Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 4 : Compressibility of soils

4. COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOILS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Foundations of structures usually rest on soil. Due to the additional stress introduced by a foundation or
due to other loadings, a soil mass will compress. This compression is a sum of different and distinct
processes:
a. Deformation of soil particles
b. Relocation of soil particles, and
c. Expulsion of water or air from the void spaces
In general, soil settlement caused by different loadings can be categorized into three categories:

i. Immediate settlement (or elastic settlement)

Such a settlement is caused by the elastic deformation of dry soil and of moist and saturated soils without
any change in the moisture content. Immediate settlement calculations are generally based on equations
derived from the theory of elasticity.

ii. Primary consolidation settlement

The volume of saturated soils under pressure will decrease due to the expulsion of water from the void
spaces. The associated settlement is known as primary consolidation settlement. It is usually the
predominant type of settlement in fine grained soils, especially in clays.

iii. Secondary consolidation settlement

This type of settlement is observed in saturated cohesive soils and is the result of the plastic adjustment
of soil fabrics. If follows primary consolidation settlement when soil is under a constant effective stress.
The total settlement of a foundation can then be given by
ST = Sc + Ss + Se
where ST = total settlement
Sc = primary consolidation settlement
Ss = secondary consolidation settlement
Se = immediate settlement

The total settlement obtained in this fashion must be within acceptable limits for any structure. For most
practical purposes, the magnitude of the elastic settlement can be ignored compared to the consolidation
settlements. Discussion here shall hence be limited to consolidation settlement. But it must be noted that
the volume change due to expulsion of air is treated in geotechnical engineering under the title
compaction characteristics of soils.

Prior to discussion of soil settlements, discussing the nature of stresses in soils must be presented. It is
due to stresses that soils undergo settlements.

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 4 : Compressibility of soils

4.2 EFFECTIVE STRESS

Stresses in a soil mass may be caused by the self weight of the soil, and also by the external loads which
may be applied to the soil. The pattern of stresses caused by the external loads is usually a complicated
one, and the same may be the case for stresses induced by self weight of soil. However, there is one
common situation in which the self weight of the soil gives rise to a very simple pattern of stresses-that is
when the ground surface is horizontal and the nature of soil does not vary significantly in the horizontal
direction. The stress caused in such a situation at a point in a soil mass is called the geostatic stress.
However, if external loading contributes to this stress, the stress will simply be called as the total stress.
In the geostatic situation, there cannot occur any shear stresses upon the vertical and horizontal planes
within the soil. Hence, the vertical geostatic stress, say σz, may be computed simply by considering the
weight of soil and weight of water above that depth.

In the figure above a soil column is standing with no seepage allowed. The total stress at the elevation of
point A can be obtained from
σ = Hγ w + (H A − H )γ sat
This total stress can be divided into two parts
1. Effective stress or intergranular stress, σ’ – the sum of the vertical components of the forces
developed at the points of contact of the solid particles per unit cross-sectional area of the soil
mass.
2. Pore water pressure or neutral stress, u – a portion carried by water in the continuous void
spaces. This portion acts with equal intensity in all directions.

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 4 : Compressibility of soils

The total stress can thus be rewritten as

σ =σ' + u
or
σ'= σ − u
Substituting the values for the total stress and the pore water pressure into this equation

Hence, it can be easily stated that the effective stress at a point in a soil mass will be equal to its
submerged unit weight multiplied by the depth of soil mass up to the considered point.

The effective stress principle is arguably the most important principle in geotechnical engineering. The
compressibility and shearing resistance of a soil depend to a great extent on the effective stress. Thus
the concept of effective stress is significant in solving geotechnical engineering problems, such as lateral
earth pressure on retaining structures, the load bearing capacity and settlement of foundations, and the
stability of earth slopes.

4.3 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

When a clayey soil is subjected to loading, elastic settlement occurs immediately. If the loading
continues, then its volume goes on compressing gradually due to removal of water from the pores. This
major compression, which goes on for months and years, is the consolidation, and strictly called the
primary consolidation. During this process, the transfer of load from the soil pores to the soil grains
takes place. Due to this gradual transfer of the excess hydrostatic pressure from the water to the soil
solids, a change in the initial structure of the soil mass (plastic adjustment of soil fabric) may occur, which
may cause some compression, called secondary compression or secondary consolidation.
The time-dependent deformation of saturated clayey soil can best be understood by considering a simple
model that consists of cylinder with a spring at its center and filled with water. Three cases may be
observed.
a. Place a load, P, on the spring and keep the valve closed. There will be no deformation of the
spring in this case. The excess hydrostatic pressure at this time can be given as
P
∆u =
A
b. If the valve is opened, the water will flow outward. This flow will be accompanied by a reduction
of the excess hydrostatic pressure and an increase in the compression of the spring. If Ps and Pw
denote portions of P carried by the spring and the water respectively, after valve opening
P
Ps > 0 and Pw < P, i.e. ∆u <
A

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 4 : Compressibility of soils

c. Finally the excess hydrostatic pressure dissipates, and the system will reach a state of
equilibrium, and thus
Ps = P and Pw = 0
These equations mean that after the excess pore water pressure dissipates the additional stress
P will be carried by the soil skeleton, i.e. ∆σ = σ '

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Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Technology

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 4 : Compressibility of soils

One-dimensional laboratory consolidation test

The process of consolidation settlement is studied in the laboratory by the one-dimensional consolidation
test. This test is performed in a consolidometer (sometimes referred to as an oedometer). The schematic
diagram of a consolidometer is shown below.

The soil specimen is placed inside a metal ring with two porous stones, one at eh top of the specimen
and another at the bottom. The specimens are usually 64mm in diameter and 25mm thick. The load on
the specimen is applied through a lever arm, and compression is measured by a micrometer dial gauge.
The specimen is kept under water during the test. Each load is usually kept for 24 hours. After that, the
load is usually doubled, which doubles the pressure on the specimen, and the compression
measurement is continued. At the end of the test, the dry weight of the specimen is determined.
From load and deformation values, a plot of deformation versus time for a given load increment is
prepared.

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 4 : Compressibility of soils

Form this plot; we can observe three distinct stages, which may be described as:
Stage I Initial compression, which is caused mostly by preloading
Stage II Primary consolidation
Stage III Secondary consolidation

After time-deformation plots for various loadings are obtained in the laboratory, it is necessary to study
the change in the void ratio of the specimen with pressure. The procedure is described as follows:

Specimen
area =A

Solid

1. Calculate the height of solids, Hs, in the specimen using the equation

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 4 : Compressibility of soils

2. Calculate the initial height of voids as

Hv = H – Hs
3. Calculate the initial void ratio, eo, of the specimen

4. For the first incremental loading, σ1, which causes a deformation ∆H1, calculate the change in
void ratio as
∆H 1
∆e1 =
Hs
5. Calculate the new void ratio after consolidation caused by the pressure increment as
e1 = eo – ∆e1
For the next loading, σ2 (that equals the cumulative load per unit area of the specimen), which
causes additional deformation ∆H2, the void ratio at the end of consolidation can be calculated as
∆H 2
e2 = e1 −
Hs
At this time, total stress σ2 = effective stress, σ’2. Proceeding in a similar manner, one can obtain the void
ratios at the end of the consolidation for all load increments. The effective stress and the corresponding
void ratios (e) at the end of consolidation are plotted on semi logarithmic graph paper. The typical shape
of such a plot is shown below.

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 4 : Compressibility of soils

This figure shows that the upper part of the e-log σ’ plot is somewhat curved with a gentle slope, followed
by a linear relationship for the void ratio with log σ’ having a steeper slope. This is an important
phenomenon that required further explanation.
A soil in the field at some depth has been subjected to a certain maximum effective past pressure in its
geologic history. This maximum effective past pressure may be equal to or less than the existing effective
overburden pressure at the time of sampling. The reduction of effective pressure in the field may be
caused by natural geologic processes or human activities. During sampling, the existing effective
overburden pressure is also released, which results in some expansion. When this specimen is subjected
to a consolidation test, a small amount of compression (i.e. a small change in void ratio) will occur when
the effective pressure applied is less than the maximum effective overburden pressure in the field to
which the soil has been subjected to in the past. When the effective pressure on the specimen becomes
greater than the maximum effective past pressure, the change in void ratio is much larger, and the e-log
σ’ relationship is practically linear with a steeper slope.
This relationship can be verified in the lab by loading the specimen to exceed the maximum effective
overburden pressure, and then unloading and reloading again. The e-log σ’ plot for such cases is shown
below, in which cd represents the unloading and dfg represents the reloading process.

This discussion leads to two basic definitions of clay based on stress history:
1. Normally consolidated clays, whose present effective overburden pressure is the maximum
pressure that the soil was subjected to in the past
2. Overconsolidated clays, whose present effective overburden pressure is less than that which
the soil experienced in the past. The maximum effective past pressure is called the
preconsolidation pressure.

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 4 : Compressibility of soils

The preconsolidation pressure can be obtained from the e-log σ’ plot following the procedure suggested
by Casagrande.
i. By visual inspection, establish point a, at which the e-log σ’ plot has a minimum radius of
curvature
ii. Draw horizontal line ab
iii. Draw the line ac tangent to the curve at a
iv. Draw the line ad, which is the bisector of the angle bac
v. Project the straight-line portion gh of the plot back to intersect line ad at f. The abscissa of point f
is the preconsolidation pressure, σ’c

The overconsolidation ratio (OCR) for a soil can now be defined as

σ 'c
OCR =
σ'
where σ’c = preconsolidation pressure of a specimen
σ’ = present effective vertical pressure
Settlement calculation from one-dimensional primary consolidation

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 4 : Compressibility of soils

Soil

Solid

Let us consider a saturated soil layer of thickness H and cross sectional area A under an existing
average effective overburden pressure σ’o. Because of an increase of effective pressure, ∆σ’, let the
primary consolidation settlement be Sc. Thus the change in volume can be given by
∆V = Vo – V1 = HA – (H –Sc) A = ScA
But the volume change is due to the change in the volume of voids, ∆Vv
∆Vv = ∆eVs
But, the volume of solids
V AH
Vs = o =
1 + eo 1 + eo
Thus
AH
∆V = ScA = ∆eVs = ∆e
1 + eo
or
∆e
Sc = H
1 + eo
For normally consolidated clays that exhibit a linear e-log σ’ relationship
∆e = Cc [ log (σ’o + ∆σ’) - log σ’ ]

Where Cc is the slope of the e-log σ’ plot and is defined as the compression index. Substitution of this
value into the equation of Sc yields
Cc H ⎛ σ ' + ∆σ ' ⎞
Sc = log⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟
1 + eo ⎝ σ ' o ⎠
In overconsolidated clays, for σ’o + ∆σ’ ≤ σ’c, the slope of the plot is defined as the swell index, Cs.
Hence,

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 4 : Compressibility of soils

∆e = Cs [ log (σ’o + ∆σ’) - log σ’ ]

The settlement would then be
Cs H ⎛ σ ' + ∆σ ' ⎞
Sc = log⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟
1 + eo ⎝ σ 'o ⎠

If σ’o + ∆σ’ > σ’c, then

Cs H ⎛σ' ⎞ C H ⎛ σ ' + ∆σ ' ⎞
Sc = log⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟ + c log⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟
1 + eo σ
⎝ o⎠
' 1 + eo ⎝ σ ' c ⎠
However, if the e-log σ’ curve is available, one can simply pick ∆e off the plot for the appropriate range of
pressures. This number may be substituted directly into the equation of Sc.

Several empirical relations have also been suggested for Cc and Cs. The common formulae for clays are
the following.
Cc = 0.009 (LL-10)
⎡ LL(%) ⎤
Cs = 0.0463⎢ Gs
⎣ 100 ⎥⎦

SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

We have noted earlier that at the end of primary consolidation settlement some settlement is observed
due to the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. This stage of consolidation is called secondary consolidation.
During this phase the plot of deformation against the log of time is practically linear. The variation of the
void ratio, e, with the time t for a given load increment is shown below.

From this figure, the secondary compression index, Cα, can be defined as

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 4 : Compressibility of soils

∆e ∆e
Cα = =
log t 2 − log t1 log⎛ t 2 ⎞
⎜ t ⎟
⎝ 1⎠
The magnitude of the secondary consolidation can be calculated as

S s = C 'α H log⎛⎜ t 2 ⎞⎟
⎝ t1 ⎠
Cα
where C 'α =
1 + eP
eP = void ratio at the end of primary consolidation
H = thickness of clay layer
The values of C’α as observed in various natural deposits are as follows:
• Overconsolidated clays = 0.001 or less
• Normally consolidated clays = 0.005 to 0.03
• Organic soil = 0.04 or more

Secondary consolidation settlement is more important than primary consolidation settlement in organic
and highly compressible inorganic soils. In overconsolidated inorganic clays, the secondary compression
index is very small and of less practical significance.

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Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Technology

Addis Ababa University