12.

3 Bolted joints
There are a number of names (bolts, screws, machine screws, set
screws, cap screws) for headed, external screw-threaded fasteners
designed either: (a) for use with an internally threaded nut to clamp
two or more parts together, or (b) to clamp one or more parts to
another internally threaded metal body. Generally it can be said that
fasteners tensioned by turning a threaded nut are bolts while those
tensioned by turning the head are screws. However, there is a class of
bolt, often referred to as 'engine bolts', where the joint is tensioned by
turning the bolt head to screw it into an internally threaded metal
body. Machine/cap screws are threaded for their full length and are
manufactured from carbon steels; structural screws have an
unthreaded grip length and are made from alloy steels. In this section
we will concentrate on bolt and nut applications in airframe
structures.

12.3 Bolted joints

There are a number of names (bolts, screws, machine
screws, set screws, cap screws) for headed, external screw-
threaded fasteners designed either: (a) for use with an
internally threaded nut to clamp two or more parts together,
or (b) to clamp one or more parts to another internally
threaded metal body. Generally it can be said that fasteners
tensioned by turning a threaded nut are bolts while those
tensioned by turning the head are screws. However, there is
a class of bolt, often referred to as 'engine bolts', where the
joint is tensioned by turning the bolt head to screw it into an
internally threaded metal body. Machine/cap screws are
threaded for their full length and are manufactured from
carbon steels; structural screws have an unthreaded grip
length and are made from alloy steels. In this section we will
concentrate on bolt and nut applications in airframe
structures.

There are two commonly used structural bolted joint

designs, one type where the high tensile strength of the bolt
shank is used to clamp members together and the joint
functionality relies on the surface friction between the
members rather than the bolt shank; the joint will hold as
long as the friction force is greater than any shear force
applied. The other joint type is where the joint relies
primarily on the shear strength of the bolt shank — such as
seen in aluminium tubular truss structures — and there is
only sufficient tensile load applied to the bolt/nut to prevent
movement after locking.
 Torque. If a turning force or torque is
applied with a wrench to the nut of a bolt and nut pair
already 'snugged up' (i.e. holding all joint interfaces in
intimate contact but with little or no tension in the bolt) the
under-surface of the bolt head and the inner surface of the
nut (or intermediate washers if fitted) will apply a
compressive force to the members, clamping them together.
Depending on the stiffness of the joint members, the
periphery of that compressive effect extends to around 4–5
times the diameter of the bolt shank. The greater the torque
applied to the nut, the greater the tension in the bolt and the
greater the compression in the members (or the crushing
force applied to the member(s) and any intermediate sealing
gasket). 'Hard' joints may only require the nut to be rotated
through a 30° angle from the snugged position to achieve the
full torque. A 'soft' gasketed joint may require a rotation of
two full turns from the snugged position.

Pre-loading. Referring to the stress-strain diagram in the

module 'Properties of metals' it can be seen that as long as
the tensile stress in the bolt is less than the yield strength,
the resulting bolt stretch (the strain) will stay within the
elastic region. While that tension continues, the bolt
elasticity (the potential energy) will apply the clamping force
holding the joint together. This clamping force is called
the pre-load or pre-tension which, for a high-stress joint
(such as a propeller hub/crankshaft flange joint), might be
set at 70% or more of the bolt yield strength — the position
indicated by the small green cross in that stress-strain
diagram.

(Because bolt threads act as stress concentrators, permanent

deformation will occur at loads a little below yield strength —
maybe around the 95% level. This is termed the bolt proof
strength, proof stress or proof load.)

The compressive force in the members is equal to the tensile

force in the bolt(s) but if the members are stiffer than the
bolts, the amount of compressive movement would be less
than the amount of bolt elongation.

The stretch in a pre-tensioned bolt is probably less than

0.25% of its initial length. But of course a 0.25% strain in a
bolt 100 mm long is 10 times the physical stretch of a 0.25%
strain in a bolt 10 mm long.
Note on turning force: only about 10–15% of the torque
applied increases bolt tension; i.e. stretches it. Perhaps 40–
50% of the turning force is needed to overcome the friction
between the NUT and BOLT threads; the balance is needed
to overcome the turning friction between the under-surface
of the nut and the material being clamped. Thus if some
form of thread lubricant is used, the torque required to
produce the same pre-load is perhaps 25% less. The
cadmium plating on the bolt and nut for corrosion protection
also acts as a lubricant, so the torque required is reduced.

The turning force to be applied to a nut (or the angle through

which it is to be turned from the snugged position) to
achieve a particular pre-load will be specified in torque
charts or by the designer. If any coating, corrosion inhibiting
compound/paste or lubricant is used that is not specified by
the designer, then there is a very good chance that applying
the specified torque will stress the bolt beyond its yield point
and lead to joint failure. Also, torque wrenches may have
only a plus/minus 25% accuracy.

There is more information below.

Clamped joints. Having calculated the in-service loads that

will be applied to a structural joint the aircraft designer will
determine the number of bolts required and their spacing
plus tensile strength, physical dimensions, thread type,
thread pitch, corrosion protection and then the pre-load to
be applied. Most of the resistance to shear within the joint
comes from the friction between the clamped surfaces of the
joint members — so of course there may be quite a number
of bolts within the joint.

The diagram at left shows the forces

acting within a pre-loaded joint. When there is no external
tension forces the compressive force [Fc] in the joint
members equals the pre-load force [Fp] in the bolt. In flight,
the joint will be loaded with external tension forces [Ft] and
shear forces [Fs]. The external tension forces decrease the
pre-load joint compression. However, such joints are
designed so that the members are quite stiff and the bolts
resilient. So, a quite high external load will cause a decrease
in joint load, but not to the point of separation, and only a
slight increase in the tensile load on the bolt(s). Designers
will generally opt for a larger number of smaller diameter
bolts in a joint, rather than a smaller number of larger
diameter bolts; for example, the centre joint of the left and
right main wing spars for a twin-engine Piper aircraft utilises
fourteen 3/8 inch bolts to join the top spar caps — with a
similar arrangement for the bottom spar caps — and sixteen
3/16 inch bolts for joining the webs: 44 bolts in one joint.

External forces acting on a structural joint are generally not

pure tension or pure shear; the force vector will have a
tension component and a shear component. As long as the
external load is somewhat less than the pre-load, a joint
clamping load exists, but this ceases if those tension forces
exceed the pre-load force. Then the tensile stress on the
bolts will increase, the bolts elongate (still elastically) and
the mating parts begin to slip, thereby reducing joint
functionality and imposing all the shear forces in the joint
onto the bolt shanks. The tensile stress may take the bolts
past their yield point, and the combination of shear and
tension will cause the bolts to bend so that even if the
external load is released the joint will no longer be
functional.

Pre-load and metal fatigue. Pre-loading has the effect of

reducing the dimension of the fatigue cycles to which the
fastener is exposed. The forces applied to the bolt from in-
flight loads are generally much less than the pre-load, so the
increases in bolt tension are comparatively slight thus
reducing the level of cyclic stress and keeping it inside the
fatigue limit.

Embedding. After some exposure to flight loads, joint

surfaces tend to embed into each other (the rougher the
surfaces, the greater the embedding) which has the effect of
relaxing the bolt pre-load.

Back to top

12.4 Aircraft bolt standards

AN general-purpose bolt identification code. General-
purpose aircraft structural bolts manufactured in
accordance with the AN3–20 standards are commonly high-
strength 8740 alloy steel with a minimum tensile strength
around 125 000 psi; but other steel alloys are included in
the specification. The standard bolts have hexagonal heads,
are centreless ground and roll threaded after heat treatment,
then cadmium plated, and are used in shear or tension
applications. The bolt head and/or shank may have holes
drilled for safetying wire or cotter pins. Aluminium bolts are
also included in the specification but such bolts are unlikely
to be used in a structural role in a light aircraft.

AN3–20 bolts are identified by a multi-part code:

 firstly the AN specification identity, then

 one or two numbers that indicate the shank diameter in
1/16 inch increments starting at AN3 (3/16") and ending
at AN20 (1 1/4"), which may be followed by
 a dash indicating the material is the standard cadmium
plated 8740 or 4037 alloy steel, otherwise one or two
letters for the material (e.g. 'C' indicates CRES, 'DD' is
2024 aluminium), then
 if the hexagonal head is drilled for safetying wire, the
letter 'H'
 one or two numbers, which indicates the length of the
shank from under the head to the tip in 1/8 inch
increments; if two numbers, the first indicates whole
inches and the second indicates the 1/8 inch increments
(e.g. 23 indicates a shank length of 2 3/8" — but there
may be variations from this system), then
 the letter 'A' indicating the bolt shank is not drilled and
thus intended for use with a self-locking nut (which is the
norm); the letter is absent if the shank is drilled for castle
nut and cotter pin locking.

For example: AN6-H7A

 AN6 denotes the specification for general-purpose

hexagonal head bolts with a 3/8" (6/16") diameter shank
 the dash indicates the material is the standard cadmium-
plated alloy steel
 H indicates the bolt head is drilled for safetying wire
 7 = 7/8 inch shank length and
 A = indicates the shank is not drilled.

Bolt threads. The standard aircraft thread is the 'unified

national' form either in the fine [UNF] series or the coarse
[UNC] series. Both series are based on a 60° thread. That is,
if the thread is viewed in cross-section each thread forms an
equilateral triangle, but with the roots and crests of the
threads rounded during the rolling process to avoid sharp
corners and thus to minimise stress concentrations. The
coarse series have fewer threads per inch [tpi] for the same
bolt diameter.

The AN3–20 bolts use only the UNF threads; the AN3 bolt
has 32 tpi, the AN4 is 28 tpi, AN5 and AN6 are 24 tpi, and
AN7 and AN8 are 20 tpi.

Thread length and grip. The threaded length of AN bolts is

about 3/8" for AN3, 7/16" for AN4, 1/2" for AN5 and 9/16"
for AN6–AN8. The grip is the shank length minus the
threaded length, which for the AN6-H7A bolt would be 7/8"
shank length minus 9/16" thread length = 5/16" grip. Thus
an AN3-4 bolt would have a grip of only 1/8" and might, at
first glance, present the appearance of a fully threaded
shank.

The threaded length should not be subject to shear loads.

The specification allows shank lengths to be from 1/32 to
3/32 inches longer than the nominal length.

Extract from AC 43.13-1B [with added comments]:

7-35. BOLTS. Most bolts used in aircraft structures are

either (a) general-purpose, (b) internal-wrenching or (c)
close-tolerance AN, NAS, or MS bolts. Design
specifications are available in MIL-HDBK-5 or
USAF/Navy T.O. 1-1A-8/NAVAIR 01-1A-8. References
should be made to military specifications and industry
design standards such as NAS, the Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE), and Aerospace Material
Standards (AMS).

7-
36. IDENTIFICATION. Aircraft bolts may be identified
by code markings on the bolt heads. These markings
generally denote the material of which the bolt is made,
whether the bolt is a standard AN-type or a special-
purpose bolt, and sometimes include the
manufacturer.

a. AN standard steel bolts are marked with either a

raised cross or asterisk [most of those pictured],
corrosion resistant steel is marked by a single dash
[row 1, number 4], and AN aluminum-alloy bolts are
marked with two raised dashes [row 3, number 5].

b. Special-purpose bolts include high-strength, low-

strength, and close-tolerance types. These bolts are
normally inspected by magnetic particle inspection
methods. Typical markings include 'SPEC' (usually
heat-treated for strength and durability) [row 2,
number 5] , and an aircraft manufacturer's part
number stamped on the head [row 3, number 1]. Bolts
with no markings are low strength. Close-tolerance
NAS bolts are marked with either a raised or recessed
triangle [row 3, number 4]. The material markings for
NAS bolts are the same as for AN bolts, except they
may be either raised or recessed. Bolts requiring non-
destructive inspection (NDI) by magnetic particle
inspection are identified by means of colored lacquer,
or head markings of a distinctive type.

7-37. GRIP LENGTH. In general,

bolt grip lengths of a fastener is the thickness of the
material the fastener is designed to hold when two or
more parts are being assembled. Bolts of slightly
greater grip length may be used, provided washers are
placed under the nut or bolthead. The maximum
combined height of washers that should be used is 1/8
inch. This limits the use of washers necessary to
compensate for grip, up to the next standard grip size.
All bolt installations which involve self-locking or plain
nuts should have at least one thread at the end of the
bolt protruding through the nut.

(Comment: only the unthreaded portion of the shank –

the grip – should carry shear loads, so a maximum of
one or 1.5 inner end threads are acceptable within the
grip length, though the nut should not be run down to
the inner end of the threaded length.)

7-38. LOCKING OR SAFETYING OF BOLTS. Lock or

safety all bolts and/or nuts, except self-locking
nuts. Do not reuse cotter pins or safety wire.

7-39. BOLT FIT. Bolt holes, particularly those of

primary connecting elements, have close tolerances.
Generally, it is permissible to use the first-lettered drill
size larger than the nominal bolt diameter, except
when the AN hexagon bolts are used in light-drive fit
(reamed) applications and where NAS close-tolerance
bolts or AN clevis bolts are used. A light-drive fit can be
defined as an interference of 0.0006 inch for a 5/8 inch
bolt. Bolt holes should be flush to the surface, and free
of debris to provide full bearing surface for the bolt
head and nut. In the event of over-sized or elongated
holes in structural members, reaming or drilling the
hole to accept the next larger bolt size may be
permissible. Care should be taken to ensure items,
such as edge distance, clearance, and structural
integrity are maintained.

7-40. TORQUES. The importance of correct torque

application cannot be overemphasized. Undertorque
can result in unnecessary wear of nuts and bolts, as
well as the parts they secure. Overtorque can cause
failure of a bolt or nut from overstressing the threaded
areas. Uneven or additional loads that are applied to
the assembly may result in wear or premature failure.
The following are a few simple, but important
procedures, that should be followed to ensure that
correct torque is applied.

NOTE: Be sure that the torque applied is for the size of

the bolt shank not the wrench size.

a. Calibrate the torque wrench at least once a year, or

immediately after it has been abused or dropped, to
ensure continued accuracy.

b. Be sure the bolt and nut threads are clean and dry,
unless otherwise specified by the manufacturer.

c. Run the nut down to near contact with the washer or

bearing surface and check the friction drag torque
required to turn the nut. Whenever possible, apply the
torque to the nut and not the bolt. This will reduce
rotation of the bolt in the hole and reduce wear.

d. Add the friction drag torque to the desired torque.

This is referred to as 'final torque', which should
register on the indicator or setting for a snap-over type
torque wrench.

e. Apply a smooth even pull when applying torque

pressure. If chattering or a jerking motion occurs
during final torque, back off the nut and retorque.

NOTE: Many applications of bolts in aircraft/engines

require stretch checks prior to reuse. This requirement
is due primarily to bolt stretching caused by
overtorquing.

f. When installing a castle nut, start alignment with the

cotter pin hole at the minimum recommended torque
plus friction drag torque.

NOTE: Do not exceed the maximum torque plus the

friction drag. If the hole and nut castellation do not
align, change washer or nut and try again. Exceeding
the maximum recommended torque is not
recommended.

g. When torque is applied to bolt heads or capscrews,

apply the recommended torque

h. If special adapters are used which will change the

effective length of the torque wrench, the final torque
indication or wrench setting must be adjusted
accordingly. Determine the torque wrench indication or
setting with adapter installed as shown in figure 7-2
[not shown in this extract].

i. Table 7-1 shows the recommended torque to be used

when specific torque is not supplied by the
manufacturer. The table includes standard nut and
bolt combinations, currently used in aviation
maintenance.

7-41. STANDARD AIRCRAFT

HEX HEAD BOLTS (AN3 THROUGH AN20). These are
all-purpose structural bolts used for general
applications that require tension or shear loads. Steel
bolts smaller than No. 10-32, and aluminum alloy bolts
smaller than 1/4 inch diameter, should not be used in
primary structures. Do not use aluminum bolts or nuts
in applications requiring frequent removal for
inspection or maintenance.

(Comment: small diameter bolts and screws are

numbered 1 through 12. A No. 5 has a nominal
diameter of 0.125 inch and 40 threads per inch [tpi] if
coarse thread and 44 tpi if fine thread; No. 8 is 0.164
inch diameter available as No. 8-32 [coarse] and No. 8-
36 [fine]; No. 10 is 0.19 inch diameter available as No.
10-24 [coarse] and No. 10-32 [fine].)

7-42. DRILLED HEAD

BOLTS (AN73 THROUGH AN81). The AN drilled head
bolt is similar to the standard hex bolt, but has a
deeper head which is drilled to receive safety wire. The
physical differences preventing direct
interchangeability are the slightly greater head height,
and longer thread length of the AN73 through AN81
series. The AN73 through AN81 drilled head bolts have
been superseded by MS20073, for fine thread bolts and
MS20074 for coarse thread bolts. AN73, AN74,
MS20073, and MS20074 bolts of like thread and grip
lengths are universally, functionally, and dimensionally
interchangeable.

7-44. CLOSE-
TOLERANCE BOLTS. Close-tolerance, hex head,
machine bolts (AN173 through AN186) ... are used in
applications where two parts bolted together are
subject to severe load reversals and vibration. Because
of the interference fit, this type of bolt may require light
tapping with a mallet to set the bolt shank into the bolt
hole. The shanks of close tolerance bolts are re-ground
after cadmium plating.

7-46. INTERNAL
WRENCHING BOLTS (MS20004 THROUGH MS20024)
AND SIX HOLE, DRILLED SOCKET HEAD BOLTS
(AN148551 THROUGH AN149350). These are high
strength bolts used primarily in tension applications.
The NAS144 through NAS158 and NAS172 through
NAS176 are interchangeable with MS20004 through
MS20024 in the same thread configuration and grip
lengths. The AN148551 through AN149350 have been
superseded by MS9088 through MS9094 with the
exception of AN149251 through 149350, which has no
 superseding MS standard.

7-47. TWELVE POINT,

EXTERNAL WRENCHING BOLTS, (NAS624 THROUGH
NAS644). These bolts are used primarily in high-
tensile, high-fatigue strength applications. The twelve
point head, heat-resistant machine bolts (MS9033
through MS9039), and drilled twelve point head
machine bolts (MS9088 through MS9094), are similar
to the (NAS624 through NAS644); but are made from
different steel alloys, and their shanks have larger
tolerances.

7-50. CLEVIS BOLTS

(AN21 THROUGH AN36). These bolts are only used in
applications subject to shear stress, and are often used
as mechanical pins in control systems. A clevis is a U-
shaped fitting similar to a shackle.

7-51. EYEBOLTS
(AN42 THROUGH AN49). These bolts are used in
applications where external tension loads are to be
applied. The head of this bolt is specially designed for
the attachment of a turnbuckle, a clevis, or a cable
shackle. The threaded shank may or may not be drilled
for safetying.

[Extract ends]

Back to top

12.5 Nuts, locking devices and washers

Because of the vibrations associated with aircraft the
fasteners used in structural joints must be locked after
torquing to ensure that the bolt and/or the nut can't loosen.
In fixed airframe joints the resistance to vibration loosening
is generally accomplished using self-locking nuts and the
standard AN3-20 bolts, without drilled head or shank. Self-
locking nuts are, most commonly, of the elastic nylon or
fibre insert type (AN365). However those types cannot be
used in the engine compartment or anywhere else in the
aircraft where exposed to in-flight temperatures exceeding
250 °F (120 °C) because the material starts to lose elasticity
and thus its resistance to movement. In such applications a
full-metal non-circular self-locking nut (AN363) or a
castellated nut (AN310) plus locking cotter pin is required; in
the latter case, a drilled shank bolt is necessary.

Some types of nylon insert self-lockers are claimed to seal

the bolt thread against entry of fluids.

Self-lockers can't be used where the joint is subject to any

rotational movement; bolts in such circumstances are locked
using non-friction locking — castellated nuts (AN310) with
cotter pins or safetying wire.

When a nut is fully torqued, about 33% of the total tensile

load is placed on the first (most inward) thread and the
mating bolt thread. The second thread takes a further 23%
of the load. The third thread takes about 14% so that the
stress on the first three engaged threads of both the nut and
bolt is about 70% of the total, and the first six threads take
about 99% of the tensile load. This indicates it is just added
weight (and possible space constriction) for a nut to be
longer than 6 to 8 threads; and the same for the bolt — plus
an allowance for thread start and thread run-out. It also
follows that when a bolt is primarily loaded in shear, a light
nut with possibly only three threads is ample for the task of
just keeping the bolt in position for the unthreaded shank to
carry the shear load.

When using some types of self-locking nuts it should be

borne in mind that the first three outward bolt threads have
been slightly tapered to facilitate running on the nut and
reducing the chance of cross-threading — more below.

Extract from AC 43.13-1B [with added comments]:

7-63. GENERAL. Aircraft nuts are available in a variety

of shapes, sizes, and material strengths. The types of
nuts used in aircraft structures include castle nuts,
shear nuts, plain nuts, light hex nuts, checknuts,
wingnuts, and sheet spring nuts. Many are available in
either self-locking or nonself-locking style.
7-64. SELF-LOCKING NUTS. These nuts are acceptable
for use on certificated aircraft subject to the aircraft
manufacturer?s recommended practice sheets or
specifications. Two types of self-locking nuts are
currently in use, the all-metal type, and the fiber or
nylon type.

 DO NOT use self-locking nuts on parts subject to

rotation.

 Self-locking castellated nuts with cotter pins or

lockwire may be used in any system.
[Comment: there is a well-established view that only
castellated nuts with cotter pins or lockwire should
be used in all control systems; i.e. no self-locking
nuts.]

 Self-locking nuts should not be used with bolts,

screws, or studs to attach access panels or doors, or
to assemble any parts that are routinely
disassembled before, or after each flight. They may
be used with anti-friction bearings and control
pulleys, provided the inner race of the bearing is
secured to the supporting structure by the nut and
bolt.

 Metal locknuts are constructed with either the

threads in the locking insert out-of-round with the
load-carrying section [deformed-thread locknuts], or
with a saw-cut insert with a pinched-in thread in
the locking section. The locking action of the all-
metal nut depends upon the resiliency of the metal
when the locking section and load-carrying section
are engaged by screw threads. Metal locknuts are
primarily used in high temperature areas.

 Fiber or nylon locknuts are constructed

with an unthreaded fiber or nylon locking insert
held securely in place. The fiber or nylon insert
provides the locking action because it has a smaller
diameter than the nut. Fiber or nylon self-locking
nuts are not installed in areas where temperatures
exceed 250 °F [120 °C]. After the nut has been
tightened, make sure the bolt or stud has at least
one* thread showing past the nut.
 [*Comment: because the outward three threads of a
bolt have been tapered it is considered that at least
two threads should show past the nut because if
less the nylon locking insert may not distort [and
thus lock] as much as it should.]

DO NOT reuse a fiber or nylon locknut, if the nut

cannot meet the minimum prevailing torque values.

Comment: the identification code for AN365

locknuts consists of the AN specification identity
[AN365 or MS20365], then a dash followed by three
or four numbers. The last two numbers are the
threads per inch and the first number is the mating
bolt size e.g. AN365-428 indicates it is used with the
AN4 28 tpi bolt. However the mating nut for an AN3
32 tpi bolt differs from the others by using the 3/16
inch number '10' screw designation so the part
number is AN365-1032. The same coding system
applies to the thin shear-only locknut version AN364
or MS20364 and to the AN363 all-metal locknuts.

 Self-locking nut plates are produced in a variety of

forms and materials for riveting or welding to
aircraft structures or parts. Certain applications
require the installation of self-locking nuts in
channel arrangement permitting the attachment of
many nuts in a row with only a few rivets.

7-65. NUT IDENTIFICATION FINISHES. Several types

of finishes are used on self-locking nuts. The particular
type of finish is dependent on the application and
temperature requirement. The most commonly used
finishes are described briefly as follows.

a. Cadmium Plating. This is an

electrolytically deposited silver-gray plating which
provides exceptionally good protection against
corrosion, particularly in salty atmosphere, but is not
recommended in applications where the temperature
exceeds 450 °F / 230 °C. Cadmium melts at 610 °F /
320 °C but when used in temperatures in excess of 450
°F, the cadmium coating will diffuse into the grain
boundaries of the base metal causing it to become very
brittle and subject to early failure. This is known
as liquid metal embrittlement.

[Comment — hydrogen embrittlement: the cadmium

plating process (like most electrolytic coating
processes) generates free hydrogen atoms, which
can be absorbed into the surface metal. The
hydrogen atom is the smallest atom and can
readily diffuse through the base metal, reacting
with the carbon and tending to concentrate in
high stress locations. This can lead to
development of minute fractures, and considerable
reduction in metal ductility and strength
sufficient that a nut could readily crack when
torquing and even weeks after torquing. This is a
form of stress corrosion cracking. To remove the
hydrogen the AN and MS fastener standards
specify an extended period of baking at 375 °F
following plating.]

[Comment: plated cadmium and zinc, being more

anodic than steel, form a sacrificial coating on
bolts, nuts and other fasteners. Any corrosion will
decompose the plating not the base metal. When
black spots or other stains appear on the cadmium
or zinc it is evidence of the coating fulfilling its
role and such marks should not be removed
because of the likelihood of also removing more of
the protective layer.]

The following additional finishes or refinements to the

basic cadmium can be applied.

 Chromic Clear Dip. Cadmium surfaces are

passivated, and cyanide from the plating solution is
neutralized. The protective film formed gives a
bright, shiny appearance, and resists staining and
finger marks.

 Olive Drab Dichromate. Cadmium-plated work is

dipped in a solution of chromic acid, nitric acid,
acetic acid, and a dye which produces additional
corrosion resistance.

 Iridescent Dichromate. Cadmium-plated work is

 dipped in a solution of sodium dichromate and takes
on a surface film of basic chromium chromate which
resists corrosion. Finish is yellow to brown in color.

b. Silver plating. Silver plating is applied to locknuts

for use at higher temperatures. Important advantages
are its resistance to extreme heat (1,400 °F) and its
excellent lubricating characteristics. Silver resists
galling and seizing of mating parts when subjected to
heat or heavy pressure.

c. Anodizing for aluminum. An inorganic oxide coating

is formed on the metal by connecting the metals and
anodes in a suitable electrolyte. The coating offers
excellent corrosion resistance and can be dyed in a
number of colors.

d. Solid Lubricant Coating. Locknuts are also furnished

with molybdenum disulfide for lubrication purposes. It
provides a clean, dry, permanently-bonded coating to
prevent seizing and galling of threads. Molybdenum
disulfide is applied to both cadmium and silver-plated
parts. Other types of finishes are available, but the
finishes described in this chapter are the most widely
used.

7-66. CASTLE NUT (AN310). The castle nut

is used with drilled shank hex head bolts, clevis bolts,
drilled head bolts, or studs that are subjected to
tension loads. The nut has slots or castellations cut to
accommodate a cotter pin or safety wire as a means of
safetying.

[Comment: the dash number of the AN310 nut

indicates its mating bolt, i.e. AN310-4 is mated with an
AN4 bolt, AN310-6 with an AN6 bolt. The same system
applies with the light shear only nut AN320.]

7-67. CASTELLATED SHEAR NUT (AN320).

The castellated shear nut is designed for use with
hardware subjected to shear stress only. It has fewer
threads and is weaker than the AN310 nut.
 7-68. PLAIN HEX NUT (AN315 [fine
thread] AND AN335 [coarse thread]). The plain nut is
capable of withstanding large tension loads; however, it
requires an auxiliary locking device, such as a
checknut, lockwasher or safety wire. Use of this type
on aircraft structures is limited.

7-69. LIGHT HEX NUTS (AN340 [fine thread]

AND AN345 [coarse thread]). These nuts are used in
nonstructural applications requiring light tension. Like
the AN315 and AN335, they require a locking device to
secure them.

7-70. CHECKNUT (AN316). The double

chamfered checknut [or jam nut] is used as a locking
device for plain nuts, screws, threaded rod ends, and
other devices.

7-71. WINGNUTS (AN350). The wingnut is

used where the desired torque is obtained by use of the
fingers or handtools and where the object is frequently
removed. Wingnuts are normally drilled to allow
safetying with safety wire.

WASHERS

7-85. GENERAL. The type of washers used in aircraft

structure are plain washers and special washers.

7-86. PLAIN WASHERS (AN960 AND AN970). Plain

washers are widely used with hex nuts to provide a
smooth bearing surface, act as a shim to obtain the
proper grip length, and to position castellated nuts in
relation to drilled cotter pin holes in bolts. Use plain
washers under lock washers to prevent damage to
bearing surfaces. Cadmium-plated steel washers are
recommended for use under boltheads and nuts used
on aluminum alloy or magnesium structures to prevent
corrosion. The AN970 steel washer provides a larger
bearing surface than the plain type, and is often used
in wooden structures under bolt heads and nuts to
prevent local crushing of the surface.

Comment: the identification code for AN960 washers

consists of the AN specification identity [AN960], then a
dash followed by three digits giving the hole diameter
in 1/16 inches. e.g. AN960-516 indicates a hole
diameter to fit a 5/16 inch diameter AN5 bolt. However
the mating washer for an AN3 bolt differs from the
others by using the number '10' screw designation so
the part number is AN960-10. There is a half standard
thickness version of the AN960 series washers which is
used only for bolt grip adjustment purposes and
usually with castle nuts. The same coding system
applies to the thin washer versions but is suffixed with
the letter L presumably for 'light', e.g. AN960-516L.

The identification code for the large diameter AN970

washers consists of the AN specification identity
[AN970], then a dash followed by one or two digits
indicating the AN bolt the washer is associated with.
e.g. AN970-5 indicates a hole diameter to fit an AN5
bolt, the washer for an AN3 bolt is AN970-3 and that
for an AN10 bolt is AN970-10.

7-87. LOCKWASHERS (AN935 AND AN936). Lock

washers may be used with machine screws or bolts
whenever the self-locking or castellated type nut is not
applicable. Do not use lock washers where frequent
removal is required, in areas subject to corrosion, or in
areas exposed to airflow. Use a plain washer between
the lock washer and material to prevent gouging the
surface of the metal.

CAUTION: Lock washers are not to be used on primary

structures, secondary structures, or accessories where
failure might result in damage or danger to aircraft or
personnel.

7-88. BALL SOCKET AND SEAT WASHERS (AN950

AND AN955). Ball socket and seat washers are used in
special applications where the bolt is installed at an
angle to the surface or when perfect alignment with the
surface is required. These washers are used together as
 a pair.

7-89. TAPER PIN WASHERS (AN975). Taper pin

washers are used with the threaded taper pin. NAS143
and MS20002 washers are used with NAS internal
wrenching bolts and internal wrenching nuts. They
may be plain or countersunk. The countersunk washer
(designated as NAS143C and MS20002C) is used to
seat the bolthead shank radius, and the plain washer
is used under the nut.

(Extract ends)

In some circumstances where a number of bolts are aligned

to form a joint it is expedient to use an additional rigid
bearing plate to the joint — rather than a number of washers
— which acts as a doubler and distributes the compressive
forces more evenly.

12.6 Cable terminals

Generally hardware such as fork terminals (AN667), eye
terminals (AN668) and thimble eye splices at cable ends or
splicing sleeves in the bight of a cable are permanently
attached to the cable by swaging. The swaging technique
used for cable fittings is a cold plastic deformation, by
mechanical pressure, of steel tubes or perhaps copper
sleeves so that the outside and inside diameters are reduced
and the length increased. During deformation the cable is
held in place within the fitting and mechanically bonded to
it; standard swaged terminals develop the full cable
strength. (Flaring tube ends for fluid connectors is another
form of swaging).

There is quite a lot of information on swaged fittings in

section 8 of Chapter 7 'Aircraft hardware, control cables, and
turnbuckles' of AC 43.13-1B on this website for download in
PDF format (2.8 MB). Section 8 commences at page 27.

There are two commonly used structural bolted joint designs, one type
where the high tensile strength of the bolt shank is used to clamp
members together and the joint functionality relies on the surface
friction between the members rather than the bolt shank; the joint will
hold as long as the friction force is greater than any shear force
applied. The other joint type is where the joint relies primarily on the
shear strength of the bolt shank — such as seen in aluminium
tubular truss structures — and there is only sufficient tensile load
applied to the bolt/nut to prevent movement after locking.
 Torque. If a turning force or torque is applied with
a wrench to the nut of a bolt and nut pair already 'snugged up' (i.e.
holding all joint interfaces in intimate contact but with little or no
tension in the bolt) the under-surface of the bolt head and the inner
surface of the nut (or intermediate washers if fitted) will apply a
compressive force to the members, clamping them together.
Depending on the stiffness of the joint members, the periphery of that
compressive effect extends to around 4–5 times the diameter of the
bolt shank. The greater the torque applied to the nut, the greater the
tension in the bolt and the greater the compression in the members
(or the crushing force applied to the member(s) and any intermediate
sealing gasket). 'Hard' joints may only require the nut to be rotated
through a 30° angle from the snugged position to achieve the full
torque. A 'soft' gasketed joint may require a rotation of two full turns
from the snugged position.

Pre-loading. Referring to the stress-strain diagram in the module

'Properties of metals' it can be seen that as long as the tensile stress in
the bolt is less than the yield strength, the resulting bolt stretch (the
strain) will stay within the elastic region. While that tension continues,
the bolt elasticity (the potential energy) will apply the clamping force
holding the joint together. This clamping force is called the pre-load or
pre-tension which, for a high-stress joint (such as a propeller
hub/crankshaft flange joint), might be set at 70% or more of the bolt
yield strength — the position indicated by the small green cross in
that stress-strain diagram.

(Because bolt threads act as stress concentrators, permanent

deformation will occur at loads a little below yield strength — maybe
around the 95% level. This is termed the bolt proof strength, proof stress
or proof load.)

The compressive force in the members is equal to the tensile force in

the bolt(s) but if the members are stiffer than the bolts, the amount of
compressive movement would be less than the amount of bolt
elongation.

The stretch in a pre-tensioned bolt is probably less than 0.25% of its

initial length. But of course a 0.25% strain in a bolt 100 mm long is
10 times the physical stretch of a 0.25% strain in a bolt 10 mm long.

Note on turning force: only about 10–15% of the torque applied

increases bolt tension; i.e. stretches it. Perhaps 40–50% of the turning
force is needed to overcome the friction between the male and female
threads; the balance is needed to overcome the turning friction between
the under-surface of the nut and the material being clamped. Thus if
some form of thread lubricant is used, the torque required to produce
the same pre-load is perhaps 25% less. The cadmium plating on the bolt
and nut for corrosion protection also acts as a lubricant, so the torque
required is reduced.

The turning force to be applied to a nut (or the angle through which it is
to be turned from the snugged position) to achieve a particular pre-load
will be specified in torque charts or by the designer. If any coating,
corrosion inhibiting compound/paste or lubricant is used that is not
specified by the designer, then there is a very good chance that
applying the specified torque will stress the bolt beyond its yield point
and lead to joint failure. Also, torque wrenches may have only a
plus/minus 25% accuracy.

There is more information below.

Clamped joints. Having calculated the in-service loads that will be

applied to a structural joint the aircraft designer will determine the
number of bolts required and their spacing plus tensile strength,
physical dimensions, thread type, thread pitch, corrosion protection
and then the pre-load to be applied. Most of the resistance to shear
within the joint comes from the friction between the clamped surfaces
of the joint members — so of course there may be quite a number of
bolts within the joint.

The diagram at left shows the forces acting within

a pre-loaded joint. When there is no external tension forces the
compressive force [Fc] in the joint members equals the pre-load force
[Fp] in the bolt. In flight, the joint will be loaded with external tension
forces [Ft] and shear forces [Fs]. The external tension forces decrease
the pre-load joint compression. However, such joints are designed so
that the members are quite stiff and the bolts resilient. So, a quite
high external load will cause a decrease in joint load, but not to the
point of separation, and only a slight increase in the tensile load on
the bolt(s). Designers will generally opt for a larger number of smaller
diameter bolts in a joint, rather than a smaller number of larger
diameter bolts; for example, the centre joint of the left and right main
wing spars for a twin-engine Piper aircraft utilises fourteen 3/8 inch
bolts to join the top spar caps — with a similar arrangement for the
bottom spar caps — and sixteen 3/16 inch bolts for joining the webs:
44 bolts in one joint.

External forces acting on a structural joint are generally not pure

tension or pure shear; the force vector will have a tension component
and a shear component. As long as the external load is somewhat less
than the pre-load, a joint clamping load exists, but this ceases if those
tension forces exceed the pre-load force. Then the tensile stress on the
bolts will increase, the bolts elongate (still elastically) and the mating
parts begin to slip, thereby reducing joint functionality and imposing
all the shear forces in the joint onto the bolt shanks. The tensile stress
may take the bolts past their yield point, and the combination of shear
and tension will cause the bolts to bend so that even if the external
load is released the joint will no longer be functional.

Pre-load and metal fatigue. Pre-loading has the effect of reducing the
dimension of the fatigue cycles to which the fastener is exposed. The
forces applied to the bolt from in-flight loads are generally much less
than the pre-load, so the increases in bolt tension are comparatively
slight thus reducing the level of cyclic stress and keeping it inside the
fatigue limit.

Embedding. After some exposure to flight loads, joint surfaces tend to

embed into each other (the rougher the surfaces, the greater the
embedding) which has the effect of relaxing the bolt pre-load.

Back to top

12.4 Aircraft bolt standards

AN general-purpose bolt identification code. General-purpose
aircraft structural bolts manufactured in accordance with the AN3–
20 standards are commonly high-strength 8740 alloy steel with a
minimum tensile strength around 125 000 psi; but other steel alloys
are included in the specification. The standard bolts have hexagonal
heads, are centreless ground and roll threaded after heat treatment,
then cadmium plated, and are used in shear or tension applications.
The bolt head and/or shank may have holes drilled for safetying
wire or cotter pins. Aluminium bolts are also included in the
specification but such bolts are unlikely to be used in a structural
role in a light aircraft.

AN3–20 bolts are identified by a multi-part code:

 firstly the AN specification identity, then

 one or two numbers that indicate the shank diameter in 1/16
inch increments starting at AN3 (3/16") and ending at AN20 (1
1/4"), which may be followed by
 a dash indicating the material is the standard cadmium plated
8740 or 4037 alloy steel, otherwise one or two letters for the
material (e.g. 'C' indicates CRES, 'DD' is 2024 aluminium), then
 if the hexagonal head is drilled for safetying wire, the letter 'H'
 one or two numbers, which indicates the length of the shank
from under the head to the tip in 1/8 inch increments; if two
numbers, the first indicates whole inches and the second
indicates the 1/8 inch increments (e.g. 23 indicates a shank
length of 2 3/8" — but there may be variations from this system),
 then
 the letter 'A' indicating the bolt shank is not drilled and thus
intended for use with a self-locking nut (which is the norm); the
letter is absent if the shank is drilled for castle nut and cotter pin
locking.

For example: AN6-H7A

 AN6 denotes the specification for general-purpose hexagonal head

bolts with a 3/8" (6/16") diameter shank
 the dash indicates the material is the standard cadmium-plated
alloy steel
 H indicates the bolt head is drilled for safetying wire
 7 = 7/8 inch shank length and
 A = indicates the shank is not drilled.

Bolt threads. The standard aircraft thread is the 'unified national'

form either in the fine [UNF] series or the coarse [UNC] series. Both
series are based on a 60° thread. That is, if the thread is viewed in
cross-section each thread forms an equilateral triangle, but with the
roots and crests of the threads rounded during the rolling process to
avoid sharp corners and thus to minimise stress concentrations.
The coarse series have fewer threads per inch [tpi] for the same bolt
diameter.

The AN3–20 bolts use only the UNF threads; the AN3 bolt has 32
tpi, the AN4 is 28 tpi, AN5 and AN6 are 24 tpi, and AN7 and AN8 are
20 tpi.

Thread length and grip. The threaded length of AN bolts is about

3/8" for AN3, 7/16" for AN4, 1/2" for AN5 and 9/16" for AN6–AN8.
The grip is the shank length minus the threaded length, which for
the AN6-H7A bolt would be 7/8" shank length minus 9/16" thread
length = 5/16" grip. Thus an AN3-4 bolt would have a grip of only
1/8" and might, at first glance, present the appearance of a fully
threaded shank.

The threaded length should not be subject to shear loads. The

specification allows shank lengths to be from 1/32 to 3/32 inches
longer than the nominal length.

Extract from AC 43.13-1B [with added comments]:

7-35. BOLTS. Most bolts used in aircraft structures are either

(a) general-purpose, (b) internal-wrenching or (c) close-
tolerance AN, NAS, or MS bolts. Design specifications are
available in MIL-HDBK-5 or USAF/Navy T.O. 1-1A-8/NAVAIR
01-1A-8. References should be made to military specifications
and industry design standards such as NAS, the Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE), and Aerospace Material
Standards (AMS).

7-36.
IDENTIFICATION. Aircraft bolts may be identified by code
markings on the bolt heads. These markings generally denote
the material of which the bolt is made, whether the bolt is a
standard AN-type or a special-purpose bolt, and sometimes
include the manufacturer.

a. AN standard steel bolts are marked with either a raised

cross or asterisk [most of those pictured], corrosion resistant
steel is marked by a single dash [row 1, number 4], and AN
aluminum-alloy bolts are marked with two raised dashes [row
3, number 5].

b. Special-purpose bolts include high-strength, low-strength,

and close-tolerance types. These bolts are normally inspected
by magnetic particle inspection methods. Typical markings
include 'SPEC' (usually heat-treated for strength and
durability) [row 2, number 5] , and an aircraft manufacturer's
part number stamped on the head [row 3, number 1]. Bolts
with no markings are low strength. Close-tolerance NAS
bolts are marked with either a raised or recessed triangle [row
3, number 4]. The material markings for NAS bolts are the
same as for AN bolts, except they may be either raised or
recessed. Bolts requiring non-destructive inspection (NDI) by
magnetic particle inspection are identified by means of colored
lacquer, or head markings of a distinctive type.

7-37. GRIP LENGTH. In

general, bolt grip lengths of a fastener is the thickness of the
material the fastener is designed to hold when two or more
parts are being assembled. Bolts of slightly greater grip length
may be used, provided washers are placed under the nut or
bolthead. The maximum combined height of washers that
should be used is 1/8 inch. This limits the use of washers
necessary to compensate for grip, up to the next standard grip
size. All bolt installations which involve self-locking or plain
nuts should have at least one thread at the end of the bolt
protruding through the nut.

(Comment: only the unthreaded portion of the shank – the grip

– should carry shear loads, so a maximum of one or 1.5 inner
end threads are acceptable within the grip length, though the
nut should not be run down to the inner end of the threaded
length.)

7-38. LOCKING OR SAFETYING OF BOLTS. Lock or safety all

bolts and/or nuts, except self-locking nuts. Do not reuse
cotter pins or safety wire.

7-39. BOLT FIT. Bolt holes, particularly those of primary

connecting elements, have close tolerances. Generally, it is
permissible to use the first-lettered drill size larger than the
nominal bolt diameter, except when the AN hexagon bolts are
used in light-drive fit (reamed) applications and where NAS
close-tolerance bolts or AN clevis bolts are used. A light-drive
fit can be defined as an interference of 0.0006 inch for a 5/8
inch bolt. Bolt holes should be flush to the surface, and free of
debris to provide full bearing surface for the bolt head and nut.
In the event of over-sized or elongated holes in structural
members, reaming or drilling the hole to accept the next larger
bolt size may be permissible. Care should be taken to ensure
items, such as edge distance, clearance, and structural
integrity are maintained.

7-40. TORQUES. The importance of correct torque application

cannot be overemphasized. Undertorque can result in
unnecessary wear of nuts and bolts, as well as the parts they
secure. Overtorque can cause failure of a bolt or nut from
overstressing the threaded areas. Uneven or additional loads
that are applied to the assembly may result in wear or
premature failure. The following are a few simple, but
important procedures, that should be followed to ensure that
correct torque is applied.

NOTE: Be sure that the torque applied is for the size of the bolt
shank not the wrench size.

a. Calibrate the torque wrench at least once a year, or

immediately after it has been abused or dropped, to ensure
continued accuracy.

b. Be sure the bolt and nut threads are clean and dry, unless
otherwise specified by the manufacturer.

c. Run the nut down to near contact with the washer or

bearing surface and check the friction drag torque required to
turn the nut. Whenever possible, apply the torque to the nut
and not the bolt. This will reduce rotation of the bolt in the
hole and reduce wear.

d. Add the friction drag torque to the desired torque. This is

referred to as 'final torque', which should register on the
indicator or setting for a snap-over type torque wrench.

e. Apply a smooth even pull when applying torque pressure. If

chattering or a jerking motion occurs during final torque, back
off the nut and retorque.

NOTE: Many applications of bolts in aircraft/engines require

stretch checks prior to reuse. This requirement is due
primarily to bolt stretching caused by overtorquing.

f. When installing a castle nut, start alignment with the cotter

pin hole at the minimum recommended torque plus friction
drag torque.

NOTE: Do not exceed the maximum torque plus the friction

drag. If the hole and nut castellation do not align, change
washer or nut and try again. Exceeding the maximum
recommended torque is not recommended.

g. When torque is applied to bolt heads or capscrews, apply the

recommended torque

h. If special adapters are used which will change the effective

length of the torque wrench, the final torque indication or
wrench setting must be adjusted accordingly. Determine the
torque wrench indication or setting with adapter installed as
shown in figure 7-2 [not shown in this extract].

i. Table 7-1 shows the recommended torque to be used when

specific torque is not supplied by the manufacturer. The table
includes standard nut and bolt combinations, currently used
in aviation maintenance.
 7-41. STANDARD AIRCRAFT HEX
HEAD BOLTS (AN3 THROUGH AN20). These are all-purpose
structural bolts used for general applications that require
tension or shear loads. Steel bolts smaller than No. 10-32, and
aluminum alloy bolts smaller than 1/4 inch diameter, should
not be used in primary structures. Do not use aluminum bolts
or nuts in applications requiring frequent removal for
inspection or maintenance.

(Comment: small diameter bolts and screws are numbered 1

through 12. A No. 5 has a nominal diameter of 0.125 inch and
40 threads per inch [tpi] if coarse thread and 44 tpi if fine
thread; No. 8 is 0.164 inch diameter available as No. 8-32
[coarse] and No. 8-36 [fine]; No. 10 is 0.19 inch diameter
available as No. 10-24 [coarse] and No. 10-32 [fine].)

7-42. DRILLED HEAD BOLTS

(AN73 THROUGH AN81). The AN drilled head bolt is similar to
the standard hex bolt, but has a deeper head which is drilled
to receive safety wire. The physical differences preventing
direct interchangeability are the slightly greater head height,
and longer thread length of the AN73 through AN81 series. The
AN73 through AN81 drilled head bolts have been superseded
by MS20073, for fine thread bolts and MS20074 for coarse
thread bolts. AN73, AN74, MS20073, and MS20074 bolts of
like thread and grip lengths are universally, functionally, and
dimensionally interchangeable.

7-44. CLOSE-TOLERANCE
BOLTS. Close-tolerance, hex head, machine bolts (AN173
through AN186) ... are used in applications where two parts
bolted together are subject to severe load reversals and
vibration. Because of the interference fit, this type of bolt may
require light tapping with a mallet to set the bolt shank into
the bolt hole. The shanks of close tolerance bolts are re-ground
after cadmium plating.

7-46. INTERNAL WRENCHING

BOLTS (MS20004 THROUGH MS20024) AND SIX HOLE,
 DRILLED SOCKET HEAD BOLTS (AN148551 THROUGH
AN149350). These are high strength bolts used primarily in
tension applications. The NAS144 through NAS158 and
NAS172 through NAS176 are interchangeable with MS20004
through MS20024 in the same thread configuration and grip
lengths. The AN148551 through AN149350 have been
superseded by MS9088 through MS9094 with the exception of
AN149251 through 149350, which has no superseding MS
standard.

7-47. TWELVE POINT,

EXTERNAL WRENCHING BOLTS, (NAS624 THROUGH
NAS644). These bolts are used primarily in high-tensile, high-
fatigue strength applications. The twelve point head, heat-
resistant machine bolts (MS9033 through MS9039), and drilled
twelve point head machine bolts (MS9088 through MS9094),
are similar to the (NAS624 through NAS644); but are made
from different steel alloys, and their shanks have larger
tolerances.

7-50. CLEVIS BOLTS (AN21

THROUGH AN36). These bolts are only used in applications
subject to shear stress, and are often used as mechanical pins
in control systems. A clevis is a U-shaped fitting similar to a
shackle.

7-51. EYEBOLTS (AN42

THROUGH AN49). These bolts are used in applications where
external tension loads are to be applied. The head of this bolt
is specially designed for the attachment of a turnbuckle, a
clevis, or a cable shackle. The threaded shank may or may not
be drilled for safetying.

[Extract ends]

Back to top

12.5 Nuts, locking devices and washers

Because of the vibrations associated with aircraft the fasteners used in
structural joints must be locked after torquing to ensure that the bolt
and/or the nut can't loosen. In fixed airframe joints the resistance to
vibration loosening is generally accomplished using self-locking nuts and
the standard AN3-20 bolts, without drilled head or shank. Self-locking
nuts are, most commonly, of the elastic nylon or fibre insert type
(AN365). However those types cannot be used in the engine compartment
or anywhere else in the aircraft where exposed to in-flight temperatures
exceeding 250 °F (120 °C) because the material starts to lose elasticity
and thus its resistance to movement. In such applications a full-metal
non-circular self-locking nut (AN363) or a castellated nut (AN310) plus
locking cotter pin is required; in the latter case, a drilled shank bolt is
necessary.

Some types of nylon insert self-lockers are claimed to seal the bolt thread
against entry of fluids.

Self-lockers can't be used where the joint is subject to any rotational

movement; bolts in such circumstances are locked using non-friction
locking — castellated nuts (AN310) with cotter pins or safetying wire.

When a nut is fully torqued, about 33% of the total tensile load is placed
on the first (most inward) thread and the mating bolt thread. The second
thread takes a further 23% of the load. The third thread takes about 14%
so that the stress on the first three engaged threads of both the nut and
bolt is about 70% of the total, and the first six threads take about 99% of
the tensile load. This indicates it is just added weight (and possible space
constriction) for a nut to be longer than 6 to 8 threads; and the same for
the bolt — plus an allowance for thread start and thread run-out. It also
follows that when a bolt is primarily loaded in shear, a light nut with
possibly only three threads is ample for the task of just keeping the bolt
in position for the unthreaded shank to carry the shear load.

When using some types of self-locking nuts it should be borne in mind

that the first three outward bolt threads have been slightly tapered to
facilitate running on the nut and reducing the chance of cross-threading
— more below.

Extract from AC 43.13-1B [with added comments]:

7-63. GENERAL. Aircraft nuts are available in a variety of shapes,

sizes, and material strengths. The types of nuts used in aircraft
structures include castle nuts, shear nuts, plain nuts, light hex
nuts, checknuts, wingnuts, and sheet spring nuts. Many are
available in either self-locking or nonself-locking style.

7-64. SELF-LOCKING NUTS. These nuts are acceptable for use on

certificated aircraft subject to the aircraft manufacturer?s
recommended practice sheets or specifications. Two types of self-
locking nuts are currently in use, the all-metal type, and the fiber
or nylon type.

 DO NOT use self-locking nuts on parts subject to rotation.

 Self-locking castellated nuts with cotter pins or lockwire may be

used in any system.
[Comment: there is a well-established view that only castellated
nuts with cotter pins or lockwire should be used in all control
systems; i.e. no self-locking nuts.]

 Self-locking nuts should not be used with bolts, screws, or studs

to attach access panels or doors, or to assemble any parts that
are routinely disassembled before, or after each flight. They may
be used with anti-friction bearings and control pulleys, provided
the inner race of the bearing is secured to the supporting
structure by the nut and bolt.

 Metal locknuts are constructed with either the threads in the

locking insert out-of-round with the load-carrying section
[deformed-thread locknuts], or with a saw-cut insert with a
pinched-in thread in the locking section. The locking action of
the all-metal nut depends upon the resiliency of the metal when
the locking section and load-carrying section are engaged by
screw threads. Metal locknuts are primarily used in high
temperature areas.

 Fiber or nylon locknuts are constructed

with an unthreaded fiber or nylon locking insert held securely in
place. The fiber or nylon insert provides the locking action
because it has a smaller diameter than the nut. Fiber or nylon
self-locking nuts are not installed in areas where temperatures
exceed 250 °F [120 °C]. After the nut has been tightened, make
sure the bolt or stud has at least one* thread showing past the
nut.

[*Comment: because the outward three threads of a bolt have

been tapered it is considered that at least two threads should
show past the nut because if less the nylon locking insert may
not distort [and thus lock] as much as it should.]

DO NOT reuse a fiber or nylon locknut, if the nut cannot meet

the minimum prevailing torque values.

Comment: the identification code for AN365 locknuts consists of

the AN specification identity [AN365 or MS20365], then a dash
 followed by three or four numbers. The last two numbers are the
threads per inch and the first number is the mating bolt size e.g.
AN365-428 indicates it is used with the AN4 28 tpi bolt. However
the mating nut for an AN3 32 tpi bolt differs from the others by
using the 3/16 inch number '10' screw designation so the part
number is AN365-1032. The same coding system applies to the
thin shear-only locknut version AN364 or MS20364 and to the
AN363 all-metal locknuts.

 Self-locking nut plates are produced in a variety of forms and

materials for riveting or welding to aircraft structures or parts.
Certain applications require the installation of self-locking nuts
in channel arrangement permitting the attachment of many nuts
in a row with only a few rivets.

7-65. NUT IDENTIFICATION FINISHES. Several types of finishes are

used on self-locking nuts. The particular type of finish is dependent
on the application and temperature requirement. The most
commonly used finishes are described briefly as follows.

a. Cadmium Plating. This is an electrolytically

deposited silver-gray plating which provides exceptionally good
protection against corrosion, particularly in salty atmosphere, but
is not recommended in applications where the temperature exceeds
450 °F / 230 °C. Cadmium melts at 610 °F / 320 °C but when used
in temperatures in excess of 450 °F, the cadmium coating will
diffuse into the grain boundaries of the base metal causing it to
become very brittle and subject to early failure. This is known
as liquid metal embrittlement.

[Comment — hydrogen embrittlement: the cadmium plating

process (like most electrolytic coating processes) generates
free hydrogen atoms, which can be absorbed into the surface
metal. The hydrogen atom is the smallest atom and can
readily diffuse through the base metal, reacting with the
carbon and tending to concentrate in high stress locations.
This can lead to development of minute fractures, and
considerable reduction in metal ductility and strength
sufficient that a nut could readily crack when torquing and
even weeks after torquing. This is a form of stress corrosion
cracking. To remove the hydrogen the AN and MS fastener
standards specify an extended period of baking at 375 °F
following plating.]
[Comment: plated cadmium and zinc, being more anodic than
steel, form a sacrificial coating on bolts, nuts and other
fasteners. Any corrosion will decompose the plating not the
base metal. When black spots or other stains appear on the
cadmium or zinc it is evidence of the coating fulfilling its role
and such marks should not be removed because of the
likelihood of also removing more of the protective layer.]

The following additional finishes or refinements to the basic

cadmium can be applied.

 Chromic Clear Dip. Cadmium surfaces are passivated, and

cyanide from the plating solution is neutralized. The protective
film formed gives a bright, shiny appearance, and resists staining
and finger marks.

 Olive Drab Dichromate. Cadmium-plated work is dipped in a

solution of chromic acid, nitric acid, acetic acid, and a dye which
produces additional corrosion resistance.

 Iridescent Dichromate. Cadmium-plated work is dipped in a

solution of sodium dichromate and takes on a surface film of
basic chromium chromate which resists corrosion. Finish is
yellow to brown in color.

b. Silver plating. Silver plating is applied to locknuts for use at higher

temperatures. Important advantages are its resistance to extreme
heat (1,400 °F) and its excellent lubricating characteristics. Silver
resists galling and seizing of mating parts when subjected to heat or
heavy pressure.

c. Anodizing for aluminum. An inorganic oxide coating is formed on

the metal by connecting the metals and anodes in a suitable
electrolyte. The coating offers excellent corrosion resistance and can
be dyed in a number of colors.

d. Solid Lubricant Coating. Locknuts are also furnished with

molybdenum disulfide for lubrication purposes. It provides a clean,
dry, permanently-bonded coating to prevent seizing and galling of
threads. Molybdenum disulfide is applied to both cadmium and
silver-plated parts. Other types of finishes are available, but the
finishes described in this chapter are the most widely used.

7-66. CASTLE NUT (AN310). The castle nut is used with

drilled shank hex head bolts, clevis bolts, drilled head bolts, or studs
that are subjected to tension loads. The nut has slots or castellations
cut to accommodate a cotter pin or safety wire as a means of
safetying.

[Comment: the dash number of the AN310 nut indicates its mating
bolt, i.e. AN310-4 is mated with an AN4 bolt, AN310-6 with an AN6
bolt. The same system applies with the light shear only nut AN320.]

7-67. CASTELLATED SHEAR NUT (AN320). The castellated

shear nut is designed for use with hardware subjected to shear stress
only. It has fewer threads and is weaker than the AN310 nut.

7-68. PLAIN HEX NUT (AN315 [fine thread] AND AN335

[coarse thread]). The plain nut is capable of withstanding large
tension loads; however, it requires an auxiliary locking device, such
as a checknut, lockwasher or safety wire. Use of this type on aircraft
structures is limited.

7-69. LIGHT HEX NUTS (AN340 [fine thread] AND AN345

[coarse thread]). These nuts are used in nonstructural applications
requiring light tension. Like the AN315 and AN335, they require a
locking device to secure them.

7-70. CHECKNUT (AN316). The double chamfered

checknut [or jam nut] is used as a locking device for plain nuts,
screws, threaded rod ends, and other devices.

7-71. WINGNUTS (AN350). The wingnut is used where the

desired torque is obtained by use of the fingers or handtools and
where the object is frequently removed. Wingnuts are normally drilled
to allow safetying with safety wire.

WASHERS

7-85. GENERAL. The type of washers used in aircraft structure are

plain washers and special washers.

7-86. PLAIN WASHERS (AN960 AND AN970). Plain washers are

widely used with hex nuts to provide a smooth bearing surface, act as
a shim to obtain the proper grip length, and to position castellated
nuts in relation to drilled cotter pin holes in bolts. Use plain washers
under lock washers to prevent damage to bearing surfaces.
Cadmium-plated steel washers are recommended for use under
boltheads and nuts used on aluminum alloy or magnesium
structures to prevent corrosion. The AN970 steel washer provides a
larger bearing surface than the plain type, and is often used in
wooden structures under bolt heads and nuts to prevent local
crushing of the surface.

Comment: the identification code for AN960 washers consists of the

AN specification identity [AN960], then a dash followed by three digits
giving the hole diameter in 1/16 inches. e.g. AN960-516 indicates a
hole diameter to fit a 5/16 inch diameter AN5 bolt. However the
mating washer for an AN3 bolt differs from the others by using the
number '10' screw designation so the part number is AN960-10.
There is a half standard thickness version of the AN960 series
washers which is used only for bolt grip adjustment purposes and
usually with castle nuts. The same coding system applies to the thin
washer versions but is suffixed with the letter L presumably for 'light',
e.g. AN960-516L.

The identification code for the large diameter AN970 washers consists
of the AN specification identity [AN970], then a dash followed by one
or two digits indicating the AN bolt the washer is associated with. e.g.
AN970-5 indicates a hole diameter to fit an AN5 bolt, the washer for
an AN3 bolt is AN970-3 and that for an AN10 bolt is AN970-10.

7-87. LOCKWASHERS (AN935 AND AN936). Lock washers may be

used with machine screws or bolts whenever the self-locking or
castellated type nut is not applicable. Do not use lock washers where
frequent removal is required, in areas subject to corrosion, or in areas
exposed to airflow. Use a plain washer between the lock washer and
material to prevent gouging the surface of the metal.

CAUTION: Lock washers are not to be used on primary structures,

secondary structures, or accessories where failure might result in
damage or danger to aircraft or personnel.

7-88. BALL SOCKET AND SEAT WASHERS (AN950 AND AN955). Ball
socket and seat washers are used in special applications where the
bolt is installed at an angle to the surface or when perfect alignment
with the surface is required. These washers are used together as a
pair.
 7-89. TAPER PIN WASHERS (AN975). Taper pin washers are used
with the threaded taper pin. NAS143 and MS20002 washers are used
with NAS internal wrenching bolts and internal wrenching nuts. They
may be plain or countersunk. The countersunk washer (designated as
NAS143C and MS20002C) is used to seat the bolthead shank radius,
and the plain washer is used under the nut.

(Extract ends)

In some circumstances where a number of bolts are aligned to form a

joint it is expedient to use an additional rigid bearing plate to the joint —
rather than a number of washers — which acts as a doubler and
distributes the compressive forces more evenly.

12.6 Cable terminals

Generally hardware such as fork terminals (AN667), eye terminals
(AN668) and thimble eye splices at cable ends or splicing sleeves in the
bight of a cable are permanently attached to the cable by swaging. The
swaging technique used for cable fittings is a cold plastic deformation, by
mechanical pressure, of steel tubes or perhaps copper sleeves so that the
outside and inside diameters are reduced and the length increased.
During deformation the cable is held in place within the fitting and
mechanically bonded to it; standard swaged terminals develop the full
cable strength. (Flaring tube ends for fluid connectors is another form of
swaging).

There is quite a lot of information on swaged fittings in section 8 of

Chapter 7 'Aircraft hardware, control cables, and turnbuckles' of AC
43.13-1B on this website for download in PDF format (2.8 MB). Section 8
commences at page 27.