind the
(3) Sounding Sextant. eye. For this reason, there may be an appreciable error in the measurement of the angles
(a) Nautical Sextant
less than. say, 15'.
A nautical sextant is specially designed for navigation and astronomical purposes
Measurement of Vertical Angle with Sextant
and is fairly large instrument with a graduated silver arc of about 15 to 20 em radius
Vertical angles may be measured by holding the sextant so that iiS arc lies in a
let into a gun metal casting carrying the main pariS. With the help of the vernier attached
vertical plane. If it is required to measure the vertical angle between twq poiniS, view
to the index mirror, readings can be taken to 20" or 10". A sounding sextaru is also
the lower object directly, and rum the milled headed screw until the image of the higlier
very similar to the nautical sextant, with a large index glass to allow for the difficulty ·
object appears coincident with the lower one.
I of sighting an object from a sruall rocking boat in hydrographic survey. Fig. 14.14 shows
!· a nautical sextant by U.S. Navy. Permanent Adjustments of a Sextant
!i
(b) Box Sextant A sextant requires the following four adjustmeniS
(I) To make the index glass perpendicular to the plane of the graduated arc.
The box sextant is small pocket instrument used for measuring horizontal and venical
angles, measuring chain angles and locating inaccessible poiniS. By setting the vernier to (2) To make the horizon glass perpendicular to the plane of graduated arc.
90', it may be used as an optical square. Fig. 14.15 shows a box sextant. (3) To make the line of sight parallel to the plane of the graduated arc.
A box sextant consisiS of the (4) To make the horizon mirror parallel to the · index mirror when the vernier
following pariS : is set at zero (i.e. to eliminate any index correction).
(I) A circular box about 8 em
in diameter and 4 em high.
r In a box sextant, the index glass is permanently fixed at right angles to the plane
of the instrument by the maker. Also, no provision is made for adjustment 3. Hence,
(2) A fixed horizon glass, sil- only adjustments 2 and 4 are made for a box sextant.
vered at lower half and plain at upper Adjustment 2 : Adjustment of horium glaSs
half. (1) Set the vernier at approximately zero and aim at some well-defined distant
'i I (3) A movable index glass fully point like a star, with the arc vertical.
silvered. (ii) Move the index arm back and forth slightly. The image of the star will
(4) An index arm pivoted at move up and down.
the index glass and carrying a vernier (iii) Adjust the horizon mirror by tilting it forward or backward until, when the
index arm is moved, the image of the star, in passing will coincide with
at the other end.
(5) An adjustable magrtifying the star i!Self.
;· FIG. 14.15. BOX SEXTANT.
glass, to read the angle.
T
348

Adjustment 4 : Eliminlltio11 of index error

SURVEYING

point into coincidence.

ffiJ] I
(I) Bring the direct and reflected image of a distant
the error is called the inde.x error.
If the vernier does not read zero,
horizon glass aroun d an axis perpendicular
(it) Correct the error by turning the
to the plane of the graduated arc.
not to correct the error, but to
.. Trigonometrical Levelling
If the index error is not large, it is customary
error should, however, be determined
apply the correction to the observed readings. An index
from time to time.
15.1. INTRODUCTION
the differences of elevations
Trigonometrical levelling is the process of determining
distances, which are assumed to be
of stations from observed vertical angles and known
The vertical angles may be measured
either horizontal or geodetic lengths at mean sea level.
ntal distances may either be measured
by means of ·an accurate theodolite and the horizo
(in the case of geodetic observations).
(in the case of plane surveying) or computed
two beads:
10
We sball discuss the trigonometrical levelling under
·i (I) Observations fur heights and distances, and
(2) Geodetical observations
In the first case, the principles of plane survey
ing will be used. It is assumed that
so that either the effect of curvature
the distances between the points observed are not large
tions may be applied linearly to the calculated
and refraction n1ay be neglected or proper correc
s methods of angular levelling for.
difference in elevation. Under this bead fall the variou
as top of chimney, or church spire etc.
determining the elevations of particular points such
In the geodetical observations of trigonometrical
levelling, the distance between the
ry principles of plane surveying are
points measured is geodetic and is large. The ordina
tion are applied in angular measure
not applicable. Tbe corrections for curvature and refrac
directly to the observed angles. The geodetical observ
otions of trigonometrical levelling have
been dealt with in the second volume.
HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES
the instrument station and the
In order to get the difference in elevation between
ing cases :
object under observation, we shall consider the follow
Case 1 : Base of the object accessible.
ment stations in the same vertical
Case 2 : Base of the object inaccessible : Instru
plane as the elevated object.
stations not in the same vertical
Case 3 : Base of the object inaccessible : Instrument
plane as the elevated object.
15.2. BASE OF THE OBJECT ACCESSffiLE
en the instrument and the object
Let it be assumed that the horizontal distance betwe
can be measured accurately. In Fig. 15.1, ·let
(349)