Welding of

Stainless Steels

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2
PREFACE

Stainless steel are considered as an important group

of materials for engineering industries and numerous
other applications including consumer items due to
their superior material characteristics and versatility.
These steels can be easily fabricated by different
fabrication processes. Bulk of the requirements of
stainless steels for fabrication are in form of hot and
cold rolled sheets, coils and plates. Indian plants
have established to produce quality stainless steel
conforming to international specifications.

There is a very high potential for use of stainless

steel flat products in India, particularly in industrial
sector. To tap this potential, it is necessary to step
up developmental activities and assist customers in
developing fabrication practices for promoting new
applications

Welding is the most commonly used fabrication

process for the manufacture of components from
stainless steel flat products. Different welding
processes are available with specific advantages and
limitations.

This manual has been prepared with a view to

render technical assistance to customers on basic
information in welding of stainless steel including
metallurgical fundamentals, selection of appropriate
welding process, parameters and filler materials,
common weld defects, their causes and precautions,
inspection and testing of weld joints. Also, a glossary
of common welding terms has been provided for
easy reference.

It is hoped that the manual will serve the purpose for

which is intended.

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 CONTENTS

Page

A. Introduction 3

B. Metallurgical fundamentals of stainless steels 4

C. Welding characteristics of stainless steels 9

D. Welding processes for stainless steel 12

E. Selection of welding process 19

F. Filler materials and their compositions 21

G. Common welding defects and process problems 24

H. Precautions 28

I. Typical data for various welding processes 29

J. Inspection and testing of welds 38

K. Glossary of common welding terms 42

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A. INTRODUCTION

Stainless steels are extensively used in manufacture

of industrial equipment and components, household
appliances, building and construction, architectural
and a variety of other applications due to their superior
corrosion resistance, material characteristics, surface
lustre and excellent performance in service condition.
These steels can be fabricated easily to components
by commonly available fabrication processes
without sacrificing appreciably their basic material
characteristics. Though apparently they are costly,
their performance, durability and utility far outweigh
initial investment on them. In addition, a judicious
selection from a wide variety of stainless steels can
further cut down the initial cost and enhance the
performance in actual application.

Most of these steels can be easily welded by

appropriate welding techniques to fabricate required
components. It is, however, necessary to choose
carefully specific welding process, equipment and
take required precautions in welding of different
grades of stainless steels, keeping in view their basic
material characteristics, the changes they undergo
on welding and their duty requirements in actual
service.

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B. METALLURGICAL FUNDAMENTALS OF STAINLESS STEELS

Stainless steels are iron based alloys containing a certaincomposition ranges, both ferrite and austenite
minimum of 10.5% Cr with or without other alloying phases can be present in the stainless steels at room
elements such as nickel, manganese, molybdenum, temperature. Such steels fall in the category of duplex
silicon, niobium, titanium, aluminium, boron, cobalt, stainless steels.
copper, nitrogen, etc. Addition of chromium improves
the corrosion and oxidation resistance of steels. The A number of other elements are added in small
presence of chromium leads to formation of a thin amounts in stainless steels to modify certain
protective passive film of chromium oxide which properties and fabrication characteristics. For
reduces susceptibility to corrosion resistance, most example molybdenum increases resistance to pitting
of the grades of stainless steels contain much higher corrosion and general resistance to corrosion in
levels of chromium. certain media, Sulphur or selenium increases free
machining characteristics and silicon improves heat
Classification of stainless steels resistance. Titanium and niobium are added to
Stainless steels are conventionally classified into prevent sensitization.
different types depending on their metallurgical
structures in the condition of their actual application. Austenitic stainless steels
Accordingly, these are broadly categorized as These steels are characterized by face-centered cubic
austenitic, ferritic, martensitic and duplex types of crystal structure. These steels are Cr-Ni, Cr-Mn, Cr-Ni-
stainless steels. Normally, the austenitic stainless Mn stainless steels with or without addition of other
steels containnickel and chromium whereas the alloying elements. Usually steels in this category
ferritic and martensitic stainless steels are nickel- have more than 17% Cr and 7% Ni. The primary role
free. The duplex stainless steels contain nickel and of chromium is to provide a self forming protective
chromium in suitable proportions to give a mixed film for corrosion resistance and nickel stabilizes the
structure of ferrite and austenite. austenitic structure. Low nickel or nickel-free austenitic
stainless steel are, however, also available where
Effect of alloying elements austenitic phase is retained at room temperature with
Addition of chromium to iron tends to stabilise the ferrite the help of nitrogen, manganese or copper.
phase. Consequently, iron chromium alloys with more
than 13% Cr are ferritic at all temperatures upto their Austenitic stainless steels are basically non-magnetic
meeting range. Alloys with lower chromium content, in nature. These steels are not hardenable by
however, form austinite in certain ranges of temperature common heat treatment practices. However, these
which transforms to martensite on quenching. steels harden at a rapid rate by cold working which
also makes them slightly magnetic. Austenitic grades
Addition of nickel to iron chromium alloys extends the exhibit excellent corrosion resistance. The presence
limits of austenitic phase. Nickel also decreases the of nickel in austenitic stainless steels enhances the
temperature at which austenitic phase transforms to corrosion resistance which can be further improved
ferrite upon cooling. Alloys with high nickel content, by an increase in chromium content or addition of
therefore, exhibit austenitic structure at ambient other alloying elements. They also exhibit much
temperature. Even alloys with lower nickel content higher ductility and toughness as compared to plain
such as 18-8 type of steels are austenitic on normal carbon steels and other categories of stainless steels.
rate of cooling. Austenitic stainless steels are available in many
grades, depending on their composition.
Since chromium and nickel promote the
formation of ferrite and austenite respectively, for On account of good corrosion resistance and formability,

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austenitic stainless steels find wide application in addition of alloying elements in small quantities. High
chemical, fertilizer, textile, pharmaceutical, paper, hardness and strength are specific characteristics
sugar and otherindustries. These are also used for of these steels in heat-treated condition. Hardness
medical appliances, surgical instruments, kitchenware, of these stainless steels is strongly dependent on
decorative items and numerous other applications carbon content and different grades of this type of
requiring high strength and toughness at cryogenic, steels are available in different carbon contents upto
ambient and elevated temperatures. a maximum of 1.2%.

Ferritic stainless steels Low carbon martensitic stainless steels are used
These steels are characterized by body-centered cubic turbine blades, nuclear reactor components and
structure and exhibit ferro-magnetic behavior below fractional distillation towers. Addition of 1.5% to
the Curie temperature. The ferritic grades of stainless 2.5% nickel to martensitic grades improves their
steel contain chromium ranging from 12 to 30% and hardenability while their martensitic structure is still
sometimes even higher with alloying additions like retained. Such alloys are used for springs, aircraft
molybdenum, aluminium, titanium or niobium etc. fittings and those machine parts where higher
Compared to austenitic stainless steels, the ductility strength are advantageous. Martensitic grades
and formability of these steels are inferior. These with higher carbon content are used for surgical
steels are susceptible to three types of embrittlement instruments, knives, cutlery and other wear-resisting
phenomena viz. embrittlement due to grain growth parts. A modified version of high carbon grade with
at very high temperature, formation of sigma phase 12 to 14% Cr is extensively used for the manufacture
at intermediate temperature and embrittlement in of stainless steel razor blades.
service at 475 ° C. The greatest advantage of ferritic
stainless steels is their low cost as basically these are Due to their limited corrosion resistance, these steels
Fe-Cr alloys without any expensive alloying elements are not recommended for applications in severe
such as nickel. The corrosion resistance of ferritic corrosive media.
stainless steels is moderate. By increasing chromium
content, the corrosion resistance can be increased Duplex stainless steels
but forming becomes more difficult for such steels By adjusting the proportion of ferrite forming
due to reduced ductility. elements (Cr, Si and Mo) and austenite forming
elements (C, N, Ni and Mn), duplex stainless steels
Thermal conductivity of ferriticstainless steels is can be produced with both ferrite and austenite
nearly 20% higher than the most common austenitic phases in the structure. Such steels are characterized
stainless steels. In addition, co-efficients of thermal by high tensile strength and good stress corrosion
expansion are also significantly lower for such resistance. These steels can be welded with much
steels. These characteristics make them suitable less risk of cracking than fully austenitic grades.
for heat exchangers, furnace equipments and glass
sealing. Also, ferritic stainless steels can be widely Application of modern duplexstainless steels is mostly
used for decoration of buildings, welded tubes for in plate form and as tubes for heat exchangers. These
furniture, equipment for domestic appliances, dishes are also used in pumps and valves for chemical
and flatwares, automobile components and other industries and marine engineering applications.
common applications.
Chemical composition, physical characteristics and
Matensitic stainless steels mechanical properties of important grades of stainless
These steels are Fe-Cr-C alloys with or without steels are given in tables 1, 2 and 3 respectively.

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 Table 1: Important stainless steel grade and their chemical compositions
Type Grade Chemical Composition Wt%
AISI C Si Mn P S Ni Cr Other
Max Max Max Max
Austentic 201 0.15 1.00 5.50-7.50 0.060 0.030 3.50-5.50 16.00-18.00 N 0.25 max
202 0.15 1.00 7.50-10.00 0.060 0.030 4.00-6.00 17.00-19.00 N 0.25 max
301 0.15 1.0 2.00 max 0.045 0.030 8.00-10.00 16.00-18.00 -
302 0.15 1.00 2.00 max 0.045 0.030 8.00-10.00 17.00-19.00 -
303 0.15 1.00 2.00 max 0.200 * 8.00-10.00 17.00-19.00 Mo 0.60 max
(opetional)
303Se 0.15 1.00 2.00 max 0.200 0.060 8.00-10.00 17.00-19.00 Se 0.15 min
304 0.08 1.00 2.00 max 0.045 0.030 8.00-10.50 18.00-20.00 -
304L 0.03 1.00 2.00 max 0.045 0.030 8.00-12.00 18.00-20.00 -
305 0.12 1.00 2.00 max 0.045 0.030 10.50-13.00 17.00-19.00 -
308 0.08 1.00 2.00 max 0.045 0.030 10.00-12.00 19.00-21.00 -
309 0.20 1.00 2.00 max 0.045 0.030 12.00-15.00 22.00-24.00 -
309S 0.08 1.00 2.00 max 0.045 0.030 12.00-15.00 22.00-24.00 -
310 0.25 1.50 2.00 max 0.045 0.030 19.00-22.00 24.00-26.00 -
310S 0.08 1.50 2.00 max 0.045 0.030 19.00-22.00 24.00-26.00 -
316 0.08 1.00 2.00 max 0.045 10.00-14.00 16.00-18.00 Mo 2.00-3.00
316L 0.03 1.00 2.00 max 0.045 10.00-14.00 16.00-18.00 Mo 2.00-3.00
317 0.08 1.00 2.00 max 0.045 11.00-15.00 18.00-20.00 Mo 3.00-4.00
317L 0.03 1.00 2.00 max 0.045 11.00-15.00 18.00-20.00 Mo 3.00-4.00
321 0.08 1.00 2.00 max 0.045 9.00-12.00 17.00-19.00 Ti 5XC min
347 0.08 1.00 2.00 max 0.045 9.00-13.00 17.00-19.00 Nb+Ta
10XC min
DUPLEX 329 0.10 1.00 2.00 max 0.040 0.030 3.00-6.00 25.00-30.00 Mo 1.00-2.00
FERRITIC 405 0.08 1.00 1.00 max 0.040 0.030 - 11.50-14.50 Al 0.10-0.30
409 0.08 1.00 1.00 max 0.045 0.045 - 10.50-11.75 Ti 6X6 min
But 0.75 max
410S 0.08 1.00 1.00 max 0.040 0.030 0.60 max 11.50-13.50 -
430 0.12 1.00 1.00 max 0.040 0.030 - 16.00-18.00 -
434 0.12 1.00 1.00 max 0.040 0.030 - 16.00-18.00 Mo 0.75-
1.125
446 0.20 1.00 1.50 max 0.040 0.030 - 23.00-27.00 N 0.25 max
MARTENSITIC 403 0.15 0.50 1.00 max 0.040 0.030 - 11.50-13.00 -
410 0.15 1.00 1.00 max 0.040 0.030 - 11.50-13.50 -
420 ** 1.00 1.00 max 0.040 0.030 - 12.00-14.00 -
431 0.020 1.00 1.00 max 0.040 0.030 1.25-2.50 15.00-17.00 -

*S : 0.150 min **C : 0.15 min

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 Table 2:Physical Properties (in annealed condition)
Stainless Density Specific Electrical Specific Heat Thermal Coeff. Of Thermal
steel Grade Gm/cm3 Resistance at 200C (0-1000C conductivity at Expansion
Designation micro-Ohm cm Joules/gm0C 1000C (per 0C x 10-6
AISI
201 7.9 72 0.50 16.33 15.7
202 7.9 72 0.50 16.33 18.4
301 8.0 72 0.50 16.33 17.0
302 8.0 72 0.50 16.33 17.2
304 8.0 72 0.50 16.33 17.3
304 L 8.0 72 0.50 16.33 17.3
309 8.0 78 0.50 14.24 15.0
310 8.0 78 0.50 14.24 15.9
310S 8.0 78 0.50 14.24 15.9
316 8.0 74 0.50 16.33 15.9
316L 8.0 74 0.50 16.33 15.9
321 8.0 72 0.50 16.33 16.6
347 8.0 73 0.50 16.33 16.6
409 7.7 60 0.46 25.12 11.7
430 7.8 60 0.46 25.95 10.4
434 7.8 60 0.46 25.95 11.9
410 7.8 57 0.46 25.12 9.9
420 7.8 55 0.6 25.12 10.3

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 Table 3: Mechanical Properties (in annealed condition)
Stainless steel Grade U.T.S. 0.2% Proof Stress % Elongation on Hardness RC
Designation AISI N/m2 min N/m2 min 50 ml GL Min Max
201 655 310 40 100
202 620 260 40 -
301 515 205 40 88
302 515 205 40 92
304 515 205 40 92
304L 485 170 40 88
305 515 205 40 88
309 515 205 40 95
309S 515 205 40 95
310 515 205 40 95
310S 515 205 40 95
316 515 205 40 95
316L 485 170 40 95
317 515 205 35 95
317L 515 205 40 95
321 515 205 40 95
347 515 205 40 95
405 415 170 20 88
409 380 205 20 80
430 450 205 22* 88
410 450 205 20 95
410S 415 205 22* 88

*20% min. for thickness <1.25 mm

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C. WELDING CHARACTERISTICS OF STAINLESS STEELS

The welding characteristics of different types of unless it is protected from atmosphere. Also,
stainless steels are given below: the components may sag or get severely
distorted during rapid cooling.
Austenitic stainless steels
Austenitic stainless steels are the easiest to weld For such applications, it is preferable to use
and produce weld joints which are characterized low carbon or stabilized grades of stainless
by a high degree of toughness even in as welded steels.
condition due to their face-centered cubic
structure. Exceptions are the free machining ii. Grades like 304L, 316L and 317L which
grades (AISI 303 or 303Se) which contain sulphur or contain very low carbon are less susceptible
selenium. These elements make the stainless steels to carbide precipitation in the sensitization
susceptible to hot-short cracking. The weldability range of temperatures. These steels are
and performance of these steels during service, weldable without causing loss of corrosion
however, depend to a great extent on their carbon resistance in the heat affected zone.
contents. During welding, when the heat-affected However, if they are held at this temperature
zone passes through the temperature range of for prolonged periods, sensitization may
425 to 900°C, carbon combines with chromium occur. Therefore, they are normally used at
resulting in chromium carbide precipitation along temperatures below 425 ° C.
the grain boundaries. This phenomenon is called iii. Grades like 321 and 347 which are stabilized
‘Sensitization’ which results in poor resistance to by adding titanium or columbium can be used
intergranular corrosion due to chromium depletion at the sensitization range of temperatures.
in the vicinity of precipitated carbides. Higher is These stainless steels have higher strengths
the carbon content more is the susceptibility for at elevated temperatures and they do not
sensitization. form intergranular chromium carbides when
heated in the sensitization temperature
The problem of carbide precipitation in heat- range. Titanium or columbium form strong
affected zone can be overcome by following three carbides in the matrix. These carbides do not
methods: go into solution during rapid heating caused
by welding.
i. For grades like 302, 304, 316 and 317
sensitization can be removed by solution Another major problem that is encountered
heat treatment. Carbides are put back into during welding of austenitic stainless steels is
solution by this heat treatment and the microfissure. Microfissure is the intergranular
normal corrosion resistance is restored. But crack that occurs in the weld metal or in
the drawback of this treatment is that the the heat-affected zone. Weld metal that
temperature at which this is to be carried is wholly austenitic is more susceptible to
out is very high (1050 to 1100 ° C). At such microfissuring than that which contains
high temperature, oxidation is likely to occur some delta ferrite. The composition of the

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 FIG.1 SCHAEFFLER CONSTITUTION DIAGRAM FOR STAINLESS STEEL WELD METAL

FIG.2 DELONG CONSTITUTION DIAGRAM FOR STAINLESS STEEL WELD METAL

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 weld metal is therefore very important, Martensitic stainless steels
which determines the susceptibility of the Martensitic stainless steels are more difficult to
material for microfissuring. Thus, the filler weld than austenitic and even ferritic stainless
material must be of a suitable composition to steels due to the phase change from austenite
produce a controlled amount of delta ferrite. to martensite that occurs during cooling after
3 to 5% delta ferrite in the weld is the desired welding. This results in change in volume, increase
amount for most applications to prevent in hardness and accompanying loss of ductility
microfissuring. giving rise to cracks. To prevent this, preheating
before welding and post weld heat treatment are
Schaeffler diagram (Fig.1) and Delong required.
diagram (Fig.2) can be used to determine the
amount of ferrite present in a weld of given Preheating of these steels to 200-300°C before
chemical composition. welding is essential to avoid cracking. Carbon
content is the most important factor to decide
Ferritic stainless steels whether preheating is necessary. Steels with 0.10%
As compared to austenitic stainless steels, ferritic C or less may not require preheating but with steels
stainless steels are difficult to weld. Although, with carbon content greater than 0.10% preheating
the composition of these steels lead to a ferritic is required to avoid cracking.
structure at room temperature, a slight variation Post welding annealing is also required for
or segregation in the normal chemical composition martensitic stainless steels to regain uniform
may cause formation of small amount of martensite hardness in the welded area and to improve the
along the grain boundaries in the heat-affected ductility of the base metal in the heat affected
zone. In addition, ferritic stainless steels are prone zone.
to rapid grain coarsening on heating above 950 ° C.
These factors have deleterious effect on ductility, Martensite structure makes the stainless steel
toughness and corrosion resistance. hard and brittle. As a practice, these steels are
always welded in annealed condition since thermal
The detrimental effect of martensite can be stresses imposed on martensitic structure due to
rectified by post welding annealing. Post welding welding result in cracking.
annealing transforms material to ferrite and
also relieves internal stresses. Thus, it results in Post weld heat treatment is required to restore
a completely ferritic structure and restores the martensitic structure for actual application. This
corrosion resistance and mechanical properties. consists of heating the weld to a temperature
In case, post weld heat treatment is not possible, high enough to form austenite and then rapidly
a low carbon ferritic stainless steel (eg. AISI 405, quenching to room temperature. Enough care
409) with strong ferrite formers (like Ti, Al, Nb) is should be taken to prevent and distortion during
preferable. quenching.

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D. WELDING PROCESSES FOR STAINLESS STEELS

Fusion welding and resistance welding are most

commonly used processes for joining stainless
steels. In fusion welding, heat is produced with the
help of an electric arc struck between an electrode
and base metal. In resistance welding, joining is
done by the combined effect of heat and pressure.
Heat is generated by the resistance to the flow of
electric current through the parts to be welded and
pressure is applied by the electrodes.

The fusion welding processes include:

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
Laser Beam Welding (LBW)

The resistance welding may be either of spot or FIG.3 Shielded Metal Arc Welding Process
seam welding type.
- Flux removes the impurities from the molten
Typical welding parameters and data for various metal
welding processes are given in Section I - A gaseous envelope developed by the
decomposition of the ingredients of the
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) flux covers the molten weld pool, thereby
This manual process of welding is a common and protecting it from atmospheric contact.
versatile method used for joining shapes that
cannot be easily setup for automatic welding - During cooling, the slag formed on the top
methods. In this method, a solid electrode with of the weld metal acts as a protective cover
an extruded baked-on coating material is used. A against contamination by the atmosphere.
typical diagram for Shielded Metal Arc Welding is - It provides alloy additions to the weld metal.
given in Figure 3.
While the equipment is less expensive and easy
The coating of the electrode has got several to operate in different locations, its operating cost
functions: is high due to excessive loss of electrode flux and
- Electrode material burns off faster than the unused stub-ends.
coating flux that forms a “Crucible and this
shields the arc from the atmosphere.

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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) The preferred types of electrodes for welding
This process is commonly known as Tungsten Inert stainless steels are the thoriated electrodes
Gas (TIG) welding. Gas tungsten arc welding uses containing 1.7% to 2.2% thoria.
the heat of an electric arc between a tungsten
electrode and the base metal. Typical compositions A separate welding filler rod is fed into the molten
for tungsten electrodes are given Table 4. base metal if needed. A shielding gas flows around
the arc to keep away air and dirt.
Table4: Non-consumable electrodes used in TIG
welding Figure 4 illustrates a typical diagram for gas
tungsten arc welding. An AC-DC welding machine
Non- Chemical composition may be used with a regulated flow of shielding gas,
consumable
such as argon or helium. The shielding gas flows
electrode (AWS)
from a cylinder through a regulator, flow meter and
EWP 99.5% minimum tungsten
a hose to the workpiece.
EWZr 99.2% tungsten + 0.15 to 0.40%
zirconium
Heating characteristics of the arc may be controlled
EWTh-3 98.95% tungsten + 0.35 to 0.55% thoria
by changing current and arc length. Diameter of
EWTh-2 97.5% tungsten + 1.7 to 2.2% thoria
tungsten electrode, thickness and kind of base
EWTh-1 98.5% tungsten + 0.8 to 1.2% thoria metal will determine welding amperage.

FIG.4 GAS-TUNGSTEN-ARC WELDING PROCESS

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GTAW easily welds all types of stainless steels and is Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
particularly suited for welding stainless steel pipes. This process is commonly known as Metal Inert Gas
It is also extensively used for joining tubes in heat (MIG) welding. In gas metal arc welding, an electric
exchanger. Generally, the filler metal is fed manually arc between a continuously fed metal electrode
by the welder, but this method is slow, especially and the base metal produces heat. The arc is
for thick components. To achieve higher deposition shielded by a gas like argon or helium. For stainless
rates, the process can be automated and the filler steel welding, an inert gas mixture of 98% argon
wire is heated by resistance heating. The process is and 2% oxygen is recommended. Power source
called hot wire GTAW and it can result even upto is DC welding current. A shielding gas cylinder, a
100% increase in welding speed. Another variation regulator and a hose provide a flow of shielding gas
of GTAW is pulsed arc. In this process, the pulsing to the arc. Figure 5 illustrates typical diagram for
arc provides control of the molten weld puddle to GMAW.
increase penetration and to minimize porosity.

FIG.5 GAS-METAL-ARC WELDING PROCESS

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There are three basic variations of GMAW process, GMAW is about four time faster than GTAW.
depending on the method of transfer of metal. These
are spray type transfer, short-circuiting transfer Selection of inert gas for GMAW and GTAW
and pulsed type transfer. The spray type of transfer Argon, helium and carbon dioxide are generally
was the first to be developed and is characterized used as shielding gases for GMAW and GTAW
by a relatively hot arc and fluid puddle. Short- though carbon dioxide is not preferred for stainless
circuiting transfer utilizes small diameter wire and steels Argon with 2 to 5% oxygen or 5 to 20%
is particularly effective for welding thin material. nitrogen is suitable for welding of stainless steel
flat products in thinner gauges. Helium is preferred
This increase the utility of basis GMAW, particularly for welding of stainless steel in thicker gauges.
in industries where thin gauge stainless steels are
fabricated. The more recent variation of the gas Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
metal arc process is pulsed-arc welding. This process Submerged arc welding is a method in which the heat
is characterized by a controlled free-flight metal required to fuse the metal is generated by an electric
drop rate of 60 drops per second at a lower current current passing between the welding wire and the
density than conventional spray-arc welding. workpiece. The tip of the welding wire, the arc and
the weld area are covered by a layer or granular
The advantages of MIG process are high efficiency, flux. A hopper and feeding mechanism are used to
high deposition rate and ease in continuous provide a flow of flux over the joint being welded.
monitoring of the arc. Figure 6 illustrates a typical diagram for SAW.

FIG.6 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING PROCESS

17
The intense heat evolved by the passage of electric is provide through an outer gas cup on the torch.
current through the welding zone melts the end of Figure 7 illustrates a typical diagram of plasma arc
the wire and the adjacent edges of the workpieces, welding.
creating a puddle of molten metal. The puddle is
in a highly liquid state and is turbulent. For these The main difference between PAW and GTAW
reasons, any slag or gas bubbles are quickly swept processes is the “Keyhole” effect that is observed
to the surface. The flux completely shields the with plasma arc welding when performing square
welding zone from contact with the atmosphere. butt joints in the thickness range of 2 to 6 mm. A
keyhole is formed at the leading edge of the weld
The difference between submerged arc welding metal where the forces of the plasma het displace
and other processes used for welding stainless the molten metal of permit the arc t pass completely
steel is that SAW can use much higher heat input through the work piece. The keyhole is an indication
than other processes and has slower solidification of complete penetration and sound weld.
and cooling characteristic Also, the silicon contact
will be much higher in submerged arc welding In case of multipass plasma arc welding, a keyhole
that with other methods. If care is not exercised in root pass is followed by one or more non-keyhole
selecting proper flux material. weld passes the filler metal.

Submerged arc welding is not recommended where

a weld deposit is needed to be fully austenitic or is
controlled to alow delta ferrite content (below 4%).
However, high quality welds may be produced for
applications in which more that 4% delta ferrite in
weld deposits is allowable SAW is used for welding
of material in higher gauges.

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Plasma arc welding is an inert gas, non-consumable
electrode welding method utilizing a transferred,
constricted arc. As the office gas passes through the
torch to the work, it is heated by the arc, ionized
and passes through the arc-constricting nozzle at
ant accelerated rate. Since too powerful a jet would
cause turbulence in the molten puddle, the jet
would cause turbulence in the molten puddle, the
het effect on the work is softened by limiting gas
flow rates through the nozzle. Since this flow alone
is not adequate to protect the molten puddle from
atmospheric contamination, auxiliary shielding gas Fig.7 Plasma arc Welding process

18
Continuously formed stainless steel tubes Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
are preferably welded without filter metal by A LASE BEAM IS NA INTENSE, HIGHLY COHERENT
plasma arc welding process. This process has the BEAM OF MONOCHROMATIC LIGHT. Head of laser
advantage over gas tungsten arc welding process beam is very intense and is easily directed to sport
due to its higher speed of welding particularly for where needed. Since laser beam can be reflected. It
thicker tubes. The welding speed in the process is can be either continuous heat source or pulse beam.
approximately twice as compared to gas tungsten
arc welding process for same tube thickness. In LBW, since the actual welding is done by light
beam only, a clear line of sight is required and
Election Beam Welding (EBW) direct contact with the workpiece is not necessary.
Electron Beam Welding uses energy from a This method can be used for joining workpieces
focused stream of electrons for heating and fusing which are normally not accessible to conventional
metals. It is a very convenient process for welding methods.
heavy components when the distance between
the two pieces to be weld is small. But, since the Only good physical contact between the pieces to
equipment is large and expensive, it is used only be joined is desirable. Here the heat affected zone is
where conventional welding techniques cannot be either very small or for all practical purposes, non-
used. existent. Carbide precipitation will be practically
non-existent during laser welding because of high
The machine uses an electronic tube which emits welding speed and low heat input.
electrons. The streams of electrons are controlled
by electro-magnets called magnetic lens and Resistance Spot Welding
focussed to the weld area. Conventional welding Stainless steels have 5 to 6 times more electrical,
techniques tend to melt only the surface of stainless resistivity as compared to carbon steels. Hence,
steels so that penetration essentially comes by resistance welding is ideally suited for stainless
heat conduction. By contrast, EBW is capable of steel. In resistance sport welding, electric current
such intense local heating that is instantaneously is passed through metal and the resistance to
vaporizes the metal so that a hole is formed the flow of electric current heats the metal to
through the entire thickness of the workpiece. This welding temperature. The processis used to weld
is similar to the keyhole in PAW. together two or more overlapping pieces. Figure
B illustrates a typical diagram of Resistance Sport
EBW has hot significant advantages over other Welding. The process is commonly used to join
joining methods, It is a rapid and precise process auto body sections, cabinets and other sheet metal
which produces exceptionally high quality weld assembiles. The limitation of this process is high
while minimizing distortion and other adverse power requirement for thicker gauges. Resistance
effects on the workpiece. spot welding is practical and economical upto a
thickness of 3.0 mm.

19
 Resistance Seam Welding
In this method, the joint is produced by the heat
developed from resistance to the flow of electric
current through the workpieces which are held
together under pressure by circular electrodes, The
resultant weld is seam formed by a series of over-
lapping sport welds made progressively along a
joint by the rotating electrodes. Figure 9 illustrates
a typical diagram of such welding.

In seam welding, the distortion will be greater

that in sport welding because of higher heat input
unless water cooling is utilized. Flooding the part
of be welded with water will help minimize the
distortion and increase the electrode life greatly.

FIG.8 ELECTICAL RESISTANCE SPOT

WELDING PROCESS

A Ste-down transformer converts fairly high

voltage low amperage current to a low voltage high
amperage current. The weld is made between two
electrodes or wheels which press the overlapping
pieces together. A heavy electrical current flows
from one electrode through the metal pieces to be
welded together, to the second electrode. These
Electrode are special metal alloys (generally copper
alloys) which can carry high current and still have
physical strength to operate under high pressure.

Quality of resistance sport weld is controlled by the

amperage, the electrode pressure and the length
of time the current flows.

All the stainless steels which are not hardenable

by heat treatment are readily sport welded. With FIG.9 ELECTRICAL RESTANCE SEAM
special precautions and procedures all the stainless WLDING PROCESS
steels can be spot welded.
20
E SLECTION OF WLDING PROCESSES

General guideline for selection of appropriate processes, are give in Table 5.

method of welding for different types of stainless Recommended wlding processes for typical
steels in different thickness, keeping in view applications are give in Table 6.
the advantages and limitations of the welding

Table 5: Selection of welding processes for stainless steels

Recommended Weldability
Welding Method
thickness mm Austenitic Ferritic Martensitic
Shield Metal Arc Can be welded Difficult to weld, can
Welding (SMAW) > 0.8 Easy to weld
with care be Welded with care
Gas Tungsten Arc Can be welded Can be Welded
Welding (GTAW) < 3.0 Easy to weld
with care with care
Gas Metal Arc can be Welded Can be Welded
Welding (GMAW) > 3.0 Easy to weld
with care with care
Submerged Arc Can be Welded with Can be Welded Can be Welded
Welding (SAW) > 6.0 care with care with care`
Resistance Spot Can be Welded
Welding < 3.0 Easy to weld Easy to weld
with care
Resistance Seam Can be Welded Difficult to weld,
Welding < 3.0 Easy to weld
with care requires Special care

21
 Table 6: Welding processes of typical applications
Applications Material Process recommended
Manual metal arc welding MIG
Jobs for static loading Austenitic Ferritic
welding
Job for dynamic loading Austenitic or Ferritic MIG or TIG
Tanks for storing normal chemicals
Austenitic or Ferritic Manual Metal arc welding
and less corrosive liquids
Tanks meant for highly corrosive
Austenitic TIG or MIG
liquids
Racks and decorative panels Ferritic Resistance Welding
TIG without filler or plasma arc
Welding on thin sheets and foils Austenitic or Ferritic
welding
Spot Welding (resistance) or TIG
Welding of silencer pipes Ferritic
welding
Welding of small jobs using thin Plasma arc welding or electron beam
Austenitic or Ferritic
sheets for laboratory or space craft welding

22
F. FILLER MATERIALS AND THEIR COMPOSITIONS

For ensuring good weld quality, it is essential to some extent the protection of molten weld metal
select proper filter material. The characteristics from atmospheric selected. Typical filler materials
and soundness of the weld is primarily dependent to be used for welding of different type of stainless
on the chemical composition of the filter material steels are given in Table 7, 8 and 9.
compatible with composition of base metal and to

Table 7: Filler materials for austenitic stain- Table 8: Filler materials for Ferritic stainless
less steel steels
Filler Filler
Base metal Base metal
Service condition material Service condition material
type AISI type AISI
type type
As welded by fully 405Cb, 430,
201, 202 308 405 Annealed As welded
Annealed 309, 310
301, 302, 405Cb, 430,
As welded or fully 308 430 Annealed As welded
304, 305 309, 310
305 annealed 446, 308,
446 Annealed As welded
As welded or stress 309, 310
304 L 347
relieved
303, 303Se As welded or fully annealed 308 L Table 9: Filler materials for martensitic stain-
309, 309S As welded 309 less steels
310, 310S As welded 309, 310 Filler
Base metal
As welded or stress Service condition material
316L 316 type AISI
relieved type
317 As welded or fully annealed 317 Annealed or
403 Hardened and stress 410
As welded or stress
317L 317Cb relieved
relieved
As welded or after Annealed or 410
321 stabilizing and 321 Stress 410 Hardened and stress 309, 310,
relieving heat treatment relieved As welded 420

As welded or after Annealed or

410
347 stabilizing and Stress 347 420 Hardened and stress 420
relieving heat treatment relieved
As welded or after Annealed or 410
348 stabilizing and Stress 347 431 Hardened and stress 308, 309,
relieving heat treatment relieved As welded 310

23
Standard composition range for austenitic stainless steel and covered filer wire by prefixing “E” Covered filler wire or
welding wires are given in Tables 10 and 11. AWS-ASTM electrodes are available either with lime or titania coatings
specifications designate bare filler wire by using prefix ‘ER’ designated by the suffix “15” or “16” respectively.

Table 10: Composition of stainless steel bare welding wires

Filler
materials %P %S
%C % Cr % Ni % Mo % Cb+Ta % Mn % Si
(AWS- max max
ASTM)
ER308 0.08 max 19.50-22.00 9.00-11.00 - - 1.00-2.50 0.25-0.60 0.03 0.03
ER308L 0.03 max 19.50-22.00 9.00-11.00 - - 1.00-2.50 0.25-0.60 0.03 0.03

ER309 0.12 max 23.00 -25.00 12.00-14.00 - - 1.00-2.50 0.25-0.60 0.03 0.03

ER310 0.08 -0.15 25.00-28.00 20.00-22.00 - - 1.00-2.50 0.25-0.60 0.03 0.03

ER312 0.08 -0.15 28.00-32.00 8.00-10.50 - - 1.00-2.50 0.25-0.60 0.03 0.03
ER316 0.08 max 18.00-20.00 11.00-14.00 2.00-3.00 - 1.00-2.50 0.25-0.60 0.03 0.03
ER316L 0.03 max 18.00-20.00 11.00-14.00 2.00-3.00 - 1.00-2.50 00.25-0.60 0.03 0.03
ER317 0.08 max 18.50-20.50 13.00-15.00 3.00-4.00 - 1.00-2.50 0.25-0.60 0.03 0.03
8xC main
ER318 0.08 max 18.00-20.00 11.00-14.00 2.00-3.00 1.00-2.50 0.25-0.60 0.03 0.03
1.00 max
ER321 0.08 max 18.50-20.50 9.00-10.50 0.50 max ** 1.00-2.50 0.25-0.60 0.03 0.03
10XC min
ER347 0.08 max 19.00-21.50 9.00-11.00 - 1.00-2.50 0.25-0.60 0.03 0.03
1.00 max
10XC min
ER348 0.08 max 19.00-21.50 9.000-11.00 - 1.00-2.50 0.25-0.60 0.03 0.03
1.00 max

** Ti= 9xC min, 1.00 max * Ta = 0.10% max

24
 Table 11: Composition of stainless steel coated welding wires

Filler materials %P %S
%C % Cr % Ni % Mo % Cb+Ta % Mn % Si
(AWS-ASTM) max max
E308 0.08 18.00-21.00 9.00-11.00 - - 2.50 0.90 0.04 0.03
E308L 0.04 18.00-21.00 9.00-11.00 - - 2.50 0.90 0.04 0.03

E309 0.15 22.00-25.00 12.00-14.00 - - 2.50 0.90 0.04 0.03

E309Cb 0.12 22.00-25.00 12.00-14.00 - 0.70-1.00 2.50 0.90 0.04 0.03

E310 0.20 25.00-28.00 20.00-22.50 - - 2.50 0.75 0.03 0.03
E310Cb 0.12 25.00-28.00 20.00-22.00 - 0.70-1.00 2.50 0.75 0.03 0.03
E312 0.15 28.00-32.00 8.00-10.50 - - 2.50 0.90 0.04 0.03
E316 0.08 17.00-20.00 11.00-14.00 2.00-3.00 - 2.50 0.90 0.04 0.03
E316L 0.04 17.00-20.00 11.00-14.00 2.00-3.00 - 2.50 0.90 0.04 0.03
E317 0.08 18.00-21.00 12.00-14.00 3.00-4.00 - 2.50 0.90 0.04 0.03
6XC mix 1.00
E318 0.08 17.00-20.00 11.00-14.00 2.00-2.50 2.50 0.90 0.04 0.03
max
8xC min 1.00
E347 0.08 18.00-21.00 9.00-11.00 - 2.50 0.90 0.04 0.03
max

25
G. COMMON WELDING DEFECTS AND PROCESS PROBLEMS

A sound weld is generally free from weld defects such metal. Figure 10 shows typical weld defects.
as crack, incomplete fusion, undercut, poor penetration,
porosity, stag inclusion, improper alignment, spatter etc and Some of the common defect and their probable causes for
is characterized by similar material characteristics of base different welding processes are given below:

Shielded metal arc welding Gas tungsten arc welding

Defect Cause Defect Cause

Erratic ꟷ Loose cable connection Poor Poor arc ꟷ Poor ground connection
ground connection Current set too ignition and Defect in high frequency circuit
low Arc blow maintenance Tungsten diameter too large.
Excessive ꟷ Current set to high Damp Arc ꟷ Dirty tungsten
Spatter electrodes Wrong polarity Arc Wander Deformed tungsten tip contour
length to long Amperage to low for tungsten
Poor bead ꟷ Incorrect current adjustment diameter
appearance Faulty electrodes Electrode held at Tungsten ꟷ Touching work with tungsten
wrong angles Improper electrode contamination Filler rod pick up on the tungsten
manipulation Inadequate post flow
Poor fusion ꟷ Magnetic fields in the weld joint Dirty welds ꟷ Incomplete oxide removal from
Poor ꟷ Current se to low Welding speed to work Oil or grease on work
Penetration fast Improper joint preparation Dirty rod Inadequate shielding gas
flow Loose gas cup or torch cap
Porosity ꟷ Joint not properly cleaned Contaminated shielding gas supply
Insufficient pudding time Improper
electrode selection
Cracking ꟷ Weld bead not proportional to the
base metal thickness Improper
electrode selection Crater not
filled Joint not properly preheated
Current se to high

26
FIG 10. TYPICAL WELD DEFECTS

27
 Defect Cause Defect Cause
Torch ꟷ Excessive amperage beyond torch Dirty welds ꟷ Inadequate shielding gas flow
overheating capacity Constricted cooling fluid rates Excessive torch angle to
flow High amperage welding in work Spatter build up in nozzle
restricted joint areas. Excessive torch weaving
Porosity ꟷ Dirty base metal Dirty road Porosity ꟷ Dirty base metal Improper
Inadequate shielding Excessive wire chemistry Inadequate gas
welding speed Excessive weld shielding Entrapment of “glass”
amperage from previous bead
Lack of ꟷ Amperage to low Welding to fast
complete Improper choice of filler road Lack of fusion ꟷ Voltage and/or current too low
fusion diameter Improper torch angle to Welding speed too slow
work. Weld joint too narrow
Under ꟷ Improper torch angle to work Failure to concentrate arc on
cutting Improper size or application leading edge of puddle
of filler road Welding too fast Poor base ꟷ Voltage too high
Excessive amperage formation Current too low
Cracking ꟷ Improper choice of filer rod type Induction improperly adjusted
Excessive dilution of filler road Improper torch manipulation
with base metal Excessive spatter ꟷ Use of straight CO2
Too rapid chilling of weld joint Voltage too low and/or current
Highly restrained joints too high Raised induction and/
Unfilled craters or slope Excess nozzle to work
distance
Gas tungsten arc welding Under cutting ꟷ Travel speed too fast Voltage
too high Welding with excess
Defect Cause
current Insufficient pause at
Wire burn back ꟷ Initial voltage too high edges of weld
Initial wire feed setting too low
Burn through ꟷ Current too high
Nozzle to work distance too
Travel to slow
long Constriction in wire
Excessive root opening
conduits
Use of CO2 in welding
Erratic wire feed ꟷ Improper adjustment of wire
Cracking Incorrect filler wire selection
drive rolls Improper operation
Beads too small
of wire feed or drive and rake
Poor plate quality
system Contact tip too short.
Rapid chilling of base metal
Kinks in wire conduits
Poor weld starts ꟷ Voltage too low
or wire stubbing
Induction and/or slope too
high Wire stick out too long

28
Spot welding in austenitic stainless steel

Defect Cause Defect Cause

Excessive ꟷ Insufficient electrode force Excessive ꟷ Excessive current Excessive
Expulsion at Excessive current and/or penetration weld time Electrode dressing
interface weld time Electrode dressing too sharp Insufficient electrical
too sharp Foreign matter on or thermal conductivity of
interface electrode Insufficient electrode
Surface expulsion ꟷ Electrode dress to sharp force
Excessive current in relation Underside nugget ꟷ Insufficient current Insufficient
to pressure Foreign matter weld time Excess electrode
on surface Foreign matter on force
surface Insufficient electrical Unequal ꟷ Unequal electrode dressing
and/or thermal conductivity of penetration Unequal electrical and/
electrodes or thermal conductivity of
Excessive ꟷ Electrode dress to sharp electrodes
Indentation Excessive electrode force Unbalanced ꟷ Misalignment of electrodes
Excessive current nugget Off centre dressing of
Void in nugget ꟷ Insufficient electrode force electrodes
Excessive current and/or weld Concave sides of ꟷ Insufficient weld time
time Electrode dressing too flat nugget Insufficient current Electrode
Insufficient hold time diameter too small
Horizontal cracks ꟷ Excessive current and/or weld
at the centre of time Insufficient electrode
the nugget force Electrode dressing too
flat Insufficient hold time

29
H. PRECAUTIONS

ꟷ Materials and electrodes which conform to standard ꟷ During making a multiple pass weld, slag from the
specifications are only to be used to get good quality weld deposit should be cleaned thoroughly to prevent
welds. entrapment. Surface of the finished weld also has to be
cleaned thoroughly.
ꟷ Proper joint design is absolutely necessary to get sound
weld. It also helps in easy slag removal. ꟷ Too low an amperage results in unstable arc accompanied
by electrode sticking, slag interference in the arc
ꟷ Proper bead formation is essential to avid poor
excessive spatter and poor bead shape,
penetration and slag pockets.
ꟷ Too high amperage can cause poor bead control, cracks
ꟷ Both the stainless steel base metal and the filler material
in weld, undercut, difficult slag removal and loss of
to be used for joining should be free of moisture.
corrosion resistance due to loss of chromium.
Entrapped moisture in a fight joint can result in porosity.
Moisture can come by absorption through electrode ꟷ In any welding process, the quality of weld improves
coatings or night time humidity that may condense at by the use of chill bar or back up bar. Pure copper is
the joint. the most satisfactory material for this purpose. Due to
their high conductivity, chill bars do not stick tow weld
ꟷ Stainless steel plate or sheet and the filler material to be
metal and at the same time assure smooth weld metal
used for joining are to be free of any contamination like
surface owing to its chill-mould effect. In case of thin
oil, grease, varnish, adhesive, paint, etc. Some of these
gauge material, chill bars control distortion and prevent
may act as a source of carbon during welding.
excessive melting of base metal.

30
I. TYPICAL DATA FO RVARIOUS WELDING PROCESSES

Typical parameters for welding stainless steel in different

thicknesses by different commonly used welding process are
given in Tables 12 to 23.

*Table 12 L But Welding from one side

Material Electrode Gap width Current Welding rate Number of Welding time
thickness t mm diameter Mm D Mm A cm/min electrodes per per metre of
metre of weld weld min
1.5 2.0 05.-0.7 35-45 30 3.7 3.3
2.0 2.5 0.8-1.0 55-70 32 2.9 3.1
2.5 3.25 1.0-1.2 85-105 36 2.6 2.8
3.0 3.25 1.2-1.5 90-110 34 2.9 2.9

*Table 13 L But Welding from one side

Material Bead Electrode Gap width Current Welding rate Number of Welding time
thickness t No. diameter mm d mm A Cm/min electrodes per metre of
mm per metre of weld min
weld
2.0 1 2.5 0.8-1.0 55-70 32 6.4 6.3
2.5 1 3.25 1.0-1.2 85-105 36 5.4 5.6
3.0 1 3.25 1.2-1.5 90-110 35 5.7 5.7
4.0 1 4.00 1.5-2.0 115-140 33 2.2 5.0 3.1 6.1
2 3.25 90-110 2.8 3.0
5.0 1 5.0 2.0-2.5 150-175 32 2.1 4.5 3.1 6.3
2 4.0 110-135 2.4 3.2
* (Courtesy : Peckner, D.and Bernstein, I.M., Hand Book of Stainless Steels, McGraw-Hill, 1977.)

31
 *Table 14: Fillet Weld

Material Electrode Bead thickness Current Welding rate Number of Welding time
thickness t mm diameter Mm B mm A Cm/min electrodes per per metre of
metre of weld weld min
1.5 2.0 2.0 40-50 22 6.0 4.6
2.0 2.5 2.5 55-75 22 4.8 4.8
2.5 2.5 2.5 60-80 24 4.8 4.2
3.0 3.25 3.0 85-105 26 4.0 3.8
4.0 3.25 3.0 95-115 28 4.0 3.6
5.0 4.0 3.5 120-140 28 3.1 3.9
6.0 4.0 4.0 125-145 20 4.0 5.0
7.0 4.0 4.5 130-150 16 5.1 6.1
8.0 5.0 5.0 160-180 18 4.0 5.7
9.0 5.0 5.5 165-190 15 4.8 6.5
10.0 5.0 6.0 170-200 13 5.7 7.5

The data given here are value for a bead deposited on workpieces at right angles to each other.
* (Courtesy : Peckner, D and Bernstein, I.M. Hand Book of Stainless Steels McGraw-Hill, 1977.)

32
 *Table 15: Corner and Lap Welds

Material thickness Electrode Current Welding rate Number of Welding time per
t mm diameter Mm A Cm/min electrodes per metre of weld
metre of weld min
1.5 2.0 45-55 50 2.9 2.0
2.0 2.5 65-75 45 2.4 2.2
2.5 2.5 70-80 42 2.6 2.4
3.0 3.25 95-105 40 2.2 2.5
4.0 3.25 100-115 33 3.2 3.0
5.0 4.0 125-140 29 2.7 3.4

The data given here are valid for one bead.

* (Courtesy : Peckner, D and Bernstein, I.M. Hand Book of Stainless Steels McGraw-Hill, 1977.)

33
 *Table 16: Single _ V Groove Joint

Material Bead Electrode Gap Current Welding rate Number of Welding

thickness t No. diameter Mm Width A Cm/min electrodes time per
mm D mm per metre of metre of
weld weld min
4.0 1 2.5 1.0 70-80 25 4.6 8.0
2 3.25 95-110 3.9 -8.5
5.0 1 2.5 1.0 65-75 24 4.6 8.2
2 4.0 110-135 3.1-7.7 6.0
6.0 1 3.25 1.5 80-100 20 4.0 10.0
2 4.0 120-140 4.3-8.3
7.0 1 3.25 1.5 90-110 18 4.5 11.0
2 5.0 150-180 4.1-8.6
8.0 1 4.0 2.0 110-130 18 3.5 11.2
2 5.0 155-190 4.4-7.9
9.0 1 4.0 2.0 110-130 15 4.0 13.4
2 5.0 160-195 5.8 -9.8
10.0 1 4.0 2.0 110-130 17 4.0 17.9
2 4.0 120-145 4.5
5.0 160-195 5.0 -13.5

* (Courtesy : Peckner, D and Bernstein, I.M. Hand Book of Stainless Steels,

McGraw-Hill, 1977.)

34
 Table 17: Typical data for TIG Welding
Type of joint Thickness Welding Current, A Filler wire Electrode Welding No. of Argon
mm diameter diameter speed passes flow I/
Mm mm mm/m min
Horizontal Vertical Overhead
0.6 15-25 14-23 13-22 1.0 300-350 1 5
0.8 15-30 14-28 13-27 1.0 300-350 1 3
1.0 25-60 23-55 22-54 1.5 1.0 250-300 1 4
1.5 25-60 23-55 22-54 1.5 1.0 250-300 1 4
2.0 80-110 75-100 70-100 1.5-2.0 1.5-2.0 175-225 1 4
3.0 120-200 110-185 110-180 2.0 2.0-3.0 125-175 1 5
4.0 120-200 110-185 110-180 3.0 2.0 100-150 1 5
5.0 150-250 140-230 135-225 3.0-4.0 2.0-3.0 1 5

1.0 60 55 54 1.0 1.0 250-300 1 4

1.5 95 90 85 1.5 1.0 250-300 1 4
2.0 110 100 100 1.5 1.5-2.0 125-175 1 5
3.0 130 120 150 2.0 2.0-3.0 125-175 1 5
4.0 185 170 165 2.0 2.0 100-175 1 5
6.0 310 290 280 4.0 3.0
1.0 40 37 36 1.0 1.0 250-300 1 4
1.5 60 55 55 1.5 1.0 250-300 1 4
2.0 80 75 70 1.5 1.5-2.0 175-225 1 4
3.0 110 100 100 2.0 2.0-3.0 125-175 1 5

1.0 55 51 50 1.5 1.0 250-300 1 4

1.5 90 85 80 2.0 1.0 250-300 1 4
2.0 105 98 95 2.0 1.5-2.0 175-225 1 4
3.0 125 115 110 3.0 2.0-3.0 125-175 1 5
4.0 180 165 160 2.0 2.0 100-150 1 5
6.0 300 280 270 4.0 4.0 3.0 4
4.0 4.0 3.0 4

* (Courtesy : Peckner, D and Bernstein, I.M. Hand Book of Stainless Steels,

McGraw-Hill, 1977.)

35
 Table 18: Nominal condition for GMAW of austenitic stainless steels with spray arc
Thickness of Joint and Edge Electrode Current Wire feed Welding Number
base Metal preparation with (DCRP) speed speed passes
mm diameter A m/min m/min
mm
3.2 Square butt with backing 1.6 200-500 2.8-3.8 0.5 1
6.4 Single V-butt, 60O 1.6 250-300 3.8-5.0 0.4 2
Incl. angle, no root face
9.5 Single V-butt, 60O 1.6 275-325 5.7-6.4 .5 2
Incl. angle1.6 mm root face
12.7 Single V-butt, 60O 2.4 300-350 1.9-2.2 0.13 3-4
Incl. angle, 1.6 mm root face

Table 19: Nominal condition for GMAW of austenitic stainless steels with short-circuiting arc
Thickness of Joint and Edge Current Voltage Wire feed Welding speed
base Metal mm preparation (DCRP) V speed m/min
A m/min
1.6 Fillet or lap 85 21 4.7 0.46
1.6 Butt (Square edge) 85 22 4.7 0.50
2.0 Fillet or lap 90 22 4.9 0.36
2.2 Butt (Square edge) 90 22 4.9 0.30
2.4 Fillet or lap 105 23 5.9 3.38
3.2 Fillet or lap 125 23 7.1 0.40

Electrode wire diameter = 0.8 mm, one pass each, shielding gas containing 90% helium, 7.5% argon and 2.5% carbon dioxide

36
 Table 20: Typical welding condition for single pass SAW of stainless steels
Thickness of Type of Joint Welding rod Current Voltage Welding speed
base Metal mm Diameter A V m/min
mm
1.3 Square -butt joint 3.2 325 25 1.9
1.9 Square -butt joint 3.2 325 25 1.7
2.4 Square -butt joint 3.2 450 25 1.5
3.2 Square -butt joint 3.5 500 30 1.3
4.8 Square -butt joint 6.4 600 30 1.1
6.4 60 deg V-groove joint 6.4 750 35 0.9
9.5 60 deg V-groove joint 6.4 750 35 0.6
12.7 45 deg V-groove joint 9.5 800 35 0.5

Table 21: Typical welding condition PAW of stainless steels

Thickness of Travel Speed cm/min Current Arc Gas Gas flow m3/hr
base Metal DCSP) Voltage
mm A V
Orific gas Shielding gas
1.3 Square -butt joint 3.2 325 25 1.9
1.9 Square -butt joint 3.2 325 25 1.7
2.4 Square -butt joint 3.2 450 25 1.5
3.2 Square -butt joint 3.5 500 30 1.3
4.8 Square -butt joint 6.4 600 30 1.1
6.4 60 deg V-groove joint 6.4 750 35 0.9
9.5 60 deg V-groove joint 6.4 750 35 0.6
12.7 45 deg V-groove joint 9.5 800 35 0.5

37
 Table 22: Recommended practices for sport welding austenitic stainless steels
Thick- Electrode Diam- Net Weld Minimum shear Welding current Diameter Mini- Minimum
ness eter and shape elec- time strength (Approx) Of fused mum contacting
“T” of trode (single Kg A zone weld overlap
thinnest force impluse spacing
outside cycle )
price (60 per Ultimate tensile
sec.) strength of metal
mm D Min D Max Kg Tensile Tensil mm mm mm
mm mm Strenght Strenght
below 105 105 and
Kg/mm2 higher
Kg/m m2
0.15 4.8 2.4 80 2 27 32 38 2000 2000 1.15 4.8 4.8
0.20 4.8 2.4 90 3 45 59 65 2000 2000 1.40 4.8 4.8
0.25 4.8 3.2 105 3 68 77 95 2000 2000 1.65 4.8 4.8
0.30 6.3 3.2 120 3 84 95 113 2100 2000 1.90 6.3 6.3
0.35 6.3 3.2 135 4 108 113 145 2500 2200 2.70 6.3 6.3
0.40 6.3 3.2 150 4 127 136 172 3000 2500 2.20 8.0 6.3
0.45 6.3 3.2 170 4 145 163 213 3500 2800 2.40 8.0 6.3
0.55 6.3 4.0 180 4 168 213 226 4000 3200 2.50 8.0 8.0
0.65 9.6 4.0 235 5 226 272 308 5000 4100 3.00 11.0 9.5
0.80 9.6 4.8 300 5 308 362 421 6000 4800 3.30 12.7 9.5
0.85 9.6 4.8 340 6 362 416 498 7000 5500 3.80 14.3 11.1
1.00 9.6 4.8 410 6 453 575 635 7800 6300 4.10 16.0 11.1
1.10 9.6 4.8 450 8 544 656 770 8700 7000 4.60 17.5 11.1
1.27 12.6 6.3 545 8 656 770 907 9500 7500 4.8 19.0 12.7
1.40 12.6 6.3 610 10 770 907 1110 10300 8300 5.30 22.2 14.3
1.60 12.6 6.3 680 10 883 1088 1314 11000 9000 5.60 25.4 16.0
1.80 16.0 6.3 770 12 1088 1270 1608 12300 10000 6.30 28.5 16.0
2.00 16.0 8.0 860 14 1224 1542 1814 14000 11000 7.50 31.7 17.5
2.40 16.0 8.0 1090 16 1608 1904 2300 15700 12700 7.20 34.9 19.0
2.80 19.0 9.6 1270 18 1904 2267 2900 17700 14000 7.40 38.0 20.6
3.20 19.0 9.6 1500 20 2267 2721 3442 18000 15500 7.60 50.0 22.2

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 Table 23: Recommended practices for seam welding austenitic stainless steels
Thickness Electrode Net On Time Off time for Maximum Weld Welding Minimum
“T” of Diameter electrode cycle ) maximum speed Speed Current contacting
thinnest and shape force (60 per sec.) (Pressure tight) Per min mm (Approx) overtap
outside Cycles
price

mm W Min Kg 2 “T” 4 ”T” 2 “T” 4 ”T”

0.15 4.8 136 2 1 1 1500 1700 4000 6
0.20 4.8 159 2 1 2 1700 1400 4600 6
0.25 4.8 181 3 2 2 1100 1300 5000 6
0.30 6.3 204 3 2 2 1200 1400 5600 8
0.35 6.3 226 3 2 3 1300 1300 6200 8
0.40 6.3 272 3 2 3 1300 1300 6700 8
0.55 6.3 295 3 2 3 1400 1300 7300 8
0.65 9.6 385 3 3 4 1300 1200 9200 11
0.80 9.6 454 3 3 4 130 1200 40600 11
1.00 9.6 589 3 4 5 1200 1100 13000 13
1.25 12.6 725 4 4 5 1100 1100 14200 16
1.60 12.6 840 4 5 7 1000 1000 15100 16
1.80 16.0 975 4 5 7 1100 1000 15900 18
2.00 16.0 1043 4 6 7 1000 1000 16500 18
2.40 16.0 1156 5 6 7 900 1000 16600 19
2.80 19.0 1337 5 7 9 1000 900 16800 21
3.20 19.0 1495 6 6 8 1000 900 17000 22

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J. INSPECTION AND TESTING OF WELDS

The general soundness of the welds can be assessed by visual to check surface flaws. The liquid dye penetrant is sprayed
inspection. In addition, it may be quite often necessary to onto the clean surface being inspected. After allowing a short
assess the quality of welds by proven non-destructive and duration for the liquid to penetrate, the excess amount of
destructive tests. dye is removed with cleaner and the surface is washed with
water and allowed to dry. After the surface is thoroughly dry,
Visual Inspection a developer is prayed on the surface to bring out the colour
Visual inspection is the most common, easy and inexpensive in the dye penetrant that has penetrated into any crack or
method of checking quality, used at all stages of different pin hole.
welding operations. For this purpose, only ordinary tools like
magnifying glasses, weld viewers, weld gauges, measuring The main advantages of this method are its suitability for
scales etc. may be required. This is the only inspection usually both magnetic and non-magentic materials, its low cost,
needed for general commercial welding. its portability and the ease with which the results can be
interpreted. However, it cannot detect flaws which are not
This inspection gives a general indication about the weld open to surface.
soundness particularly in respect of cracks, inclusions,
undercut, weld contour, excessive spatter, bead size, lack of Ultrasonic Test
fusion, incomplete penetration, warpage and dimensional This method uses high frequency sound waves and can
accuracy. determine internal flaws as well as surface defects. Short
pulses of ultrasonic waves are transmitted into a material
Non-destructive tests being tested. These pulses are reflected by discontinuities
- Magnetic particles test or flaws in thir path or from any interface which they strike.
- Dye penetrant test The received reflection or echoes are then displayed on
- Ultrasonic test cathoderay tube (CRT) screen furnishes specific data as to the
- Radiographic test relative size of the discontinuity in terms of signal amplitiude
and its location from the scanning surface by the proper
Magnetic particle test calibration of CRT screen.
This is an effective method for checking a weld for surface
or near surface flows like cracks, porosity, slag, inclusions, The advantages of ultrasonic test are:
lack of fusion and other discontinuities in ferro-magnetic - High sensitivity which permits detection of minute
materials. It is the most reliable method available, especially cracks.
for very fine and shallow cracks. A liquid solution containing - Great penetrating power which allows the examination
very tiny colored magnetic particles is painted or sprayed of extremely thick section
onto the surfaces being checked. The test piece is then - Accuracy in measurement of flow position and
subjected to a strong magnetic field. Any surface or sub- estimation of flaw size
surface discontinuity present in the test piece creates a local
north and south magnetic pole and attracts the metallic Radiographic test
particles in the solution. When the magnetic field is removed, Radiography is one of the most versatile non-destructive tests
the presence of flaws in the material can be known due to used for locating sub-surface and internal defects in welds of
concentration of magnetic particles in that area. all types of materials. The specific advantage of this method
is that a permanent record of observation can be obtained
Dye penetrant test for future reference which is not possible by other methods.
The dye penetrant test is a sensitive method for detecting X-rays or gamma rays are passed through the weld and the film
minute discontinuities like cracks and porosity which are open kept behind the weld is exposed to the radiation for specific
to the surface of the material being inspected. This method durations depending on nature and dimension of the weld.
uses coloured liquid dyes and fluorescent liquid penetrants After developing the film, it can be seen that areas of film

40
exposed to less energy remain lighter and consequently other Chemical analysis
portions where thickness has changed due to discontinuities, Chemical analysis is carried out for ascertaining the chemical
porosity or cracks will appear as dark outlines. composition of the weld vis-à-vis the base metal. Conventional
methods of analysis and various instrumental methods of
The salient features of commonly used non-destructive tests analysis are available for quick and accurate estimation of
for weld are given in Table 24. chemical composition.

Destructive test Tensile test

- Chemical analysis In tensile test, a specimen of the weld is mounted in a tensile
- Tensile test testing machine and stretched. This test determines tensile
- Bend test strength, yield strength and % elongation of the weld metal.
- Hardness test
- Impect test
- Macroscopic and microscopic examination
- Corrosion test
- Leak test
- Peel test

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 Table 24: Common non-destructive testing methods for welds
NDT Equipment Defects Advantages Limitations Remarks
Detected
Magnetic Iron particles, wet Surface or Indicates Used on magnetic Testing should
particle of dry, fluorescent, near surface discontinuities not material only, be from two
ultra violet light for discontinuities, visible to naked requires skill to perpendicular
fluorescent type. cracks, porosity, eye, relatively recognize and directions to catch
slag etc. low cost, no size interpret flaws, defects which may
restriction. difficult to use on be parallel to one
rough surface. set of magnetic
lines of force.
Dye penetrant Fluorescent of visible Defect open to Application to Only surface Often used on
penetrating liquids surface only. Good both magnetic defects are root pass of
and developers, for leak detection. and non magnetic detectable time highly critical pipe
ultra violet for the materials Easy to consuming weld. If material
fluorescent type. use and interpret. process. is not properly
Low cost. cleaned some
indication may be
misleading.
Ultrasonic Ultrasonic units and Surface and Very sensitive, High degree of Required by
probes with suitable subsurface flaws, permits inspection skill is required for some code and
couplant, standard including those of joints interpretation. No specification.
reference block for too small for inaccessible to permanent record
interpretation. detection by other radiography, can is obtained.
method especially be used on all
for detecting sub materials.
surface, lamination
like defects.
Radiography X-ray or gamma ray Internal flaws viz. Provides Requires skill in Because of cost
source, film and cracks porosity permanent record choosing exposure its use should be
processing facilities, blow holes, non- of the defect, angle, operating limited to those
equipment. metallic inclusions, applicable on all equipment and areas where
incomplete root materials. interpreting other methods
penetration, burn results. Not will nt provide
through, etc. suitable for fillet the assurance,
weld inspection. required by
Requires safety some codes and
precaution. specifications.

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Bend test slag inclusion, poor fusion, incomplete penetration etc. can
This test is useful or accessing the quality of identical be observed Photomicrographs can also be taken to depict
components fabricated in large numbers commercially. This microstructure and defects in the weld.
method is fast and shows most of the weld faults with fair
degree of accuracy. A common method is to clamp the piece Corrosion test
to be tested in a vice and bend the metal at the welded joint Samples of welded components may be subjected to suitable
by means of a bending bar. This method of bending gives the corrosion tests as per relevant specifications or service
approximates strength of the weld. Any cracking of the metal conditions for evaluation of their corrosion behavior vis-à-vis
will indicate improper fusion or inadequate penetration. base metal.

Hardness test Leak test

The hardness of the weld is particularly important if the weld This is a common method of testing pressure vessel welds
it to be machined. Hardness can be determined by Rockwell, (eg. Tanks and pipe lines for liquids and gases) to determine
Brinell, Vickers, Scelorscape hardness testing machines whether any leak is present. A small pressure should be built
depending or specific requirement. up into the vessel or pipe and a soap and water solutionput on
the outside of each weld. Leaks are indicated by the formation
Impact test of bubbles. The vessel to be inspected may be pressurized
This test is carried our for weld to assess their soundness by and the pressure noted on a gauge. This can be observed over
determining their impact resistance under a rapidly applied a period of time. Any drop in pressure indicates a leak.
shock load. The impact test may be done by either lzod or
Charpy method. These methods are similar, but the shape Another test for pressure vessel is to coast the surface with
and position of the notch very. A test piece is notched in a lime solution. After the lime has dried, pressure is built up in
specified manner and clamped in the jaws of an impact testing the vessel. A flaw is indicated where the lime flakes from the
machine. A heavy pendulum is lifted to a given height and metal.
then released against the notched specimen to determine
the impact force it can withstand. Hydraulic pressure, using water a s the fluid is also used for
detecting flaws in the weld. But water is not a reliable fluid for
Macroscopic and Microscopic examination extremely small cracks.
Macroscopic observation of weld sample is done at low
magnifications and it covers a large area s compared to Peel test
microscopic observation. Cracks, pits, pin hole, scales, Lap joints may be tested to destruction by means of the peel
inclusions are easily detected by this method. test. This test is used to check the strength of a resistance
sport weld, in this test, after welding, the test pieces are
Microscopic examination is commonly used in metallurgical peeled apart. If the sport weld nugget is of correct diameter
laboratory for assessing quality of welds. Samples collected and is tom out of one piece, the spot weld is considered to
from the weld are polished and observed under microscope be properly made. All machine settings are considered to be
in unetched and etched condition at different magnifications. correct for the part to be welded when the peel test is made
This is an effective method of examining microstructure of satisfactorily.
the weld and heat-affected zone. In addition defects like

43
K. GLOSSARY OF COMMON WELDING TERMS

Arc blow : The deflection of an electric arc from its normal Continuous weld : A weld which extends continuously from
path because of magnetic forces. one end of a joint to the other.

Arc voltage : The voltage across the welding arc. Covered electrode : A flux covered arc welding electrode.

Arc Welding : Welding of metal using an electric arc as the Crater : A depression at the termination of a weld bead or in
heat source. the molten weld pool.

Arc welding gun : A device used in arc welding to transfer Crater crack : A crack in the crater of a weld bead.
current, guide the electrode and direct shielding gas.
Defective weld : A weld containing one or more defects.
Axis of a weld: The line of direction along which the weld is
being made. Deposited metal: Filler metal deposit during welding.

Backhand welding : A welding technique in which the welding Deposition rate: Material deposited in unit time.
torch is directed opposite to the progress of welding.
Edge preparation : The surface prepared on the edge of a
Backing : A material placed at the root of a weld joint for the member for welding.
purpose of supporting molten weld metal.
Electrode : A component of the welding circuit through which
Bare electrode : A filler metal electrode having no coating. current is conducted to the arc, molten slag, or base metal.

Base metal : The metal to be welded, brazed, soldered, or Electron beam gun : A device for producting and accelerating
cut. electrons.

Burn-thru : A term erronesouly used to denote excessive Electro beam welding : A welding process utilizing the head
melt-thru or a hole. from a concentrated electron beam.

Butt jount : A jount between two members aligned Ferrite number : A measure of ferrite content in an austenitic
approximately in the same plane. stainless steel weld metal.

Complete fusion : Fusion which has occurred over the entire Fillet weld : A weld of approximately triangular cross section
base material surfaces intended for welding. joining two surfaces approximately at right angles to each
other in a lap joint. T-joint, or corner joint.
Complete joint penetration : Joint penetration in which the
weld metal completely fills the groove and is fused to the Fish eye : A discontinuity found on the fracture surface of a
base metal throughout its total thickness. weld consisting of a small pore or inclusion surrounded by
roughly a round, bright area.
Constricted arc : A plasma arc column that is shaped by a
constricting nozzle orifice. Fissure : A small crack-like discontinuity with only slight
separation of the fracture surfaces. The prefixes macro or
Constricting nozzle : A water-cooled copper nozzle micro indicate relative size.
surrounding the electrode and containing the constricting
office. Fixture : A device designed to hold parts to be joined in
proper relation to each other.
Constricting office : The hole in the constricting nozzle
through which the arc passes. Fusion welding : any welding process or method which used
fusion to complete the weld.

44
Gouging : forming of a bevel/groove by material removal. Off time (resistance welding) : The time during which the
electrodes are off the work. This term is generally used when
Groove : An opening or channel in the surface of a part or the welding cycle is repetitive.
between tow components to contain a weld.
Open-circuit voltage : The voltage when no current is flowing
Head affected zone (HAZ) : The portion of the base metal in the circuit of welding machine.
which has not been melted, but whose mechanical properties
or microstructure have bee altered by the head of welding. Overhead position : The position in which welding is
performed from the underside of the joint.
Hot wire welding : A variation of arc welding (GTAW, PAW,
SAW) in which filler metal wire is preheated as it is fed into Peel test : A destructive method of inspection which
the molten weld pool. mechanically separates a lap joint by peeling.

Indentation : In a spot, seam, or projection weld, the Porosity : Cavity type discontinuities formed by gas
depression on the exterior surface or surfaces or the base entrapment during solidification.
metal.
Preheating : Heating the base metal immediately before
Inert gas : A gas which does not normally combine chemically welding.
with the base metal or filler metal.
Protective atmosphere : A gas envelope surrounding the
Intermittent weld : A weld in which the continuity is broken parts to be welded.
by recurring unwelded spaces,
Residual stress : Stress remaining in a structure or member as
Joint : The junction of weldments. a result of thermal or mechanical treatment or both.

Joint design : The joint geometry together with the require Resistance welding : Welding by resistance to the flow of
dimensions of the welded joint. electric current that heats the work pieces held together
under pressure.
Keyhole : The technique of enlarging the root opening with
the welding arc to ensure proper root punctuation and Reverse polarity : DC welding current with electrode as
reinforcement. positive and ground as negative.

Liquidus : The lowest temperature at which a metal or an Root crack : A crack at the root of weld or heat affected zone.
alloy is completely liquid.
Seam weld : A continuous weld made between or upon
Melting range : The temperature range between solidus and overlapping members.
liquidus.
Shielding gas : Protective gas used to prevent atmospheric
Melt-thru : Complete joint penetration for a joint welded contamination.
from one side.
Shrinkage void : A cavity type discontinuity normally formed
Molten weld pool : The liquid state of a weld prior to by shrinkage during solidification.
solidification as weld metal.
Skull : The unmelted residue from a liquated filler metal.
Nozzle : A device which directs shielding media.
Slag inclusion : Nom-metallic solid material entrapped in
Nugget (resistance welding) : The weld metal joining the weld metal or between weld metal and base metal.
parts in sport, seam or projection welds,

45
Solidus : The highest temperature at which a metal or alloy is Tungsten electrode : A non-filler metal electrode used in arc
completely solid. welding made principally of tungsten.

Spatter : The metal particles expelled during welding and Undercut : A groove melted into the base metal adjacent to
which do not from a part of the weld. the toe or rood of a weld and left unfilled by weld metal.

Straight polarity : DC welding current with electrode as Weld bead : A weld deposit resulting from a pass.
negative and ground as positive.
Weldment : An assembly whose component part are joined
Stress corrosion cracking : Failure of metals by cracking under by welding.
combined action of corrosion and stress.
Weld metal : The portion of the base metal and filler rod
Stress relief heat treatment : Heat treatment to relieve which is melted and fused together during welding operation.
residual stresses.

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47
Indian Stainless Steel Development Association
L-22/4, Ground Floor, DLF Phase-II
Gurgaon - 122 002
Ph : 0124-43755-02,03
Email: nissda@gmail.com
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